The Digestive System 1

Dr Elita Partosoedarso

● Recordings:
○ Part A Overview,
○ Part B Digestive Processes and Layers,
○ Part C Motility and Control of Digestion
 Overview of the digestive system

• Overall function: break down ingested foods to release

their nutrients, and absorption of those nutrients into the
body.

• Primary function of the digestive system: To bring

essential nutrients into the internal environment so that
they are available to each cell of the body. The digestive
tract is functionally an extension of the external
environment; material does not truly enter the body until
it is absorbed into the internal environment.
Overview of the Digestive System
Body system Benefits received by the digestive system
Cardiovascular Blood delivers oxygen & processed nutrients
Endocrine Hormones help regulate secretion
Integumentary Skin helps protect digestive organs and synthesizes vitamin D for calcium
absorption
Lymphatic Lymphatic tissue defend against entry of pathogens; lacteals absorb lipids;
transport lipids to bloodstream
Muscular Skeletal muscles support and protect abdominal organs
Nervous Sensory and motor neurons help regulate secretions and muscle contractions
Respiratory Respiratory organs provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide
Skeletal Bones help protect and support digestive organs
Urinary Kidneys convert vitamin D into active form, allowing calcium absorption in small
intestine

3
 Digestive System Organs
The alimentary canal (gastrointestinal (GI) tract or digestive tract or
gut) is a one-way tube about 7.62 meters (25 feet) in length during
life and closer to 10.67 meters (35 feet) in length when measured
after death, once smooth muscle tone is lost.

1. Alimentary Canal (digestive) Organs

• Function: mechanical and chemical breakdown of food so
that nutrients can be absorbed to nourish the body
• Organs: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small/large
intestines, anus
2. Accessory Structures
• Function: to aid in the mechanical and chemical breakdown
of food but may not be in direct contact with ingested
material
• Organs: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, gallbladder, liver,
pancreas

4
Overview
Digestive organs in order from proximal to distal (aboral or anally)
1 2 3 4 5 (5a 5b 5c) 6 (6a 6b) 7 8

• __ Anus
• __ Cecum
• __ Colon Sphincter muscles consist of circular fibers arranged
• __ Duodenum • When sphincter muscles are relaxed, ingested material can progress aborally
• __ Esophagus • When sphincter muscles are contracted, ingested material cannot progress anally
• __ Jejunum
• __ Ileum 1. Upper esophageal sphincter: Between ____________ & ____________
• __ Large intestine 2. Lower esophageal sphincter: Between ____________ & ____________
• __ Mouth 3. Pyloric sphincter: Between ____________ & ____________
• __ Pharynx 4. Ileocecal valve/sphincter: Between ____________ & ____________
5. Anal sphincters: Between ____________ & ____________
• __ Rectum
• __ Small intestine
• __ Stomach

5
What ingested material is referred to
A. Food: Ingested material as it enters into the mouth
B. Bolus: rounded mass of food mixed in with salivary
juices which is easy to swallow
C. Chyme: Liquefied mass of ingested material in the
stomach: small chunks of food which has been
physically broken-down and mixed freely with
enzymes and other components of gastric juices

6
Digestive System Processes
Ingestion: entry of food through the mouth

Propulsion: movement of food through the digestive tract,

includes voluntary swallowing and involuntary peristalsis

Mechanical (physical) digestion: physical breakdown into

smaller pieces to increase both surface area and mobility

Chemical digestion: digestive secretions help chemical

breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones
• Propulsion occurs from ingestion to defecation
Absorption: movement of digested contents into blood or • Mechanical and chemical digestion can occur
lymph simultaneously

Defecation: removal of undigested and unabsorbed

materials 7
Wall of the GI Tract: main layers

1.1 Serosa
• General structure: visceral layer of peritoneum, covers organs in the abdominopelvic cavity
• General function: continuous with mesentery (folds of serous membrane) containing blood vessels,
lymphatics and nerves which anchors gut to abdominal wall.
Superficial to deep

2.2Muscularis
• General structure: two thick layers of smooth muscle
• General function: peristalsis and segmentation to promote digestion and absorption

3.3Submucosa
• General structure: exocrine glands, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, submucosal plexus
• General function: involved in secretion and absorption

4.4Mucosa
• General structure: mucosal epithelium, lamina propria and muscularis mucosa.
• General function: monitors luminal contents (mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors) as it is only layer
that is normally in contact with ingested material 8
 Mucosal (mucous membrane) layer of the GI tract

• Location: deepest and only layer to be in direct contact with lumen and ingested food
• Structure and function
• Mucous epithelium:
• either simple columnar epithelium (facilitate absorption & secretion) OR stratified squamous
Superficial to deep

epithelium (protect against wear and tear and injury) which is constantly renewed every 2-7 days
• contains mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) (clusters of lymphocytes), goblet cells and
enteroendocrine cells
• Lamina propria: layer of loose, fibrous connective tissue which contains numerous blood and lymphatic
vessels (lacteals): delivers O2 & transports absorbed nutrients
• Muscularis mucosae: Thin layer of smooth muscle which allows contraction of mucosal layer to increase
surface area available for digestion and absorption
9
Submucosal layer of the GI tract

Plexus: collection of nerves that serve a common purpose

• Location: between superficial mucosa to deeper muscularis

• Structure: Layer of dense connective tissue which contain
• blood and lymphatic vessels (lacteals)
• submucosal exocrine glands
• Function: delivers O2 & transports digested contents which have been absorbed from the lumen
towards the liver and release digestive secretions into the lumen via ducts
• Controlled by submucosal (Meissner’s) plexus which is part of the enteric nervous system (ENS) and
autonomic nervous system (ANS): regulates digestive secretions and reacts to the presence of food

10
Muscularis layer (muscularis externa) of the GI tract

• Location: between the submucosa and the serosa

• Structure: layers of smooth muscle oriented in different directions
• Outer longitudinal muscle layer
• Inner circular muscle layer
• Oblique muscle layer: only present in the stomach
• Function: the sequential contraction and relaxation of the smooth muscle layers promote
mechanical digestion, mixing (segmentation) and aboral propulsion of contents (peristalsis)
• Controlled by myenteric (Auerbach’s) plexus located between the two layers which is part of the
enteric nervous system (ENS) and autonomic nervous system (ANS): controls rhythm and force of
the contractions of the muscularis 11
Serosal layer of the GI tract

• Location: outermost layer of the GI tract

• Structure: visceral peritoneum overlying a layer of loose connective tissue
• Continuous with mesentery (folds of serous membrane) containing blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves
which anchors gut to abdominal wall.
• Function: epithelium secretes fluid to reduce friction in abdominal cavity, anchors alimentary canal in
place near the ventral surface of the vertebral column

12
Motility (Movement within the gut)
• produced by smooth muscle of gut, different types of motility can occur
together, in an alternating fashion
• Contractile activity is slower and longer vs skeletal muscle: Needs less energy
1
than skeletal muscles: sustained activity without fatigue

11. Peristalsis
• Location: throughout the digestive tract
• Purpose: progressive motility that produces aboral movement of matter
along the gut.
• Description: wavelike ripple of sequential, alternating waves of contraction
and relaxation

2.
2 Segmentation (small intestine), mixing & churning (stomach, large intestine)
• Location: stomach & intestines where digestion and absorption occur
• Purpose: help with mechanical and chemical digestion, mix food with
digestive juices, bring digested food in contact with mucosa to facilitate 2
absorption
• Description: mixing movement forward-and-backward movement within a
single segment
13
 1 2 3
Neural Regulation of the GI tract 1 2 3
1

Divisions of the autonomic NS

1.
1 Enteric nervous system (little brain)
• Path: contained entirely within walls of the digestive tract
• Effects: Regulates digestive function, with feedback and feedforward aspects.
Involves intrinsic nerve plexuses [myenteric plexus (regulate smooth muscle
contraction) and submucosal plexus (regulate GI secretions)] and short 2 3
reflexes: can function independently of CNS

2.2 Parasympathetic division (big brain)

• Path: via vagal and pelvic nerves (cranial and spinal nerves respectively)
• Effects: Stimulates Gi function overall.

3.3 Sympathetic division (big brain)

• Path: via sympathetic ganglia with endings in the brainstem and spinal cord
• Effects: Inhibits GI function overall.
The concept of the little brain-big brain involves interaction and integration of information of three divisions of
the autonomic NS. Sensory (afferent) inputs include mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and osmoreceptors.
Motor (efferent) outputs include smooth muscles and glands (both endocrine and exocrine)

Both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions involve extrinsic nerve plexuses and long reflexes and require
communication with CNS and higher brain centers to ensure homeostasis 14
Hormonal Regulation of the GI tract
GI hormones are secreted by endocrinocytes or enteroendocrine cells in the stomach and small intestine.
These hormones are released into the systemic circulation, through which they can reach their target
organs.

1. Gastrin
• Stimulus for secretion: presence of food in the stomach
• Effects of secretion: stimulates gastric acid secretion by parietal cells

2. Secretin
• Stimulus for secretion: Presence of carbohydrate- and protein-based foods in the duodenum
• Effects of secretion: stimulates secretion of watery secretion of bicarbonate by pancreas

3. Cholecystokinin (CCK)
• Stimulus for secretion: Presence of lipid based foods in the duodenum
• Effects of secretion: stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile from liver and gallbladder

4. Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)

• Stimulus for secretion: Presence of carbohydrate-, lipid- and protein-based foods in the duodenum
• Effects of secretion: inhibits gastric secretion and slows gastric emptying and motility
15
Digestive enzymes
1.
1 Enzymes are protein catalysts which increase rate and extent
of chemical digestion by lowering the activation energy of the
reaction 1
- Continually being destroyed or eliminated from the body:
must continually be synthesized
- Operate in lumen of digestive tract, outside of any cells
2.
2 Specific in their action: binds to a single substrate and can
only perform a single reaction
3.
3 Function optimally at a specific pH based on their location of
activity: pepsin vs trypsin
4 Mostly synthesized and released as inactive proenzymes
4. 2
(zymogens), especially those that digest proteins
- Conversion to active form when needed, ie when
presence of proteins is detected in the gut

3 4

16