Chapter two

Stress Calculation
 Topics
Design for static and variable Loading;

 stress concentration factor and

fatigue stress concentration factor;

 DESIGN FOR STATIC LOAD
• When a mechanical component is subjected to an external static force,
a resisting force is set up within the component.

• The internal resisting force per unit area of the component is called
stress.

• The stresses are called tensile when the fibres of the component tend
to elongate due to the external force.

• On the other hand, when the fibres tend to shorten due to the external
force, the stresses are called compressive stresses
.• The following assumptions are made in the analysis of stress and strain:
I. The material is homogeneous;
II. The load is gradually applied;
III. The line of action of force P passes through the geometric axis of the cross-
section;
IV. The cross-section is uniform; and
V. There is no stress concentration

Note The relationship between the modulus of elasticity, the modulus of rigidity and
the Poisson’s ratio is given by:
E= 2G (1+ μ) ….
 Bending stress in beams
• straight beam subjected to a bending moment Mb
• The beam is subjected to a combination of tensile stress on one side of the neutral
axis and compressive stress on the other.
• The bending stress at any fibre is given by,

where,
ϭb = bending stress at a distance of y from the neutral axis (N/mm 2 or MPa)
Mb = applied bending moment (N-mm)
I = moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis (mm 4)
• The bending stress is maximum in a fibre which is farthest from the neutral axis.
• The distribution of stresses is linear and the stress is proportional to the distance from
the neutral axis.
Assumptions in bending of beams :
(i) The beam is straight with uniform cross-section;
(ii) The forces acting on the beam lie in a plane perpendicular to the axis of beam;
(iii) The material is homogeneous, isentropic and obeys Hooke’s law; and
(iv) Plane cross-sections remain plane after bending.
Stresses Due To Torsional Moment
assumptions in pure torsion :
(i) The shaft is straight with a circular cross-section;
(ii) A plane transverse section remains plane after twisting; and
(iii) The material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hooke’s law.
 Examples
1) A mild steel rod supports a tensile load of 50 kN. If the stress in the rod is
limited to 100 MPa, find the size of the rod when the cross-section is .
A. circular,
B. square, and
C. rectangular with width = 3 × thickness
2) A pump lever rocking shaft is shown in figure below. The pump lever exerts
forces of 25 kN and 35 KN concentrated at 150 mm and 200 mm from the left and
right hand bearing respectively. Find the diameter of the central portion of the shaft,
if the stress is not to exceed 100 Mpa (bending).
3) A hollow shaft is required to transmit 600 KW at 110 r.p.m., the maximum
torque being 20% greater than the mean. The shear stress is not to exceed 63 MPa
and twist in a length 3 metres not to exceed 1.4 degrees. Find the external diameter
of the shaft, if the internal diameter to the external diameter is 3/8. Take modulus
of rigidity as 84 GPa.

4) A shaft, as shown in Fig.1 , is subjected to a bending load of 3 kN. Pure torque of

1000 N-m and an axial pulling force of 15 kN. Calculate the stresses at A and B
 DESIGN FOR DYNAMIC load(variable loading)
• only a few machine parts are subjected to static loading.

• Since many of the machine parts (such as axles, shafts, crankshafts, connecting rods, springs,
pinion teeth etc.) are subjected to variable or alternating loads (also known as fluctuating or
fatigue loads),

• Variable stresses may be classified as:

(a) fluctuating stress,

(b) repeated stress,

(c) reversed stress and

(d) alternating stress,

1. The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the same nature,
(i.e. tensile or compressive) are called fluctuating stresses.
2. The stresses which vary from zero to a certain maximum value are called repeated
stresses.
3. The stresses which vary from one value of compressive to the same value of tensile or
vice versa, are known as completely reversed or cyclic stresses.
4. The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the opposite
nature ( i.e. from a certain minimum compressive to a certain maximum tensile or from a
minimum tensile to a maximum compressive) are called alternating stresses.
• A little consideration will show that the upper fibres of the beam (i.e. at point A) are
under compressive stress and the lower fibres (i.e. at point B) are under tensile stress.
• After half a revolution, the point B occupies the position of point A and the point A
occupies the position of point B.
• Thus the point B is now under compressive stress and the point A under tensile stress.
The speed of variation of these stresses depends upon the speed of the beam.
• From above we see that for each revolution of the beam, the stresses are reversed from
compressive to tensile.
• The stresses which vary from one value of compressive to the same value of tensile or
vice versa, are known as completely reversed or cyclic stresses
 FATIGUE and ENDURANCE LIMIT

• It has been found experimentally that when a material is subjected to repeated stresses,
it fails at stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is
known as fatigue.
• The failure may occur even without any prior indication.
• The fatigue of material is effected by the size of the component, relative magnitude of
static and fluctuating loads and the number of load reversals.
 The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of
completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited
number of cycles without fatigue failure
 Stress Concentration
 Stress concentration is defined as the concentration of stress in a machine member
either due to change in cross section or due to irregularities in the member.
 It is not practically possible to have machine elements without change in the cross
section.
 Some examples are key ways in shafts, step in shaft to accommodate bearings, gears
etc.
 Due to the irregularities or due to change in cross section, the stress induced in the
member is much higher than the one that is calculated using the known theories.
 The ratio of the maximum stress induced to the theoretical or nominal stress calculated
is defined as stress concentration factor.
methods to reduce stress concentration
 Published data in the form of charts (or tables) is available in various books for
determination of stress concentration factor for different types of specimens under
various loading conditions.
 Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor
 When a machine member is subjected to cyclic or fatigue loading, the value of fatigue
stress concentration factor shall be applied instead of theoretical stress concentration
factor.
 Since the determination of fatigue stress concentration factor is not an easy task,
therefore from experimental tests it is defined as
 Notch Sensitivity
 In cyclic loading, the effect of the notch or the fillet is usually less than predicted by the
use of the theoretical factors as discussed before.
 The difference depends upon the stress gradient in the region of the stress concentration
and on the hardness of the material.
 The term notch sensitivity It may be defined as the degree to which the theoretical effect
of stress concentration is actually reached.
 The stress gradient depends mainly on the radius of the notch, hole or fillet and on the
grain size of the material.
 Examples
1) Determine the maximum stress induced in the following cases taking stress
concentration into account.
(i) A rectangular plate 80 mm wide, 12 mm thick with a central hole of diameter 16
mm subjected to a tensile load of 30 kN.
(ii) A stepped shaft stepped down from 60 mm diameter to 40 mm diameter with a
fillet radius of 8 mm subjected to a twisting moment of 120 kNM.
2) A rectangular plate 70 mm wide with the same circular groove of 12 mm radius is
subjected to:
(i) A tensile load of 10 kN,
(ii) A bending moment of 15 N-m.
Determine the thickness in each case separately taking allowable stress as 120 Mpa.
 quiz
• Find the maximum stress induced in the following cases taking stress
concentration into account:
1. A rectangular plate 60 mm × 10 mm with a hole 12 diameter as
shown in Fig.(a) and subjected to a tensile load of 12 kN.
2. A stepped shaft as shown in (b) and carrying a tensile load of 12 kN
.

Question?