Because learning changes everything.

HUMAN BIOLOGY
Seventeenth Edition

Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 10
Respiratory System

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 10.1 The Respiratory System 1

Learning Outcomes:
• Summarize the role of the respiratory system in
homeostasis.
• Distinguish between inspiration and expiration.
• Identify the structures of the human respiratory
system.

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 10.1 The Respiratory System 2

The respiratory system.

• Ensures that oxygen enters the body and carbon
dioxide leaves the body.
• During inspiration, or inhalation, air moves from the
atmosphere to the lungs through cavities and tubes.
• During expiration, or exhalation, air moves from the
lungs to the atmosphere via the same structures.

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 The Human Respiratory Tract (Figure 10.1)

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 10.1 The Respiratory System 3

The respiratory system, concluded.

• Ventilation (breathing)—inspiration and expiration.
• Depends on the cardiovascular system to transport
oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon
dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
• During cellular respiration, cells use up oxygen and
produce carbon dioxide.

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 The Respiratory System and Homeostasis
Ways the respiratory system works with the
cardiovascular system to maintain homeostasis:
• External respiration, the exchange of gases (oxygen
and carbon dioxide) between air and the blood.
• Transport of gases to and from the lungs and the
tissues.
• Internal respiration, the exchange of gases between
the blood and tissue fluid.

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 The Respiratory System and Homeostasis
(Figure 10.2)

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 Check Your Progress 10.1
Trace the path of air from the nasal cavities to
the lungs.
Explain how the flow of air differs during
inspiration and expiration.
Describe the function(s) of the respiratory
system.

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 10.2 The Upper Respiratory Tract 1

Learning Outcomes:
• Summarize the role of the nose, pharynx, and larynx
in respiration.
• Identify the structures of the upper respiratory
system and provide their function.
• Explain how sound is produced by the larynx.

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 10.2 The Upper Respiratory Tract 2

The upper respiratory tract includes:

• The nasal cavities.
• The pharynx.
• The larynx.

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 The Upper Respiratory Tract (Figure 10.3)

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 The Nose 1

The nose opens at the nares (nostrils), which

lead to the nasal cavities.
• The nasal cavities are separated from each other by
a septum composed of bone and cartilage.
• Hairs filter the air and trap small particles so they
don’t enter air passages.

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 The Nose 2

Nasal cavities, continued.

Lined with mucous membrane.
• The mucus helps trap particles and move them to the
pharynx, where they can be swallowed or expectorated.
Under the mucous layer is the submucosa, which
contains lots of capillaries that help warm and moisten
the incoming air.
• The abundance of capillaries makes us susceptible to
nosebleeds.

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 The Nose 3

Nasal cavities, continued.

Contain odor receptors.
Tear glands in the eye drain into the nasal cavities by
way of tear ducts.
• Crying causes a runny nose.
The nasal cavities also connect with the sinuses of
the skull.
• Fluid may accumulate in these sinuses, causing an
increase in pressure, sinus headache.

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 The Nose 4

Nasal cavities, concluded.

Air in the nasal cavities passes into the
nasopharynx, the upper portion of the pharynx.
Auditory tubes (eustachian tubes) connect the
nasopharynx to the middle ear.
• When air pressure inside the middle ears equalizes with
the air pressure in the nasopharynx, the auditory tube
openings may create a “popping” sensation.

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 The Pharynx
The pharynx (throat)—funnel-shaped cavity that
connects the nasal and oral cavities to the
larynx.
• Has three portions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and
laryngopharynx.
Tonsils—made of lymphoid tissue at the
junction of the oral cavity and pharynx.
• Provide defense against inhaled pathogens.

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 The Larynx 1

The larynx.
• Cartilaginous structure between the pharynx and
the trachea.
• The Adam’s apple (laryngeal prominence) is located
at the front of the neck.

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 The Larynx 2

The larynx, continued.

Houses the vocal cords—mucosal folds supported by
elastic ligaments.
• The slit between the vocal cords is called the glottis.
• When air passes through the glottis, the vocal cords vibrate,
producing sound.
• The greater the tension in the vocal cords, the higher the
pitch.
• When the glottis is wider, the pitch is lower.
• Loudness depends on the degree to which the vocal cords
vibrate.
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 The Vocal Cords (Figure 10.5)

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(photo): CNRI/Science Photo Library/Getty Images 19
 The Larynx 3

The larynx, concluded.

• When food is swallowed, the larynx moves upward
against the epiglottis—a flap of tissue that prevents
food from passing into the larynx.

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 Check Your Progress 10.2
Describe the function of each of the structures
of the upper respiratory tract.
Name and briefly describe the body systems
that have connections with the pharynx.
Explain how sound is produced by the body.

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 10.3 The Lower Respiratory Tract 1

Learning Outcomes:
• Summarize the role of the trachea, bronchial tree,
and lungs in respiration.
• Identify the structures of the lower respiratory tract
and provide their function.
• Explain how the alveoli increase the efficiency of the
respiratory system.

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 10.3 The Lower Respiratory Tract 2

The lower respiratory tract includes:

• The trachea.
• The bronchial tree.
• The lungs.

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 The Trachea 1

The trachea.
Commonly called the “windpipe.”
Connects the larynx to the primary bronchi.
Its walls are reinforced by C-shaped cartilaginous
rings, which prevent the trachea from collapsing.
• The C shape allows the esophagus to expand into the
trachea when swallowing.

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 The Cells Lining the Trachea (Figure 10.6)

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Ed Reschke 25
 The Trachea 2

The trachea, continued.

Lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium and goblet cells.
• The goblet cells produce mucus, which traps debris from
the air as it passes through the trachea.
• The mucus is then swept away from the lungs and toward
the pharynx by the cilia.
• Smoking damages the cilia, causing smoker’s cough.

Tracheostomy—a breathing tube inserted into the

trachea.
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 The Bronchial Tree 1

The bronchial tree.

Two primary bronchi (sing., bronchus) lead from the
trachea into the lungs.
The primary bronchi branch into secondary bronchi,
which continue to branch until they are small
bronchioles about 1 mm in diameter.
• Bronchi have cartilage like the trachea, but as they get
smaller, the cartilage disappears.

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 The Bronchial Tree 2

The bronchial tree, continued.

• During an asthma attack, the smooth muscle of
the bronchioles contracts, constricting it and
causing wheezing.
• Each bronchiole leads to an elongated space
enclosed by many air sacs called alveoli (sing.,
alveolus).

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 Alveoli and Pulmonary Circulation
(Figure 10.7)

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 The Lungs 1

The lungs.
• Made up of the secondary bronchi, bronchioles, and
alveoli.
• The right lung has three lobes while the left lung has
two lobes (to make room for the heart).
• Each lobe is divided into lobules.
• Each lung is enclosed by pleurae (sing., pleura)—two
layers of serous membrane that produce serous
fluid.

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 The Lungs 2

The lungs, continued.

The pleural fluid has surface tension, which adheres
the parietal and visceral pleurae.
• Surface tension is due to hydrogen bonds between water
molecules.
• Because of surface tension, when the thoracic cavity
enlarges, the parietal pleura “pulls” the visceral pleura,
and therefore the lungs, outward.
• This increases the size of the lungs.

Pleurisy—inflammation of the pleurae; painful.

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 The Alveoli 1

Alveoli.
• The lungs have about 300 million alveoli.
• Each alveolar sac is surrounded by blood capillaries.
• The walls of the sac and the capillaries are both
made of simple squamous epithelium.
• Gas exchange occurs between air in the alveoli and
blood in the capillaries.

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 The Alveoli 2

Alveoli, continued.
Oxygen diffuses across the alveolar wall and enters
the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses from
the blood into the alveoli.
The alveoli are lined with surfactant, a film of
lipoprotein that lowers the surface tension of water
and prevents the alveoli from closing.
• Infant respiratory distress syndrome—when premature
infants don’t make enough surfactant; the alveoli collapse.

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 Check Your Progress 10.3
Briefly describe the functions of the organs of
the lower respiratory system.
Trace the movement of gas in the organs of the
lower respiratory system.
Explain why the alveoli have a high surface area.

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 10.4 Mechanism of Breathing 1

Learning Outcomes:
• Contrast the processes of inspiration and expiration
during ventilation.
• Define the terms tidal volume, vital capacity, and
residual volume in relation to ventilation.
• Summarize the purpose of the inspiratory and
expiratory reserve volumes.

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 10.4 Mechanism of Breathing 2

Ventilation (breathing), has two phases:

• Inspiration (inhalation) moves air into the lungs.
• Expiration (exhalation) moves air out of the lungs.
To understand ventilation, it is necessary to
remember the following facts:
• Normally there is a continuous column of air from
the pharynx to the alveoli of the lungs.

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 10.4 Mechanism of Breathing 3

Ventilation facts, continued.

The lungs lie within the sealed thoracic cavity.
• Rib cage—top and sides of the thoracic cavity.
• Intercostal muscles—between the ribs.
• Diaphragm—floor of the thoracic cavity.
The lungs adhere to the thoracic wall by way of the
pleura.
• Space between the two pleurae is minimal and filled with
pleural fluid.

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 10.4 Mechanism of Breathing 4

Ventilation facts, concluded.

Ventilation is governed by Boyle’s Law.
• At a constant temperature, the pressure of a given
quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume.
• This relationship controls inhalation and exhalation.

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 The Relationship Between Air Pressure
and Volume (Figure 10.8)

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 Inspiration 1

Inspiration.
The active phase of ventilation.
The diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles
contract.
• In its relaxed state, the diaphragm is dome-shaped; during
inspiration, it contracts and becomes flattened.
• Contraction of the external intercostal muscles causes the
rib cage to move upward and outward.
• Both actions increase the size of the thoracic cage.

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 Inspiration 2

Inspiration, continued.
• As the thoracic volume increases, the lungs increase
in volume as well, because the lung adheres to the
wall of the thoracic cavity.
• As the lung volume increases, the air pressure in the
alveoli decreases.
• Alveolar pressure is now less than atmospheric
pressure, so air flows from outside the body into the
lungs.

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 The Thoracic Cavity During Inspiration and
Expiration (Figure 10.9a)

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 Expiration 1

Expiration.
• The passive phase of breathing; the diaphragm and
external intercostal muscles relax.
• The rib cage returns to its resting position, moving
down and inward.
• The lungs recoil, and the air pressure inside
increases; air flows out.

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 Expiration 2

Expiration, continued.
Surfactant keeps the alveoli from collapsing during
expiration.
Also, as the lungs recoil, the pressure between the
pleurae decreases, and this keeps the alveoli open.
• When, in an accident, the thoracic cavity is punctured (a
“punctured lung”), air enters the space between the two
pleurae, causing the lung to collapse.

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 The Thoracic Cavity During Inspiration and
Expiration (Figure 10.9b)

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 Maximizing Inspiration and Expiration 1

Breathing hard (maximum inspiratory effort)

uses muscles of the back, chest, and neck.
• Increases the size of the thoracic cavity more than
usual, allowing maximum expansion of the lungs.

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 Maximizing Inspiration and Expiration 2

Expiration can also be forced.

• That is, singing, blowing air.
• Contraction of the internal intercostal muscles forces
the rib cage downward and inward.
• Also, when abdominal muscles contract, they push
on the abdominal organs, which push upward against
the diaphragm, forcing air out.

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 Volumes of Air Exchanged During
Ventilation 1

Tidal volume—the amount of air that moves in

and out with each normal breath.
Vital capacity—the maximum volume that can
be moved in plus the maximum amount that can
be moved out during one breath.
Inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume—the
increased volume of air moving in or out of the
body with forced inspiration and expiration.

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 Measuring the Air Capacity of the Lungs
(Figure 10.10)

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(a): Goldsithney/Shutterstock 49
 Volumes of Air Exchanged During
Ventilation 2

Vital capacity is the sum of tidal, inspiratory

reserve, and expiratory reserve volumes.
Some inhaled air never reaches the lungs; it fills
the nasal cavities, trachea, bronchi, and
bronchioles.
• These passages are not used for gas exchange; they
contain dead air space.
Residual volume—the air remaining in the lungs
after exhalation.
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 Check Your Progress 10.4
Explain how the volume of the thoracic cavity
affects the pressure in the lungs.
Distinguish between the different volumes of air
exchanged during ventilation.
Discuss what effect insufficient expiration might
have on overall homeostasis.

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 10.5 Control of Ventilation 1

Learning Outcomes:
• Explain how the nervous system controls the process
of breathing.
• Explain the role of chemoreceptors and pH levels in
regulating breathing rate.

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 10.5 Control of Ventilation 2

Breathing is controlled by nervous and chemical

control mechanisms.

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 Nervous Control of Breathing 1

Nervous control of breathing.

Respiratory control center in the brain automatically
sends out nerve signals to the diaphragm and the
external intercostal muscles of the rib cage, causing
inspiration to occur.
• When the respiratory center stops sending nerve signals
to the diaphragm and the rib cage, the muscles relax and
expiration occurs.

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 The Control of Breathing by the
Respiratory Center (Figure 10.11)

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 Nervous Control of Breathing 2

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) or crib

death.
• An infant under 1 year is put to bed seemingly
healthy, and sometime while sleeping the child
stops breathing.
• The cause of SIDS is not known, but vaccinations,
vomiting, and infections have been ruled out as
factors.
• Might be a miscommunication between the
respiratory center of the brain and the lungs.
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 Nervous Control of Breathing 3

Nervous control of breathing, continued.

• Although the respiratory center automatically
controls the rate and depth of breathing, it is
influenced by the nervous system.
• Can voluntarily change our breathing pattern for
speaking, singing, eating, swimming underwater.
• Following forced inspiration, stretch receptors in the
airway walls initiate inhibitory nerve impulses that
stop the respiratory center from sending out nerve
signals and overstretching the lungs.
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 Chemical Control of Breathing 1

Chemical control of breathing.

Cells produce CO2 during cellular respiration.
CO2 then enters the blood, where it combines with
water, forming an acid that breaks down and gives
off hydrogen ions.
+
H
• These decrease the pH of the blood.
Chemoreceptors—sensory receptors that are
sensitive to the chemical composition of body fluids.

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 Chemical Control of Breathing 2

Chemical control of breathing, continued.

Two sets of chemoreceptors sensitive to pH can
cause breathing to speed up.
• One set is in the medulla oblongata of the brain stem.
• The other set is the carotid bodies of the carotid arteries,
and aortic bodies of the aorta.
• These chemoreceptors mostly respond to carbon dioxide levels of
the blood.

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 Chemical Control of Breathing 3

Chemical control of breathing, concluded.

When blood pH decreases, the respiratory center
increases the rate and depth of breathing to remove
CO2 from the blood.
• This increases the pH, so the breathing rate returns to
normal.
When you hold your breath, CO2 begins accumulating
in the blood, decreasing the pH.
• The respiratory center, stimulated by the chemoreceptors,
is able to override a voluntary inhibition of respiration,
forcing breathing.
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 Check Your Progress 10.5
Explain why chemoreceptors are important for
the regulation of ventilation.
Describe the importance of the respiratory
control center in the brain.
Discuss why it’s not possible to hold your breath
for more than a few minutes.

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 10.6 Gas Exchange in the Body 1

Learning Outcomes:
• Distinguish between external and internal
respiration.
• Summarize the chemical processes involved in
external and internal respiration.
• Identify the role of carbonic anhydrase and
carbaminohemoglobin in respiration.

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 10.6 Gas Exchange in the Body 2

Gas exchange in the body.

• Oxygen is needed to produce ATP, so must be
supplied to all the cells, and the carbon dioxide
produced must be removed from the body.
• Respiration includes the exchange of gases not only
in the lungs but also in the tissues.
• The principles of diffusion govern whether O2 or CO2
enters or leaves the blood.

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 Movement of Gases During External and
Internal Respiration (Figure 10.12)

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 10.6 Gas Exchange in the Body 3

Gas exchange in the body, continued.

• Gases exert pressure, and the amount of pressure
each gas exerts is called its partial pressure,
symbolized as PCO2 or PO2.
• If the partial pressure of a gas differs across a
membrane, it will diffuse from higher to lower partial
pressure.

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 External Respiration 1

External respiration.
• Exchange of gases between the lung alveoli and the
blood capillaries.
• PCO2 is higher in the lung capillaries than the air;
thus, CO2 diffuses out of the blood into the lungs.
• The partial pressure pattern for O2 is just the
opposite, so O2 diffuses from the alveolar air into
the red blood cells in the pulmonary capillaries.

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 External Respiration 2

External respiration, continued.

• Most of the CO2 is carried in plasma as bicarbonate

ions (HCO 3 ).

• In the low-PCO2 environment of the lungs, this

reaction proceeds to the right:

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 External Respiration 3

External respiration, continued.

• Carbonic anhydrase—the enzyme that speeds the
breakdown of carbonic acid (H2CO3) in red blood
cells.
• Hyperventilation (breathing at a high rate) pushes
the reaction to the right; blood has fewer hydrogen
ions; alkalosis (high blood pH) occurs.
• Hypoventilation (breathing at a low rate) pushes
the reaction to the left; acidosis (low blood pH)
occurs.
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 External Respiration 4

External respiration, concluded.

Pulmonary capillary blood is low in oxygen, and
alveolar air has a higher partial pressure of oxygen.
• Therefore, O2 diffuses into plasma and then into red blood
cells in the lungs.
• Hemoglobin takes up oxygen and becomes
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2).

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 Internal Respiration 1

Internal respiration.
• Exchange of gases between the blood in systemic capillaries
and the tissue cells.
• Blood entering systemic capillaries is bright red because red
blood cells contain oxyhemoglobin.
• After HbO2 gives up O2, it diffuses out of the blood into the
tissues.

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 Internal Respiration 2

Internal respiration, continued.

Oxygen diffuses out of the blood into the tissues
because the PO2 of interstitial fluid is lower than that
of blood.
• The lower PO2 is due to cells continuously using up oxygen
during cellular respiration.
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood from the
tissues because the PO2 of interstitial fluid is higher
than that of blood.
• Carbon dioxide is produced during cellular respiration and
© McGraw Hill LLC
collects in interstitial fluid. 71
 Check Your Progress 10.6
Describe the differences between external
respiration and internal respiration.
Describe how hemoglobin functions in the
transport of both oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Detail the influence of PO2 on both external and
internal respiration.

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 10.7 Disorders of the Respiratory System
Learning Outcomes:
• Identify the symptoms and causes of selected upper
respiratory tract infections.
• Identify the symptoms and causes of selected lower
respiratory tract disorders.
• Summarize how smoking is related to cancer and
emphysema.

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 Upper Respiratory Tract Infections 1

Upper respiratory tract infections.

• Can spread from the nose, nasal cavities, pharynx,
and larynx, to the sinuses, middle ears.
• The upper respiratory tract is susceptible to viral and
bacterial infections because it is responsible for
filtering out pathogens and other materials in the air.

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 Upper Respiratory Tract Infections 2

Upper respiratory tract infections, continued.

Viral infections—viruses that cause “colds.”
• Sneezing, runny nose, mild fever.
Sinusitis—blockage of sinuses.
Tonsillitis—inflammation of the tonsils.
• Tonsillectomy—surgical removal of the tonsils.
Laryngitis—infection of the larynx; leads to voice loss.

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 Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders 1

Lower respiratory tract disorders.

• Include infections, restrictive pulmonary disorders,
obstructive pulmonary disorders, and lung cancer.

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 Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders 2

Lower respiratory infections.

• Acute bronchitis—infection of the primary and
secondary bronchi.
• Pneumonia—bacterial or viral infection; the bronchi
and alveoli fill with thick fluid.
• Tuberculosis—bacterial infection that leads to
tubercles (encapsulated bacteria).

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 Some Diseases and Disorders of the
Respiratory System (Figure 10.13)

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 Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders 3

Restrictive pulmonary disorders.

Vital capacity is reduced; lungs have lost elasticity.
That is, pulmonary fibrosis—fibrous connective
tissue builds up in the lungs, usually because of
inhaled particles like sand, coal dust, asbestos,
fiberglass.
• Lungs cannot inflate properly.
• Can lead to cancer.

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 Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders 4

Obstructive pulmonary disorders.

• Air does not flow freely in the airways.
• That is, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma
are collectively referred to as chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) because they tend to
recur.

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 Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders 5

Obstructive pulmonary disorders, continued.

Chronic bronchitis—airways are inflamed and filled
with mucus.
• Bronchi undergo degenerative changes, including the loss
of cilia.
• Smoking is the most frequent cause.
• Exposure to other pollutants can also cause it.

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 Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders 6

Obstructive pulmonary disorders, continued.

Emphysema.
• Chronic and incurable.
• Alveoli are distended and their walls are damaged.
• Surface area for gas exchange is reduced, so less oxygen
reaches the heart and the brain.
• Most often caused by smoking.
• Elastic recoil of the lungs is reduced, so not only are the
airways narrowed but the driving force behind expiration
is also reduced.

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 Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders 7

Obstructive pulmonary disorders, continued.

Emphysema, continued.
• Lack of oxygen to the brain can make the person feel
depressed, sluggish, and irritable.
• Severe emphysema may be treated by lung
transplantation or lung volume reduction surgery (LVRS).
• A third of the most diseased lung tissue is removed, which
enables the remaining tissue to function better.

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 Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders 8

Obstructive pulmonary disorders, concluded.

Asthma.
• Symptoms: wheezing, breathlessness, and sometimes a
cough and expectoration of mucus.
• When exposed to an irritant like pollen or tobacco smoke,
the smooth muscle in the bronchioles spasms.
• Asthma is not curable, but it is treatable with special
inhalers.

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 Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders 9

Lung cancer.
• More prevalent in men than in women.
• The first event in lung cancer is thickening of the lining
of the bronchi.
• Then cilia are lost, making it impossible to prevent
dust and dirt from settling in the lungs.
• Following this, cells with atypical nuclei appear in the
lining.
• A tumor made of cells with atypical nuclei is
considered cancer in situ (at one location).
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 Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders 10

Lung cancer, continued.

• The final step occurs when some of these cells break
loose and penetrate other tissues (metastasis).
• The original tumor may grow until a bronchus is
blocked, cutting off the supply of air to that lung.
• Pneumonectomy (removal of a lobe or the whole
lung) needs to be performed before metastasis
occurs.

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 Effect of Smoking on a Human Lung
(Figure 10.14)

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(a): Southern Illinois University/Science Source; (b): Clinical Photography, Central Manchester University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, UK/Science Source 87
 Check Your Progress 10.7
Name and describe the symptoms of some
common respiratory infections and disorders of
the upper respiratory tract and of the lower
respiratory tract.
Detail how each of the common respiratory
infections in the preceding question can be
treated.
List the three respiratory disorders commonly
associated with smoking tobacco.
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