Diode Testing:

Types of clipper circuits:

What is an Ideal Diode?
 An ideal diode is a diode that acts like a perfect conductor when voltage is
applied forward biased and like a perfect insulator when voltage is applied
reverse biased.
 So when positive voltage is applied across the anode to the cathode, the
diode conducts forward current instantly. When voltage is applied in reverse,
the diode conducts no current at all.
Characteristics of Ideal Diode when Forward Biased

Zero Resistance

 An ideal diode does not offer any resistance to the flow of current through it when it is in
forward biased mode. This means that the ideal diode will be a perfect conductor when
forward biased.

Infinite Amount of Current

 The ideal diodes offer zero resistance when forward biased.

 The reason can be explained as follows. In electronic devices, the relationship between
the current (I), voltage (V) and resistance (R) is expressed by Ohm’s law which is stated
as I = V/R.

 Now, if R = 0, then I = ∞. This indicates that there is no higher limit for the current which
can flow through the forward-biased ideal diode.

Zero Threshold Voltage

 The threshold voltage is the minimum voltage which is required to be provided to the diode
to overcome its barrier potential and to start conducting.

 Now, if the ideal diode is void of depletion region itself, then the question of threshold
voltage does not arise at all. This property of the ideal diode makes them conduct right at the
instant of being biased, as shown in Figure
Characteristics of Ideal Diode when Reverse Biased

Infinite Resistance

 An ideal diode is expected to fully resist the flow of current through it under reverse
biased condition.

 In other words it is behavior like a perfect insulator when reverse biased.

Zero Reverse Leakage Current

 we know that the ideal diodes possess infinite resistance when operating in reverse biased
mode. The reason can be understood by considering the Ohm’s law again which now
takes the form (shown in -curve in Figure 1). Thus it means that there will be
no current flowing through the ideal diode when it is reverse biased,.

No Reverse Breakdown Voltage

 Reverse breakdown voltage is the voltage at which the reverse biased diode fails and
starts to conduct heavy current. We know that the ideal diode will offer infinite resistance
which completely resist the current flow through it. so, the phenomenon of reverse
breakdown can never occur due to which there will be no question of its corresponding
voltage, the reverse breakdown voltage.

 Due to all these properties, an ideal diode is seen to behave as a perfect semiconductor
switch which will be open when the reverse biased and closed when forward biased.
Diode Testing
It is well known that a diode is expected to operate as a unidirectional device
(i.e. only permit current flow in one direction). These are expected to offer
very low resistance for the flow of current under the forward biased condition
and a very high resistance under the reverse bias condition. This important
property of the diode can be exploited effectively to test the diode with an
intention of knowing whether it is working fine or not. In other words, one
can undertake diode testing by measuring the resistance across its terminals
by using a piece of equipment such as a digital multimeter.

Diode Testing Procedure

In this article, we present two methods from which the diode testing can be
accomplished.
Method 1
This method is to be used when one aspires to test the diode in-hand using an
analog multimeter.
 Step 1: Set the selector switch of the analog multimeter to its resistance
mode.
 Step 2: Connect the negative terminal of the diode to the negative lead
(usually black in color) of the multimeter.
 Step 3: Connect the positive terminal of the diode to the positive lead
(usually red in color) of the multimeter.
 Step 4: Check-out the reading of the multimeter.

To be Observed: In this case, the multimeter is expected to show a low value.

This is because, by following the steps 1 to 4, one would have effectively
forward biased the diode – the state in which it should carry current without
much loss.
Inference: Now, if the reading is not as per the expectation, then the diode is
considered to be faulty. On the other hand, if the diode exhibits lesser
resistance, then it is to be considered as non-faulty in first-go and one should
continue the following steps.
 Step 5: Connect the negative terminal of the diode to the positive lead of
the multimeter.
 Step 6: Connect the positive terminal of the diode to the negative lead of
the multimeter.
 Step 7: Check-out the reading of the multimeter.
To be Observed: In this case, the multimeter is expected to read a high value
of resistance. This is because, now, it would be functioning under reverse
biased mode – the mode in which it has to efficiently block the flow of current
through it.
Inference: If the reading is low, then the diode would be bad while if the
reading is high, then it would be a good one.

Method 2:
In this method, one can check the diode to be good or bad by using a digital
multimeter which has a special setting meant for it. This mode can be selected
by rotating the mode selector switch of this meter to diode check position.
Next, the steps to be followed, observations to be carried-on and the
inferences to be arrived-at remain the same as those explained in the previous
method. However it is to be noted that, this time the reading shown will be
the voltage instead of the resistance.
 Ideal diode
 The ideal diode or perfect diode is a two terminal device, which completely allows the
electric current without any loss under forward bias and completely blocks the electric
current with infinite loss under reverse bias.
 Ideal diodes actually do not exist. However, the V-I characteristics of ideal diodes is used
to study the diode circuits.

 In other words, it is used to study the quality of a real diode by comparing it with the
ideal diode.

Ideal diode symbol

 Ideal diode consists of two terminals: positive terminal and negative terminal.
 The positive end or positive terminal of the diode is called anode and the negative end or
negative terminal of the diode is called cathode. The electric current always flow from
anode or positive terminal to the cathode or negative terminal.

 If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor, the diode is
said to be forward biased.

 On the other hand, if the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type
semiconductor and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type
semiconductor, the diode is said to be reverse biased.

 The symbol of forward biased and reverse biased ideal diode is shown in the below
figure.

 Under forward biased condition, ideal diode acts as a perfect conductor with zero
resistance whereas under reverse biased condition, it acts as a perfect insulator with
infinite resistance.

 In other words, ideal diodes acts as closed circuit or short circuit under forward biased
condition and acts as an open circuit or open switch under reverse biased condition.
  Ideal diodes does not have depletion region or junction barrier, which resist the flow of
electric current. Hence, ideal diode has no voltage drop or voltage loss.

Forward and reverse characteristics of ideal diode

 The Forward and reverse characteristics of ideal diode under forward and reverse biased
condition is shown in the below figure.
 If the forward voltage or positive voltage (VF) (p terminal connected to p-side and n
terminal connected to n-side) applied on the diode is equal to zero or greater than zero,
the forward electric current (IF) in the ideal diode increases infinitely.

 On the other hand, if the reverse voltage or negative voltage (VR) (p terminal connected
to n-side and n-terminal connected to p-side) applied on the diode is less than zero, no
forward electric current (IF) and reverse electric current (IR) flows in the ideal diode.
Difference between Ideal diodes and Practical diodes

Ideal diodes Practical diodes

Ideal diodes act as perfect conductor Practical diodes cannot act as perfect
and perfect insulator. conductor and perfect insulator.

Ideal diode draws no current when Practical diode draws very low current
reverse biased. when reverse biased.

Ideal diode offers infinite resistance Practical diode offers very high
when reverse biased. resistance when reverse biased.

It cannot be manufactured. It can be manufactured.

It has zero cut-in voltage. It has very low cut-in voltage.

Ideal diode has zero voltage drops

across its junction when forward It has very low voltage drop across it,
biased. when forward biased.

Ideal diode acts as perfect conductor Practical diode act as perfect conductor
and perfect insulator. and perfect insulator.
Example of typical diode specifications
 Although there are many different diodes with a large number of different specifications,
it sometimes helps to see what the various specifications and parameters are and how
they are expressed in a similar format to those seen in the data sheets.

TYPICAL 1N5711 CHARACTERISTICS / SPECIFICATIONS

CHARACTERISTIC TYPICAL UNIT DETAILS

VALUE

Max DC Blocking Voltage, Vr 70 V

Max forward continuous current, Ifm 15 mA

Reverse breakdown voltage, V(BR)R 70 V @ reverse current of 10µA

Reverse leakage current, IR 200 µA At VR=50V

Forward voltage drop, VF 0.41 V at IF = 1.0 mA

1.00 IF=15mA

Junction capacitance, Cj 2.0 pF VR = 0V, f=1MHz

Reverse recovery time, trr 1 nS

 The vast number of diodes have a vast number of different characteristics. Some diodes
may be designed purely for rectification, whereas others may be designed to emit light,
detect light, act as a voltage reference, provide variable capacitance and the like.

 Diodes also come in a variety of packages, with the vast majority these days being sold as
surface mount diodes for automated PCB assembly.

 Whatever the type of diode, many of the basic specifications, parameters and ratings
mentioned above will be important. Understanding the key parameters and ratings when
looking at the specifications in the datasheets is key to selecting the right diode.
Understanding the specifications enables wise decisions to be made during the design
process for any circuit using diodes.
Basis For
PN Junction Diode Zener Diode
Comparison

Definition It is a semiconductor diode The diode which allows the

which conducts only in one current to flow in both the
direction, i.e., in forward direction i.e., forward and
direction. reverse, such type of diode is
known as the Zener diode.

Symbol

Reverse Damage the junction. Do not damage the junction.

Current Effect

Doping Level Low High

Breakdown Occurs in higher voltage. Occur in lower voltage.

Ohms Law Obey Do not obey.

Applications For rectification Voltage stabilizer, motor

protection and wave shaping.
Difference between RC filters and LC filters
RC filters LC filters

The RC filter is only useful for small The LC filters are useful for heavy load
load currents. currents.

More power dissipated in RC filter. Less power dissipated in LC filter.

It has poor voltage regulation. It has good voltage regulation.

It is cheaper. It is costlier.

It also requires ventilation to conduct

away the heat produced in It does not require any ventilation because
the resistor. the heat is not produced in the inductor.

It has high ripple factor. It has low ripple factor.

RC is fine for filtering low power

signals. LC is fine for filtering high power signals.
 PARAMETERS CLIPPER CLAMPER

Defintion Clipper delimit the amplitude of the Clamper shifts the DC level of the

output voltage. output voltage.

Output Voltage Less than the input voltage. Multiples of input voltage.

Energy storage Not required Requires (Capacitor is used as

component energy storage element)

Shape of Output Shape changes (Rectangular, Shape remains same as input

Waveform sinusoidal, triangular etc.) waveform.

DC Level Remains same DC level get shifted

Applications In transmitters, receivers, amplitude In voltage multiplying circuits,

selector, noise limiter etc. Sonar, Radar system etc.

Design of un regulated DC Power supply
 Almost all basic household electronic circuits need an unregulated AC to be converted to
constant DC, in order to operate the electronic device.
 Unregulated power supplies contain a step-down transformer, rectifier, filter capacitor,
and a bleeder resistor.

 The diagram is shown below.

1. Input transformer

The input transformer is used to convert the incoming line voltage down to the required
level of the power supply. It also isolates the output circuit from the line supply. Here we
are using a step-down transformer.

2. Rectifier

The rectifier used to convert the incoming signal from an AC format into raw DC. Please
refer these links, Different types of rectifiers available are half wave rectifier and full-
wave rectifier.
3. Filter Capacitor

The pulsated DC from the rectifier is fed to the smoothing capacitor. It will remove the
unwanted ripples in the pulsated DC.

4. Bleeder Resistor

Bleeder Resistor is also known as a power supply drain resistor. It is connected across the
filter capacitors to drain their stored charge so that the power system supply is not
dangerous.
Disadvantages of unregulated power supply
1. Poor Regulation – When the load varies, the output does not appear constant. The output
voltage changes by a great value due to the huge change in the current drawn from the supply.

2. AC Supply Main Variations – The maximum variations in AC supply mains is give or take
6% of its rated value. But this value may go higher in some countries (180-280 volts). When the
value is higher it’s DC voltage output will differ largely.

3. Temperature Variation – The use of semiconductor devices in electronic devices may cause
variation in temperature.
Difference between Photodiodes and Solar Cells
Crystalline solar cells and photodiodes are basically the similar as p-n diodes. Nevertheless
the diode is presented to light which give up a photocurrent notwithstanding the diode
current. The majority of carriers give way to a photocurrent which contradicts the diode
current in forward bias.

Photodiodes
A photodiode can be said as semiconductor device which proselytes light into current. The
current is produced when photons are caught up in the photodiode. Photodiodes are like
general semiconductor diodes aside from that they might be either uncovered or bundled
with optical fiber association with permit light to achieve the delicate piece of the gadget.

Solar cells
A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, is an electrical gadget that changes over the
vitality of light specifically into power by the photovoltaic impact, which is a physical and
synthetic phenomenon. It is a type of photoelectric cell, characterized as a gadget whose
electrical qualities, fluctuate when presented to light.

Photodiodes VS Solar Cells

In this article we are going to discuss different contrasts between photodiodes and solar
cells so that we can get clear concept and understanding about them.

 Usage:
A photodiode is prepared to identify light rapidly. Photodiode is utilized as a sensor to
identify light; it is utilized as transducer to change over light into corresponding current.
Solar cells are prepared to gather power from light. The solar cell or photovoltaic (PV) cell
can be utilized as a light identifying transducer.

 Area:
A photodiode must be quick, which implies low capacitance, which implies little area of
silicon. Consequently, it is not extremely sensitive, and can’t produce a great deal of power
from light.

A solar cell has as substantial area that means high capacitance is there. It is kind of
sensitive and can produce a greater amount of power from light.
 Size:
A photodiode is of small size as it has small area.

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell mostly is in greater size and larger area as compare to
photodiodes.

 Reverse bias:
The photodiodes can be utilized in forward bias as well as reverse bias, this produces only
the reverse current because of minority transporters yet this extraordinarily enhances the
response time which is essential in numerous applications.

Solar cell or photovoltaic cell can be utilized only in forward bias as they never utilized in the
reverse bias.
  Response time:
Photodiodes are physically composed in an approach to yield the current as quick as could
be expected under the circumstances that means this is done in lesser response time.

Solar cells take more response time as compare to photodiodes but for solar cells, we give
it a second thought more about amount of photons ingested (assimilation effectiveness)
instead of response time.

 Applications:
Photodiodes are used in Intruder alarms, smoke detector, remote control and home door
sensor.

Solar cells are used in hand-held calculators, communication satellites and battery
chargers.
 Tunnel diode p-n diode

Low noise device Moderate noise device

Preferred semiconductos used are Ge and

GaAs Preferred semiconductors used are Ge and S

Tunnelling current consists of majority Current consists of minority carriers (i.e. hole
carriers(i.e. electrons from n-side to p-side) from p-side to n-side)

Doping levels at p and n sides are very high Doping is normal in both p and n sides

At a small value of reverse voltage a large

current flows due to large overlap between leakage Current is extremely small upto certa
conduction band and valance band. It is useful reverse bias voltage. Increases abruptly to
as frequency converter. extreme high at breakdown voltage.

It has negative resistance characteristics.

Hence it is useful for reflection amplifiers and It does not have negative resistance and hen
oscillators. used as detector and RF mixers.

majority carrier (current) responds much faster majority carrier (current) does not respond so
to voltage changes. This is suitable for to voltage changes. This is suitable for low
microwave applications. frequency applications only.