MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

(23EE3PCMNI)

L-T-P : (3:0:0)
Credits: 03

UNIT 1

1
 MODULE – 1

Fundamentals of Measurements: Definition of Measurement, Methods of

Measurement, Classification of Instruments, Error in Measurement, Classification
of Errors, Statistical Analysis of Data, types of Errors in Measurement System.
Measurement of Resistance: Classification of Resistance, Measurement of low,
medium & high resistance – Ammeter, voltmeter method, Wheatstone bridge,
sensitivity of a bridge, Kelvin double bridge, High resistance measurement - Loss
of charge method, Problems
DC potentiometer – Basic circuit, standardization – Laboratory type
(Crompton’s)

08Hrs

2
 Measurements

 Measurement: Comparison between a

standard and what we want to measure (the
measurand).
 Two quantities are compared the result is
expressed in numerical values.

3
 Basic requirements for a
meaningful measurement
 The standard used for comparison purposes
must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted.
 The apparatus used and the method adopted
must be provable (verifiable).

4
Two major functions of all branch
of engineering
 Design of equipment and processes
 Proper Operation and maintenance of
equipment and processes.

5
 Methods of Measurement
 Direct Methods

 Indirect Methods

6
 DIRECT METHODS: In these methods, the
unknown quantity (called the measurand ) is
directly compared against a standard.

 INDIRECT METHOD: Measurements by direct

methods are not always possible, feasible
and practicable. In engineering applications
measurement systems are used which require
need of indirect method for measurement
purposes.

7
 Instruments and Measurement
Systems.
 Measurement involve the use of
instruments as a physical means of
determining quantities or variables.

 Because of modular nature of the

elements within it, it is common to refer
the measuring instrument as a
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM.

8
 Evolution of Instruments.
a) Mechanical
b) Electrical
c) Electronic Instruments.

 MECHANICAL: These instruments are

very reliable for static and stable
conditions. But their disadvantage is that
they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurements of dynamic and transient
conditions.
9
 Contd
 ELECTRICAL: It is faster than mechanical,
indicating the output are rapid than mechanical
methods. But it depends on the mechanical
movement of the meters. The response is 0.5 to
24 seconds.

 ELECTRONIC: It is more reliable than other

system. It uses semiconductor devices and weak
signal can also be detected.

10
 Contd
 Summarizing , it may be stated in general
electronic Instruments have
 Higher sensitivity
 Faster response
 Greater flexibility
 Lower weight
 Lower power consumption
 Higher degree of reliability than their
mechanical or purely electrical counterparts 11
 Classification Of Instruments
 Absolute Instruments.
 Secondary Instruments.
ABSOLUTE: These instruments give the
magnitude if the quantity under
measurement in terms of physical
constants of the instrument.

Tangent Galvanometer Rayleigh’s Current Balance

12
 Contd
SECONDARY: These instruments are so
constructed that the quantity being
measured can only be measured by
observing the output indicated by the
instrument

These instruments are calibrated by the

comparison with absolute instruments
which have already been calibrated.

13
 Further its classified as
 Deflection Type Instruments
 Null Type Instruments.

The deflection of the instrument provides a basis

for determining the quantity under measurement.

The measured quantity produces some physical

effect with deflects or produces a mechanical
displacement of the moving system of the 14
instrument
 Contd

 Null Type Instruments.

In Null type of instrument, a zero or null

indication leads to determination of the
magnitude of measured quantity .

The Null condition is dependent upon some

other known conditions 15
 Functions of instrument and measuring
system can be classified into three. They
are:
i) Indicating function.
ii) Recording function.
iii) Controlling function.
 Application of measurement systems are:
i) Monitoring of process and operation.
ii) Control of processes and operation.
iii) Experimental engineering analysis.
16
 Types Of Instrumentation
System

 Intelligent Instrumentation (data has been

refined for the purpose of presentation )
 Dumb Instrumentation (data must be
processed by the observer)

17
 Elements of Generalized
Measurement System
 Primary sensing element.
 Variable conversion element.
 Data presentation element.
 PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT: The
quantity under measurement makes its first contact
with the primary sensing element of a measurement
system.
 VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT: It
converts the output of the primary sensing element
into suitable form to preserve the information
content of the original signal.
18
 Contd..
 DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT:

The information about the quantity under

measurement has to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument or the system
for monitoring, control or analysis purpose.

19
 Functional Elements of an
Instrumentation System

PRIMARY VARIABLE VARIABLE DATA DATA

QUANTITY CONVER MANIPULATI- TRANSMISSIO PRESENTA
TO BE SENSING
-SION ON ELEMENT -N ELEMENT TION
MEASURED ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT

DATA CONDITIONING ELEMENT

TERMINATING
DETECTOR INTERMEDIATE STAGE STAGE
TRANSDUCER
STAGE

20
 Errors in Measurement
 Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors)
 Known Error
Classification

Gross Systematic Or Random Or

Error Cumulative Residual Or
Error Accidental
Error

Instrumental Environmental Observational

21
Gross Error
 Human Mistakes in reading , recording and
calculating measurement results.
 The experimenter may grossly misread the
scale.
 E.g.: Due to oversight instead of 21.5oC,
they may read as 31.5oC
They may transpose the reading while
recording (like reading 25.8oC and
record as 28.5oC)
22
 Systematic Errors
 INSTRUMENTAL ERROR: These errors
arise due to 3 reasons-
• Due to inherent short comings in the
instrument
• Due to misuse of the instrument
• Due to loading effects of the instrument
 ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR: These errors
are due to conditions external to the measuring
device. These may be effects of temperature,
pressure, humidity, dust or of external electrostatic
or magnetic field.
 OBSERVATIONAL ERROR: The error on
account of parallax is the observational error.
23
 Residual error

This is also known as residual error. These

errors are due to a multitude of small
factors which change or fluctuate from one
measurement to another. The happenings or
disturbances about which we are unaware
are lumped together and called “Random”
or “Residual”. Hence the errors caused by
these are called random or residual errors.
24
 Arithmetic Mean
 The most probable value of measured variable is
the arithmetic mean of the number of readings
taken.
x1  x2  ..... xn  x
 It is given by x  n

n
Where x = arithmetic mean
 x1,x2,.. x3= readings of samples
 n= number of readings

25
 Deviation
 Deviation is departure of the observed reading
from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings.

d1  x1  X
d 2  x2  X
d 3  x3  X
d n  xn  X
d1  d 2  d 3  .....  d n  0
ie
 ( x1  X )  ( x2  X )  ( x3  X )  ..  ( xn  X )
 ( x1  x2  x3  ...  xn )  n X
 nX  nX  0
26
 Standard Deviation

 The standard deviation of an infinite number of

data is defined as the square root of the sum of the
individual deviations squared divided by the
number of readings.

S .D   
d  d  d  ...  d
1
2 2
2
2
3
2
4

 d 2

 20observation 
n n

S .D  s 
d  d  d  ...  d
1
2 2
2
2
3
2
4

 d 2

 20observation 
n 1 n 1

27
 Variance

Variance  S .D   
2 2

 d 2

n
 20observation 
Variance  S .D   s
2 2

 d 2

n 1
 20observation 
28
 Probable Error

 Probable error of one reading(r1)=0.6745s

 Probable error of mean (rm)

r1
rm 
n 1

29
 Problem
Question: The following 10 observation were
recorded when measuring a voltage:
41.7,42.0,41.8,42.0,42.1,
41.9,42.0,41.9,42.5,41.8 volts.
1. Mean
2. Standard Deviation
3. Probable Error
4. Range.
30
 Answer

 Mean=41.97 volt
 S.D=0.22 volt
 Probable error=0.15 volt
 Range=0.8 volt.

31
 Calibration
 Calibration of all instruments is important since it
affords the opportunity to check the instruments
against a known standard and subsequently to find
errors and accuracy.
 Calibration Procedure involve a comparison of the
particular instrument with either
 a Primary standard
 a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than
the instrument to be calibrated.
 an instrument of known accuracy.
32
 Standards

A standard is a physical representation of

a unit of measurement. The term ‘standard’
is applied to a piece of equipment having a
known measure of physical quantity.

33
 Types of Standards
– International Standards (defined based
on international agreement )

– Primary Standards (maintained by

national standards laboratories)

– Secondary Standards ( used by industrial

measurement laboratories)

– Working Standards ( used in general

laboratory)
34
THANK YOU

35