Digestive System

Dr Parkash Singh
SGTB Khalsa College
University of Delhi
• The digestive system consists of a group of organs
that break down the food we eat into smaller
molecules that can be used by body cells.
• Two groups of organs compose the digestive system:-
• 1. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract and
• 2. The accessory digestive organs.
• The gastrointestinal (GI) tract, or alimentary canal
(alimentary = nourishment), is a continuous tube that
extends from the mouth to the anus through the
thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
• Organs of the gastrointestinal tract include the mouth,
most of the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, and large intestine.
• The length of the GI tract is about 5–7 meters (16.5–
23 f ) in a living person when the muscles along the
wall of the GI tract organs are in a state of tonus
(sustained contraction).
• The accessory digestive organs include the teeth,
tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas.
 Organs of the digestive system
• Organs of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract are the
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, and large intestine.
• Accessory digestive organs include the teeth,
tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas and are indicated in red.
• The GI tract contains food from the time it is eaten
until it is digested and absorbed or eliminated.
• Muscular contractions in the wall of the GI tract
physically break down the food by churning it and
propel the food along the tract, from the esophagus
to the anus.
• The contractions also help to dissolve foods by
mixing them with fluids secreted into the tract.
• Enzymes secreted by accessory digestive organs and
cells that line the tract break down the food
chemically.
 The digestive system performs six basic
processes
• 1. Ingestion. This process involves taking foods and
liquids into the mouth (eating).
• 2. Secretion. Each day, cells within the walls of the
GI tract and accessory digestive organs secrete a
total of about 7 liters of water, acid, buffers, and
enzymes into the lumen (interior space) of the tract.
• 3. Motility. Alternating contractions and relaxations
of smooth muscle in the walls of the GI tract mix
food and secretions and move them toward the anus.
This capability of the GI tract to mix and move
material along its length is called motility.
• 4. Digestion. Digestion is the process of breaking
down ingested food into small molecules that can be
used by body cells.
• Mechanical digestion the teeth cut and grind food
before it is swallowed.
• Chemical digestion the large carbohydrate, lipid,
protein, and nucleic acid molecules in food are split
into smaller molecules by hydrolysis
• 5. Absorption. The movement of the products of
digestion from the lumen of the GI tract into blood
or lymph is called absorption.
• Once absorbed, these substances circulate to cells
throughout the body.
• A few substances in food can be absorbed without
undergoing digestion.
• These include vitamins, ions, cholesterol, and water.
• 6. Defecation. Wastes, indigestible substances,
bacteria, cells sloughed from the lining of the GI
tract, and digested materials that were not absorbed
in their journey through the digestive tract leave the
body through the anus in a process called
defecation.
• The eliminated material is termed feces.
The digestive system performs six basic processes: ingestion, secretion,
motility, digestion, absorption, and defecation
 Layers of the GI Tract
• The wall of the GI tract from the lower esophagus to
the anal canal has the same basic, four-layered
arrangement of tissues.
• The four layers of the tract, from deep to superficial,
are the
1. Mucosa,
2. Submucosa,
3. Muscularis, and
4. Serosa/Adventitia
The four layers of the GI tract, from deep to superficial, are
the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa
 Mucosa
• The mucosa, or inner lining of the GI tract, is a
mucous membrane.
It is composed of
• (1) a layer of epithelium in direct contact with the
contents of the GI tract,
• (2) a layer of connective tissue called the lamina
propria, and
• (3) a thin layer of smooth muscle (muscularis
mucosae).
 1. Epithelium
• 1. The epithelium in the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
and anal canal is mainly nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium that serves a protective function.
• Simple columnar epithelium, which functions in
secretion and absorption, lines the stomach and
intestines.
• The tight junctions that firmly seal neighboring simple
columnar epithelial cells to one another restrict leakage
between the cells.
• The rate of renewal of GI tract epithelial cells is rapid:
Every 5 to 7 days they slough of and are replaced by
new cells.
 2. Lamina Propria
• 2. The lamina propria (lamina = thin, flat plate; propria =
one’s own) is areolar connective tissue containing many
blood and lymphatic vessels, which are the routes by which
nutrients absorbed into the GI tract reach the other tissues of
the body.
• This layer supports the epithelium and binds it to the
muscularis mucosae .
• The lamina propria also contains the majority of the cells of
the mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT).
• These prominent lymphatic nodules contain immune system
cells that protect against disease.
• MALT is present all along the GI tract, especially in the
tonsils, small intestine, appendix, and large intestine
 3. Mscularis mucosae
• A thin layer of smooth muscle fibers called the
muscularis mucosae throws the mucous membrane
of the stomach and small intestine into many small
folds, which increase the surface area for digestion
and absorption.
• Movements of the muscularis mucosae ensure that
all absorptive cells are fully exposed to the contents
of the GI tract
 Submucosa
• The submucosa consists of areolar connective tissue
that binds the mucosa to the muscularis.
• It contains many blood and lymphatic vessels that
receive absorbed food molecules.
• Also located in the submucosa is an extensive
network of neurons known as the submucosal
plexus.
• The submucosa may also contain glands and
lymphatic tissue.
 Muscularis
• The muscularis of the mouth, pharynx, and superior and
middle parts of the esophagus contains skeletal muscle that
produces voluntary swallowing.
• Skeletal muscle also forms the external anal sphincter,
which permits voluntary control of defecation.
• The muscularis consists of smooth muscle that is generally
found in two sheets: an inner sheet of circular fibers and an
outer sheet of longitudinal fibers.
• Involuntary contractions of the smooth muscle help break
down food, mix it with digestive secretions, and propel it
along the tract.
• Between the layers of the muscularis is a second plexus of
neurons—the myenteric plexus .
 Serosa
• Those portions of the GI tract that are suspended in
the abdominal cavity have a superficial layer called
the serosa.
• The serosa is a serous membrane composed of
areolar connective tissue and simple squamous
epithelium (mesothelium).
• The serosa is also called the visceral peritoneum
because it forms a portion of the peritoneum.
• The esophagus lacks a serosa; instead, only a single
layer of areolar connective tissue called the
adventitia forms the superficial layer of this organ.