Astrodynamics - Orbital Mechanics

Astrodynamics—
Orbital mechanics
Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the study of the motion of rockets
and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from
Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation,
collectively known as classical mechanics.
Celestial mechanics focuses more broadly on the orbital motions of artificial

and natural astronomical bodies such as planets, moons, and comets. Orbital
mechanics is a subfield[citation needed] which focuses on spacecraft
trajectories, including orbital maneuvers, orbit plane changes, and
interplanetary transfers, and is used by mission planners to predict the
results of propulsion.
General relativity provides more exact equations for calculating orbits,

sometimes necessary for greater accuracy or high-gravity situations (such as
orbits close to the Sun).
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Rules of thumb-
The following rules of thumb are useful for situations approximated by

classical mechanics under the standard assumptions of astrodynamics. The
specific example discussed is of a satellite orbiting a planet, but the rules of
thumb could also apply to other situations, such as orbits of small bodies
around a star such as the Sun.
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•Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which can be mathematically derived

from Newton's laws, hold in the absence of thrust:
•Orbits are either circular, with the planet at the center of the
circle, or form an ellipse, with the planet at one focus.
•A line drawn from the planet to the satellite sweeps out equal
areas in equal times no matter which portion of the orbit is
measured.
•The square of a satellite's orbital period is proportional to the cube

of its average distance from the planet.
•Without firing a rocket engine (generating thrust), the height and shape
of the satellite's orbit won't change, and it will maintain the same
orientation with respect to the fixed stars.
•A satellite in a low orbit (or low part of an elliptical orbit) moves more
quickly with respect to the surface of the planet than a satellite in a
higher orbit (or a high part of an elliptical orbit), due to the stronger
gravitational attraction closer to the planet.
•If a brief rocket firing is made at only one point in the satellite's orbit, it
will return to that same point on each subsequent orbit, though the
rest of its path will change. Thus to move from one circular orbit to
another, at least two brief firings are needed.
•From a circular orbit, a brief firing of a rocket in the direction which

slows the satellite down, will create an elliptical orbit with a lower
perigee (lowest orbital point) at 180 degrees away from the firing
point, which will be the apogee (highest orbital point). If the rocket is
fired to speed the rocket, it will create an elliptical orbit with a higher
apogee 180 degrees away from the firing point (which will become the
perigee).
The consequences of the rules of orbital mechanics are sometimes counter-

intuitive. For example, if two spacecraft are in the same circular orbit and
wish to dock, unless they are very close, the trailing craft cannot simply fire
its engines to go faster. This will change the shape of its orbit, causing it to
gain altitude and miss its target. One approach is to actually fire a reverse
thrust to slow down, and then fire again to re-circularize the orbit at a lower
altitude. Because lower orbits are faster than higher orbits, the trailing craft
will begin to catch up. A third firing at the right time will put the trailing craft
in an elliptical orbit which will intersect the path of the leading craft,
approaching from below.
To the degree that the assumptions do not hold, actual trajectories will vary
from those calculated. Atmospheric drag is one major complicating factor for
objects in Earth orbit. The differences between classical mechanics and
general relativity can become important for large objects like planets. These
rules of thumb are decidedly inaccurate when describing two or more bodies
of similar mass, such as a binary star system.
•Laws of astrodynamics
•Historical approaches
•Practical techniques
•Modern mathematical techniques

Astrodynamics - Orbital Mechanics

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Astrodynamics—

Celestial mechanics focuses more broadly on the orbital motions of artificial

General relativity provides more exact equations for calculating orbits,

The following rules of thumb are useful for situations approximated by

•Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which can be mathematically derived

•The square of a satellite's orbital period is proportional to the cube

•From a circular orbit, a brief firing of a rocket in the direction which

The consequences of the rules of orbital mechanics are sometimes counter-

•Modern mathematical techniques

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