466 MATHEMATICS

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

CHAPTER 3

3.6 Proofs and Simple Applications of Sine and Cosine Formulae

Let ABC be a triangle. By angle A, we mean the
angle between the sides AB and AC which lies
between 0° and 180°. The angles B and C are
similarly defined. The sides AB, BC and CA
opposite to the vertices C, A and B will be denoted
by c, a and b respectively (see Fig. 3.15).
Theorem 1 (Sine formulae) In any triangle,
sides are proportional to the sines of the opposite
angles. That is, in a triangle ABC Fig. 3.15

sin A sin B sin C

= =
a b c

Proof Let ABC be either of the triangles as shown in Fig. 3.16 (i) and (ii).

(i) (ii)
Fig. 3.16

The altitude h is drawn from the vertex B to meet the side AC in point D [in (i) AC is

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produced to meet the altitude in D]. From the right angled triangle ABD in Fig. 3.16(i),
we have
h
sin A = , i.e., h = c sin A (1)
c
h
and sin (180° – C) = ⇒ h = a sin C (2)
a
From (1) and (2), we get
s in A s in C
c sin A = a sin C, i.e., = (3)
a c
Similarly, we can prove that
sin A sin B
= (4)
a b
From (3) and (4), we get
sin A sin B sin C
= =
a b c
For triangle ABC in Fig. 3.16 (ii), equations (3) and (4) follow similarly.
Theorem 2 (Cosine formulae) Let A, B and C be angles of a triangle and a, b and c
be lengths of sides opposite to angles A, B and C respectively, then

a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2 bc co s A
b 2 = c 2 + a 2 − 2 ca co s B
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2 a b co s C
Proof Let ABC be triangle as given in Fig. 3.17 (i) and (ii)

(i) (ii)
Fig. 3.17

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Referring to Fig. 3.17 (ii), we have

BC2 = BD2 + DC2 = BD2 + (AC – AD)2

= BD2 + AD2 + AC2 − 2AC.AD
= AB 2 + AC 2 − 2 AC AB cos A
or a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cosA
Similarly, we can obtain

b 2 = c 2 + a 2 − 2 ca cos B
and c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2 a b co s C
Same equations can be obtained for Fig. 3.17 (i), where C is obtuse.
A convenient form of the cosine formulae, when angles are to be found are as
follows:

b2 + c2 − a2
cos A =
2bc
c + a2 − b2
2
cos B =
2 ac
a + b2 − c2
2
cos C =
2 ab
Example 25 In triangle ABC, prove that

B−C b−c A
tan = cot
2 b+ c 2
C −A c−a B
tan = cot
2 c+ a 2
A − B a −b C
tan = cot
2 a+b 2

Proof By sine formulae, we have

a b c
= = = k ( sa y ).
s in A sin B sin C

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b−c k ( s in B − s in C )
Therefore, =
b+ c k (s in B + s in C )

B + C B−C
2 cos s in
= 2 2
B+ C B−C
2 s in cos
2 2
(B + C ) (B – C )
= co t tan
2 2
 π A   B –C 
= cot  −  ta n  
 2 2   2 

B – C
ta n
= 2
A
cot
2

B– C b −c A
Therefore, ta n = cot
2 b + c 2

Similarly, we can prove other results. These results are well known as Napier’s
Analogies.

Example 26 In any triangle ABC, prove that

a sin (B – C) + b sin (C – A) + c sin (A – B) = 0

Solution Consider

a sin (B – C) = a [sin B cos C – cos B sin C] (1)

s in A s in B s in C
Now = = = k (sa y )
a b c

Therefore, sin A = ak, sin B = bk, sin C = ck

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Substituting the values of sin B and sin C in (1) and using cosine formulae, we get

  a2 + b2 − c2   c2 + a2 − b2 
a sin(B − C ) = a  bk   − ck  
  2 ab   2 ac 

=
k
2
(a 2 + b 2 − c 2 − c 2 − a 2 + b 2 )
= k (b 2 − c 2 )
Similarly, b sin (C – A) = k (c2 – a2)
and c sin (A – B) = k (a2 – b2)

Hence L.H.S = k (b2 – c2 + c2 – a2 + a2 – b2)

= 0 = R.H.S.
Example 27 The angle of elevation of the top point P of the vertical tower PQ of
height h from a point A is 45° and from a point B, the angle of elevation is 60°, where
B is a point at a distance d from the point A measured along the line AB which makes
an angle 30° with AQ. Prove that d = h ( 3 –1)
Proof From the Fig. 3.18, we have ∠PAQ = 45°, ∠BAQ = 30°, ∠PBH = 60°

Fig. 3.18

Clearly ∠ APQ = 45 °, ∠ BPH = 30 °, giving ∠ APB = 15 °

Again ∠ PAB = 15 ° ⇒ ∠ ABP = 150 °

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From triangle APQ, we have AP2 = h2 + h2 = 2h2 (Why?)

or AP = 2h
Applying sine formulae in ∆ ABP, we get

AB AP d 2h
= ⇒ =
sin15° sin150° sin15° sin150°

2 h sin 1 5 °
i.e., d =
s in 3 0 °
= h( 3 − 1) (why?)

Example 28 A lamp post is situated at the middle point M of the side AC of a

triangular plot ABC with BC = 7 m, CA = 8 m and AB = 9 m. Lamp post subtends an
angle 15° at the point B. Determine the height of the lamp post.
Solution From the Fig. 3.19, we have AB = 9 = c, BC = 7 m = a and
AC = 8 m = b.

c=9 8=b

7=a

Fig. 3.19

M is the mid-point of the side AC at which lamp post MP of height h (say) is

located. Again, it is given that lamp post subtends an angle θ (say) at B which is 15°.
Applying cosine formulae in ∆ABC, we have
a2 + b2 − c2 49 + 64 − 81 2
cos C = = = (1)
2 ab 2×7×8 7

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Similarly using cosine formulae in ∆BMC, we get

BM2 = BC2 + CM2 – 2 BC × CM cos C.
1
Here C M = C A = 4 , since M is the mid-point of AC.
2
Therefore, using (1), we get
2
BM2 = 49 + 16 – 2 × 7 × 4 ×
7
= 49
or BM = 7
Thus, from ∆BMP right angled at M, we have
PM h
tan θ = =
BM 7
h
or = t a n (1 5 ° ) = 2 − 3 (why?)
7

or h = 7(2 − 3 ) m .

Exercise 3.5

In any triangle ABC, if a = 18, b = 24, c = 30, find

4 3
1. cos A, cos B, cos C (Ans. , , 0)
5 5
3 4
2. sin A, sin B, sin C (Ans. , , 1)
5 5

For any triangle ABC, prove that

A−B
cos  
a+b  2 
3. =
c C
sin
2

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 A − B 
s in  
a − b  2 
=
4. c C
cos
2
B − C b − c A
5. s in = cos
2 a 2

6. a (b cos C – c cos B) = b2 – c2
A
7. a (cos C – cos B) = 2 (b – c) cos2
2
s in ( B – C ) b2 − c2
8. =
s in ( B + C ) a2
B +C B−C
9. (b + c ) cos = a cos
2 2
10. a co s A + b co s B + c c o s C = 2 a s in B s in C
cos A co s B co s C a2 + b2 + c2
11. + + =
a b c 2abc

12. (b2 – c2) cotA + (c2 – a2) cotB + (a2 – b2) cotC = 0
b2 − c2 c2 − a2 a2 − b2
13. s in 2 A + s in 2 B + s in 2 C = 0
a2 b2 c2
14. A tree stands vertically on a hill side which makes an angle of 15° with the
horizontal. From a point on the ground 35 m down the hill from the base of the
tree, the angle of elevation of the top of the tree is 60°. Find the height of the
tree. (Ans. 3 5 2 m )
15. Two ships leave a port at the same time. One goes 24 km per hour in the direction
N45°E and other travels 32 km per hour in the direction S75°E. Find the distance
between the ships at the end of 3 hours. (Ans. 86.4 km (approx.))
16. Two trees, A and B are on the same side of a river. From a point C in the river the
distance of the trees A and B is 250 m and 300 m, respectively. If the angle C is
45°, find the distance between the trees (use 2 = 1.44 ). (Ans. 215.5 m)

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CHAPTER 5

5.7 Square-root of a Complex Number

We have discussed solving of quadratic equations involving complex roots on page
108-109 of the textbook. Here we explain the particular procedure for finding square
root of a complex number expressed in the standard form. We illustrate the same by an
example.
Example 12 Find the square root of –7 – 24i
Solution Let x + iy = − 7 − 24i

Then ( x + iy )2 = −7 − 24i
or x 2 – y 2 + 2xyi = –7 – 24i

Equating real and imaginary parts, we have

x2 – y2 = –7 (1)
2xy = –24

We know the identity

(x ) = (x )
2 2
2
+ y2 2
− y2 + (2xy )2
= 49 + 576
= 625
Thus, x2 + y2 = 25 (2)
From (1) and (2), x = 9 and y = 16
2 2

or x = + 3 and y = + 4
Since the product xy is negative, we have
x = 3, y = – 4 or, x = –3, y = 4
Thus, the square roots of –7 – 24i are 3 –4i and –3 + 4i.

Exercise 5.4
Find the square roots of the following:
1. –15 – 8i ( Ans. 1 –4i, –1 + 4i)
2. –8 – 6i (Ans. 1 –3i, –1 + 3 i)

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 2 + 1 2 – 1 
3. 1–i (Ans.  ± 2 2
i )

 

 1 1 
4. –i (Ans.  ± i )
 2 2 

 1 1 
5. i (Ans.  ± ± i)
 2 2 

 2 +1 2 −1 
6. 1+i (Ans.  ± 2
±
2
i )

 

CHAPTER 9

9.7 Infinite G.P. and its Sum

G.P. of the form a, ar, ar2, ar3, ... is called infinite G.P. Now, to find the formulae for
finding sum to infinity of a G.P., we begin with an example.
Let us consider the G.P.,
2 4
1, , , ...
3 9
2
Here a = 1, r = . We have
3
n
2
1−  
3   2 n 
S n =   = 3 1 −   
2
1−   3  
3
n
2
Let us study the behaviour of   as n becomes larger and larger:
3

n 1 5 10 20

n
2
  0.6667 0.1316872428 0.01734152992 0.00030072866
3

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n
2
We observe that as n becomes larger and larger,   becomes closer and closer to
3
n
2
zero. Mathematically, we say that as n becomes sufficiently large,   becomes
3
n
2
 
sufficiently small. In other words as n → ∞ ,   → 0. Consequently, we find that the
3
sum of infinitely many terms is given by S ∞ = 3 .
Now, for a geometric progression, a, ar, ar2, ..., if numerical value of common ratio r
is less than 1, then
a (1 − r n ) a ar n
Sn = = −
(1 − r ) 1− r 1− r
In this case as n →∞, rn → 0 since |r| < 1. Therefore
a
Sn →
1− r
Symbolically sum to infinity is denoted by S ∞ or S.
a
Thus, we have S = 1 – r .
For examples,
1 1 1 1
(i) 1+ + 2 + 3 + . .. = = 2.
2 2 2 1
1−
2
1 1 1 1 1 2
(ii) 1− + 2 − 3 + ... = = =
2 2 2  −1  1 3
1−   1+
 2  2

Exercise 9.4

Find the sum to infinity in each of the following Geometric Progression.

1 1
1. 1, , , ... (Ans. 1.5) 2. 6, 1.2, .24, ... (Ans. 7.5)
3 9
20 80 35 −3 3 −3 −3
3. 5, , , ... (Ans. ) 4. , , ,... (Ans. )
7 49 3 4 16 64 5

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1 1 1
5. Prove that 3 2
× 3 4
× 3 8 ... = 3
6. Let x = 1 + a + a2 + ... and y = 1 + b + b2 + ..., where |a| < 1 and |b| < 1. Prove that
xy
1 + ab + a2b2 + ... =
x + y −1

CHAPTER 10

10.6 Equation of Family of Lines Passing Through the Point of

Intersection of Two Lines
Let the two intersecting lines l1 and l2 be given by
A1x + B1y + C1 = 0 (1)
and A2x + B2y + C2 = 0 (2)

From the equations (1) and (2), we can form an equation

A 1 x + B 1y + C 1 + k ( A 2 x + B 2 y + C 2 ) = 0 (3)
where k is an arbitrary constant called parameter. For any value of k, the equation (3)
is of first degree in x and y. Hence it represents a family of lines. A particular member
of this family can be obtained for some value of k. This value of k may be obtained
from other conditions.
Example 20 Find the equation of line parallel to the y-axis and drawn through the
point of intersection of x – 7y + 5 = 0 and 3x + y – 7 = 0
Solution The equation of any line through the point of intersection of the given
lines is of the form
x – 7 y + 5 + k (3x + y – 7) = 0
(1)
i.e., (1 + 3k ) x + ( k – 7) y + 5 – 7k = 0
If this line is parallel to y-axis, then the coefficient of y should be zero, i.e.,
k – 7 = 0 which gives k = 7.
Substituting this value of k in the equation (1), we get
22x – 44 = 0, i.e., x – 2 = 0, which is the required equation.

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Exercise 10.4
1. Find the equation of the line through the intersection of lines 3x + 4y = 7 and x – y + 2
= 0 and whose slope is 5. (Ans. 35x – 7y + 18 = 0 )
2. Find the equation of the line through the intersection of lines x + 2y – 3 = 0 and
4x – y + 7 = 0 and which is parallel to 5x + 4y – 20 = 0
(Ans. 15x + 12y – 7 = 0)
3. Find the equation of the line through the intersection of the lines
2x + 3y – 4 = 0 and x – 5y = 7 that has its x-intercept equal to – 4.
(Ans. 10x + 93y + 40 = 0. )
4. Find the equation of the line through the intersection of 5x – 3y = 1 and 2x + 3y
– 23 = 0 and perpendicular to the line 5x – 3y – 1 = 0.
(Ans. 63x + 105y – 781 = 0)

10.7 Shifting of Origin

An equation corresponding to a set of Y
Y'
points with reference to a system of P{(x, y) (x', y')}
coordinate axes may be simplified by
taking the set of points in some other
suitable coordinate system such that all
geometric properties remain unchanged.
X'
One such transformation is that in which O' M'
the new axes are transformed parallel k
to the original axes and origin is shifted
to a new point. A transformation of this h
kind is called a translation of axes. X
O L M
The coordinates of each point Fig. 10.21
of the plane are changed under a
translation of axes. By knowing the relationship between the old coordinates and the
new coordinates of points, we can study the analytical problem in terms of new system
of coordinate axes.
To see how the coordinates of a point of the plane changed under a translation
of axes, let us take a point P (x, y) referred to the axes OX and OY. Let O′X′ and O′Y′
be new axes parallel to OX and OY respectively, where O′ is the new origin. Let (h, k)

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be the coordinates of O′ referred to the old axes, i.e., OL = h and LO′ = k. Also,
OM = x and MP = y (see Fig.10.21)
Let O′ M′ = x′ and M′P = y′ be respectively, the abscissa and ordinates of a
point P referred to the new axes O′ X′ and O′ Y′. From Fig.10.21, it is easily seen that
OM = OL + LM, i.e., x = h + x′
and MP = MM′ + M′ P, i.e., y = k + y′
Hence, x = x′ + h, y = y′ + k
These formulae give the relations between the old and new coordinates.
Example 21 Find the new coordinates of point (3, –4) if the origin is shifted to
(1, 2) by a translation.
Solution The coordinates of the new origin are h = 1, k = 2, and the original
coordinates are given to be x = 3, y = –4.
The transformation relation between the old coordinates (x, y) and the new
coordinates (x′, y′) are given by
x = x′ + h i.e., x′ = x – h
and y = y′ + k i.e., y′ = y – k
Substituting the values, we have
x′ = 3 – 1 = 2 and y′ = – 4 – 2 = –6
Hence, the coordinates of the point (3, –4) in the new system are (2, –6).
Example 22 Find the transformed equation of the straight line
2x – 3y + 5 = 0, when the origin is shifted to the point (3, –1) after translation of axes.
Solution Let coordinates of a point P changes from (x, y) to (x′, y′ ) in new
coordinate axes whose origin has the coordinates h = 3, k = –1. Therefore, we can
write the transformation formulae as x = x′ + 3 and y = y′–1. Substituting, these values
in the given equation of the straight line, we get
2(x′ + 3) –3 (y′ – 1) + 5 = 0
or 2x′ – 3y′ + 14 = 0
Therefore, the equation of the straight line in new system is 2x – 3y + 14 = 0

Exercise 10.5
1. Find the new coordinates of the points in each of the following cases if the
origin is shifted to the point (–3, –2) by a translation of axes.
(i) (1, 1) (Ans (4, 3)) (ii) (0, 1) (Ans. (3, 3))
(iii) (5, 0) (Ans. (8, 2)) (iv) (–1, –2) (Ans. (2, 0))
(v) (3, –5) (Ans. (6, –3))

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2. Find what the following equations become when the origin is shifted to the
point (1, 1)
(i) x 2 + xy – 3 y 2 – y + 2 = 0 (Ans. x 2 − 3 y 2 + xy + 3 x − 6 y + 1 = 0 )
(ii) xy – y 2 – x + y = 0 (Ans. xy – y 2 = 0 )
(iii) xy – x – y + 1 = 0 (Ans. xy = 0 )

CHAPTER 13

13.5 Limits Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Before discussing evaluation of limits of the expressions involving exponential and
logarithmic functions, we introduce these two functions stating their domain, range and
also sketch their graphs roughly.
Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), the great Swiss mathematician introduced the number
e whose value lies between 2 and 3. This number is useful in defining exponential
function and is defined as f (x) = ex, x ∈ R. Its domain is R, range is the set of positive
real numbers. The graph of exponential function, i.e., y = ex is as given in Fig.13.11.

Fig. 13.11

Similarly, the logarithmic function expressed as loge R+ → R is given by loge x = y,

if and only if ey = x. Its domain is R+ which is the set of all positive real numbers and
range is R. The graph of logarithmic function y = loge x is shown in Fig.13.12.

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Fig. 13.12

ex – 1
In order to prove the result lim = 1 , we make use of an inequality involving
x→ 0 x
ex −1
the expression which runs as follows:
x
1 ex – 1
≤ ≤ 1 + (e – 2) |x| holds for all x in [–1, 1] ~ {0}.
1+ x x
ex − 1
Theorem 6 Prove that lim
x→ 0
=1
x
Proof Using above inequality, we get
1
≤ e − 1 ≤ 1 + | x| (e – 2), x Î [–1, 1] ~ {0}
x

1+ x x
1 1 1
lim = = =1
Also x→ 0 1+ x 1 + lim x 1+ 0
x→ 0

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and lim 1 + ( e − 2 ) x  = 1 + ( e − 2 ) lim x = 1 + ( e − 2 )0 = 1

x→ 0 x→0

Therefore, by Sandwich theorem, we get

ex −1
lim =1
x→ 0 x
log e (1 + x )
Theorem 7 Prove that lim =1
x→0 x
log e (1 + x )
Proof Let = y . Then
x
lo g e (1 + x ) = x y
⇒ 1 + x = e xy
e xy − 1
⇒ =1
x
e xy − 1
or .y = 1
xy

e xy − 1
⇒ lim lim y = 1 (s in c e x → 0 g iv e s x y → 0 )
xy → 0 xy x→ 0

 e xy − 1 
⇒ li m y = 1  a s l i m = 1
x→ 0 xy → 0
 xy 
lo g e (1 + x )
⇒ lim =1
x→ 0 x

e3x − 1
Example 5 Compute lxi→m0
x
Solution We have

e3x − 1 e3x − 1
lim = lim ⋅3
x→ 0 x 3x→0 3x
 ey −1
= 3  lim  , w h ere y = 3 x
 y→0 y 
= 3 .1 = 3

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e x − sin x − 1
Example 6 Compute lim
x →0 x

e x − sin x − 1  e x − 1 sin x 
lim = lim  −
Solution We have x→0 x x →0
 x x 

ex − 1 sin x
= lim − lim = 1 −1 = 0
x→ 0 x x → 0 x
log e x
Example 7 Evaluate lim
x →1 x −1
Solution Put x = 1 + h, then as x → 1 ⇒ h → 0 . Therefore,
log e x log e (1 + h )  log e (1 + x ) 
lim = lim = 1  since lim = 1 .
x→1 x −1 h→ 0 h  x→0 x 

Exercise 13.2

Evaluate the following limits, if exist

e4x − 1 e 2+ x − e 2
1. lim (Ans. 4) 2. lim (Ans. e2)
x→ 0 x x→ 0 x
ex − e5 e sin x − 1
3. lim (Ans. e5) 4. lim (Ans. 1)
x→ 5 x−5 x→0 x
ex − e3 x ( e x − 1)
5. lim (Ans. e3) 6. lim (Ans. 2)
x→ 3 x−3 x→ 0 1 − co s x

lo g e (1 + 2 x ) lo g (1 + x 3 )
7. lim (Ans. 2) 8. lim (Ans. 1)
x→ 0 x x→ 0 s in 3 x

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Notes

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Notes

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