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Chapter 01: Solid State

01 Solid State

Subtopics
1.0 Prominent scientists 1.5 Packing in solids
1.1 Introduction 1.6 Density of unit cells
1.2 Classification of solids 1.7 Packing in voids of ionic solids
1.3 Classification of crystalline 1.8 Defects in crystal structure
solids 1.9 Electrical properties
1.4 Unit cell and two and three
1.10 Magnetic properties
dimensional lattices
1.0 Prominent scientists

Scientists Contributions
William Henry Bragg (1862-1942) i.
Derived the Bragg equation nλ = 2d sinθ to explain why cleavage
(British physicist, chemist and of crystal reflect x-ray beam of wavelength λ at an angle θ.
mathematician) ii. Shared the Nobel Prize in 1915 with his son William Lawrence
Bragg for determining crystal structures of NaCl, ZnS and
Diamond.
William Lipscomb (1919-2011) i. Determined structure of boron hydride using technique of x-ray
(American inorganic and organic crystallography.
chemist) ii. Received the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1976 for his work on
structure and bonding of boron hydride and its derivatives.
Isabella Karle (1921) i. Developed method for determining the molecular structure by x-ray
(American X-ray crystallographer) diffraction.
ii. Worked on crystallography of materials in the field of organic
chemistry and biochemistry.
1.1 Introduction
Q.1. Under what conditions does a substance exist in solid state?
Ans: i. Matter can exist in three states namely, solid, liquid and gas. Under a given set of conditions of
temperature and pressure, the most stable state of a substance depends upon the net effect of two
opposing forces: intermolecular forces and thermal energy.
ii. Intermolecular forces tend to keep the constituent particles (atoms, ions or molecules) closer, whereas
thermal energy tends to keep them apart by making them move faster.
iii. The competition between molecular interaction energy due to intermolecular forces and thermal energy
determines whether a given substance under a given set of condition is a gas, a liquid or a solid.
iv. At sufficiently low temperature, the thermal energy is low and molecular forces are very strong. As a
result, the intermolecular forces keep the constituents so close that they cling to one another and
occupy fixed positions and the substance exists in solid state.
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Std. XII Sci.: Perfect Chemistry - I
Q.2. Explain the conversion of states of matter from one form to the other with the changing conditions of
temperature and pressure.
Ans: i. Matter can be changed from one state to another by changing temperature and pressure.
ii. Matter exists in solid state at relatively lower temperature.
iii. When the solid is heated to its melting point, thermal energy overcomes the intermolecular forces of
attraction. The solid melts and changes into liquid. The liquid on heating to its boiling point
vapourizes to form gas.
iv. When gases are cooled under high pressure, they condense into liquid state. The liquid thus formed
on cooling changes into solid.
heat heat
Solid state cool
Liquid state cool
Gaseous state

Q.3. Define a solid.

Ans: A solid is defined as that form of matter which possesses rigidity and hence possesses a definite shape and a
definite volume.
*Q.4. Give characteristics of solid state.
Ans: The solid state is characterized by the following properties:
i. Solids have definite mass, volume, shape and density. Usually, the density of solid state is greater
than the density of liquid and gaseous state. Water and mercury are exceptions. The density of ice
(solid state of water) is lower than the density of liquid state of water. The density of mercury (which
exists in liquid state) is very high (13.6 g mL−1).
ii. Solids are usually hard, incompressible and rigid. Some solids like sodium, potassium and
phosphorous are exceptions; they are soft. Solids cannot be compressed because the intermolecular
distance of separation between neighbouring molecules is very small.
iii. In a solid state, intermolecular forces of attraction between the constituent particles are stronger than
those present in liquid and gaseous states.
iv. All pure solids have characteristic melting points which depend on the extent of intermolecular forces
present in the solid state. Stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction, higher is the melting point
of the solid. Weaker the intermolecular forces of attraction, the lower is its melting point. Hence,
depending on the intermolecular forces of attraction, melting points of the different solids range from
almost absolute zero (helium) to a few thousand Kelvin (diamond).
v. The intermolecular forces of attraction hold the constituent particles of the solids tightly. Hence the
particles cannot change their positions and remain stationary at one position. Therefore, solids cannot
flow like liquids.

Check Your Grasp

Why do solids have a definite volume? (NCERT)

The intermolecular forces between the constituent particles (atoms, ions or molecules) of solid state are very
strong. Therefore, they are strongly held at fixed positions and particles cannot separate from one another.
Hence, solids have a definite volume.

1.2 Classification of solids

*Q.5. Give the classification of solids.

Ans: Solids are classified as crystalline and amorphous on the basis of the presence or absence of orderly
arrangement of their constituent particles (atoms, ions or molecules).
i. Crystalline solids: A crystalline solid is a homogeneous solid in which the constituent particles
(atoms, ions or molecules) are arranged in a definite repeating pattern.
Crystalline solids are further classified as:
a. Isomorphous form:
1. Two or more substances having the same crystal structure are said to be isomorphous (iso-
same, morphous-form) and the phenomenon is called isomorphism.
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 Chapter 01: Solid State
2. The constituent atoms of isomorphous substances are in the same atomic ratio. The molecular
formula and chemical properties of the isomorphous substances are similar.
3. Following are some examples of pairs of isomorphous substances and their atomic ratios:
Sr. no. Isomorphous Atomic ratios Sr. no. Isomorphous Atomic ratios
substances substances
i. NaF and MgO 1:1 iii. K2SO4 and K2SeO4 2:1:4
ii. NaNO3 and CaCO3 1:1:3 iv. Cr2O3 and Fe2O3 2:3
4. Some substances are not isomorphous eventhough they have same atomic ratio, similar
molecular formula and similar chemical properties. This is because they have different crystal
structures.
eg. Sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride (KCl)
b. Polymorphous / Allotropic form:
1. A single substance that crystallises in two or more forms under different conditions is called
polymorphous (poly-many, morphous-form) and the phenomenon is called polymorphism.
2. The polymorphic forms are also called allotropic forms.
eg. i. Diamond, graphite and fullerene are three polymorphic forms of carbon.
ii. Rhombic sulphur and monoclinic sulphur are two allotropes of sulphur.
iii. Silicon dioxide and calcium carbonate also have allotropes.
ii. Amorphous solids / Psuedo solids / Super cooled liquids: The substances that appear like solids
but do not have well developed perfectly ordered crystalline structure are called amorphous (no
form) solids.
eg. Tar, glass, plastic, rubber, butter, etc.
*Q.6. Explain crystalline solids and amorphous solids.
Ans: i. Crystalline solids:
a. A crystalline solid usually consists of a large number of small
crystals, each of them having a definite characteristic geometrical
shape. These tiny crystals are called unit cells.
b. A unit cell is a basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid.
c. Crystalline solids have long range order which means that there is a
regular pattern of arrangement of particles (atoms, ions or molecules)
which repeats itself periodically over the entire crystal.
Crystalline quartz
eg. Sodium chloride and quartz
ii. Amorphous solids:
a. The arrangement of constituent particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) in amorphous solids has only short range order.
b. In such an arrangement, a regular and periodically repeating
pattern is observed over short distances only.
c. Such portions are scattered and in between, arrangement is
disordered.
eg. glass, rubber, plastics and amorphous silicon.
Amorphous quartz glass
#Q.7. Explain the terms anisotropy and unit cell.
Ans: i. Anisotropy:
a. The ability of crystalline solids to change values of physical properties when measured in
different directions is called anisotropy.
b. For crystalline solids, the physical properties like refractive index, electrical conductance,
dielectric constant, etc., are different in different directions.
As the direction changes (MN, OP, QR, etc.), the composition of the medium changes. This
results in anisotropy.
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Std. XII Sci.: Perfect Chemistry - I

Q
O P

M N
R
Particle Particle 2
Anisotropy in crystalline solid
ii. Unit cell:
a. Crystalline solids are aggregates of many small, tiny crystals. These tiny crystals are called unit
cells.
b. A unit cell is a basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid.
Q.8. *Distinguish between crystalline solids and amorphous solids. Give examples. OR
Distinguish between crystalline solids and amorphous solids. [Mar 13, 14]
Ans:
Property Crystalline solids Amorphous solids
i. Shape They have definite characteristic geometrical They have irregular shape and lack
shape due to the orderly regular long range characteristic geometrical shape
arrangement of constituent particles. due to the short range orderly
arrangement of constituent
particles.
ii. Melting point They have sharp and characteristic melting They do not have sharp melting
point. point. They gradually soften over a
range of temperature.
iii. Cleavage When cut with a sharp edged tool, they split When cut with a sharp edged tool,
property into two pieces and the newly generated they cut into two pieces with
surfaces are plain and smooth. irregular surfaces.
iv. Heat of fusion They have a definite and characteristic heat They do not have definite heat of
of fusion. fusion.
v. Anisotropy They are anisotropic, i.e., have different They are isotropic, i.e., have same
physical properties in different direction. physical properties in all
directions.
vi. Nature They are true solids. They are pseudo solids or super
cooled liquids.
vii. Order in They have long range order. They have only short range order.
arrangement
of constituent
particles
eg. Copper, silver, iron, zinc sulphide, common Glass, rubber, plastics, etc.
salt, potassium nitrate, etc.
[Any four distinguishing points − ½ Mark each]
Q.9. Classify the following as amorphous or crystalline solids: Polyurethane, naphthalene, benzoic acid,
teflon, potassium nitrate, cellophane, polyvinyl chloride, fibre glass, copper. (NCERT)
Ans: Amorphous solids: Polyurethane, teflon, cellophane, polyvinyl chloride, fibre glass.
Crystalline solids: Benzoic acid, potassium nitrate, copper, naphthalene.
*Q.10. What is a glass?
Ans: i. Silicon dioxide is fused with sodium oxide and boron oxide to form an optically transparent material
known as glass. The colour of glass is due to addition of a trace amount of transition metal oxide.
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 Chapter 01: Solid State
ii. Different types of glass are manufactured by changing its composition. Almost eight hundred
different types of glasses are manufactured. Quartz glass is obtained from only silicon dioxide.
iii. Pyrex glass is obtained by fusing together 60 to 80% SiO2, 10 to 25% B2O3 and remaining amount of
Al2O3.
iv. When 75% SiO2 is fused with 15% Na2O and 10% CaO, sodalime glass is obtained.
v. Red glass contains trace amount of gold and copper. Yellow glass contains UO2.
vi. Blue glass contains CoO or CuO. Green glass contains Fe2O3 or CuO.
Q.11. Why is glass considered a super cooled liquid? (NCERT)
Ans: Glass is an amorphous solid. These amorphous solids do not have regular arrangement of constituent
particles for a longer distance, unlike the crystalline solids. The structure of the amorphous solids resemble
that of liquids, due to which they exhibit the property of liquids such as fluidity. Thus, these amorphous
solids tend to float very slowly under gravity. They do not melt at definite sharp melting point, rather
gradually soften with the increase in temperature. Thus, glass is considered as a pseudo solid or super
cooled liquid.

Check Your Grasp

What makes a glass different from a solid such as quartz? Under what conditions could quartz be
converted into glass? (NCERT)
Quartz is a crystalline solid with long range order whereas glass is an amorphous solid with short range order.
When quartz is heated, it can be converted into glass at some temperature.

1.3 Classification of crystalline solids

Q.12. Name the different types of crystalline solids on the basis of different forces present in them.
Ans: Depending upon the nature of intermolecular forces present in the constituent particles, crystalline solids
are classified into the following four classes:
i. Molecular solids ii. Ionic solids iii. Metallic solids iv. Covalent solids
Q.13. Explain the following terms:
*i. Molecular solids ii. Polar molecular solids
iii. Non-polar molecular solids *iv. Hydrogen bonded molecular solids
*v. Ionic solids *vi. Metallic solids
*vii. Covalent solids
Ans: i. Molecular solids:
a. Molecular solids are those solids in which the constituent particles are molecules of the same
compound.
b. These are further subdivided into the following three categories:
1. Polar molecular solids
2. Non-polar molecular solids
3. Hydrogen bonded molecular solids
ii. Polar molecular solids:
a. In these crystalline solids, the constituent particles are covalently bonded polar molecules like
HCl, SO2, etc.
b. Polar molecules possess permanent dipole moment and in solid state they are held together by
strong dipole-dipole interaction.
c. There is a separation of positive and negative charges because of the polar nature of molecule.
Hence, the polar molecules arrange themselves in such a way that opposite charges of the
neighbouring molecules are brought closer.
Characteristics:
a. They are soft.
b. They do not conduct electricity.
c. The melting points of the solids are relatively low, as the bonding is relatively weak.
eg. Solid SO2, solid NH3 and solid HCl.
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Std. XII Sci.: Perfect Chemistry - I
iii. Non-polar molecular solids:
a. They comprise of either atoms or molecules formed by non-polar covalent bonds.
b. In these solids, the atoms or molecules are held by weak dispersion forces or London forces.
Characteristics:
a. They are soft.
b. They do not conduct electricity.
c. They have very low melting points (lower than polar molecular solids) and are usually in liquid
or gaseous state at room temperature and pressure. Iodine (I2) exists in solid state even at room
temperature.
eg. Non-polar molecules like CO2, H2, Cl2, CH4 and weakly polar molecules like CO and other
hydrocarbons form non-polar molecular solids at relatively lower temperatures.
iv. Hydrogen bonded molecular solids:
a. These crystalline solids consist of hydrogen atom covalently bonded to strongly electronegative
atom like oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine.
b. In these molecules, the hydrogen atoms acquire additional positive charge and form additional
bond with strongly electronegative atoms in the vicinity. This additional bond is called
hydrogen bond.
Characteristics:
a. They do not conduct electricity.
b. These solids exist as liquids or gases at room temperature and pressure.
c. On cooling, the liquids solidify.
eg. H2O, NH3.
v. Ionic Solids:
a. Ionic solids are crystalline salts formed by the
three dimensional arrangement of cations and
anions bound by electrostatic forces. + − + − + − + −
b. Two types of electrostatic forces are present. One − + − + − + − +
is the force of attraction between the ions carrying + − + − + − + −
opposite charges. The other is the force of − + − + − + − +
repulsion between the ions carrying same charges. + + −
− + − + −
c. The arrangement of ions depends on following − + − + − + − +
factors:
1. Sizes of the cation and anion
Ionic Crystal
2. The charges on the ions
3. The ease of polarisability of the anion Crystal
Characteristics:
a. These solids are hard and brittle in nature. They + − + − + −
shear
have high melting and boiling points. − + − + − +
b. Since the ions are not free to move about, they are + − + − + −
force
electrical insulators (non-conductors) in the solid
state.
c. However, in the molten or fused state or when + + − + −
−
shear − + − + − +
dissolved in water, the ions become free to move
force − + − + − +
about and thereby conduct electricity.
d. When shearing force is applied, ionic crystals
Distortion and Fracture of
distort and the crystal structure is fractured. Ionic Crystal on the application
eg. NaCl, ZnS, CuCl, etc. of Shearing Force

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 Chapter 01: Solid State
vi. Metallic solids:
a. Metallic solids are the crystalline solids formed
by atoms of the same metallic element. +
+ + + + + +
b. Metals are orderly collection of positive ions e− e− e− e− e− e− e−
(called kernels) in the sea of delocalised + + + +
+ + +
electrons. e−
e e e− e
−
e
−
e
− − −

c. These electrons are mobile and are evenly + + + + + + +

spread throughout the crystal. Each metal atom e− e− e− e− e− e− e
−

contributes one or more electrons towards the + + + + + + +

sea of mobile electrons. e −
e −
e −
e −
e −
e −
e−
d. The force of attraction between positively
charged metallic ion and negatively charged sea Metallic solid − Positive Metal Ions in a
of delocalised electrons is called metallic bond. Sea of Mobile Electrons
Metallic bonds are stronger than ionic and
covalent bonds.
Characteristics:
a. Metallic solids are good conductors of heat and electricity due to the presence of mobile
electrons.
b. Metallic solids are tougher than other solids due to presence of strong metallic bonds. The
nature of metallic bonds is such that any shape can be given to the metallic article.
c. The metallic solid contains several layers of the metallic ions arranged over one another. These
layers can slide on other layers. Hence, the metallic solids are malleable and ductile. They can
be hammered or rolled into thin sheets of desired thickness and can be drawn into thin wires of
required size.
d. Alloys can be formed by fusing the mixture of metals. Alloys show all properties of metals.
e. Metallic solids posses metallic lustre due to which the surface appears grey or silvery.
eg. The surface of gold appears yellow whereas the surface of copper appears reddish.

+ + + + + + +
e− e− e− e− e− e− e− Shear
+ e− + e− + e− + e− + e− + e− + e− force

+ + + + + + +
Shear e− e− e− e− e− e− e−
force + e− + e− + e− + e− + e− + e− + e−

Sliding of the layers of the metallic solid (without undergoing

fracture) on the application of shearing force

vii. Covalent or network solids:

a. Covalent solids are those in which the constituent particles are non-metal atoms linked to the
adjacent atoms by covalent bonds throughout the crystal.
b. A network of covalent bonds is formed and the covalent solids are also called giant solids.
Characteristics:
a. Depending on the type of covalent bonding present between the atoms, covalent solids are
either hard or brittle.
b. They have extremely high melting points. Covalent solids are good conductors of electricity if
mobile electrons are available, otherwise they are insulators.
eg. Three allotropic forms of carbon i.e. diamond, graphite and fullerene.
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Std. XII Sci.: Perfect Chemistry - I
*Q.14. Write a note on: i. Diamond ii. Graphite iii. Fullerene
Ans: i. Diamond:
a. Diamond is an allotrope of carbon. It is used in jewellery and
is the most precious crystal.
b. Covalent bonds between sp3 hybridized carbon atoms continue 154 pm
in all directions to form a giant network.
c. Diamond is very strong and hard due to presence of strong
covalent bonds.
d. It is the hardest material and has very high melting point
(3550 °C). Network Structure of
Diamond
ii. Graphite:
a. Graphite is an allotrope of carbon in which each carbon atom
is sp2 hybridized and forms covalent bonds with three other sp2 141.5 pm
hybridised carbon atoms. This results in formation of
interlinked six membered rings.
b. π bonds are formed between carbon atoms by utilizing half

340 pm
filled unhybridised 2pz orbital on each carbon atom. Layers of
carbon atoms are formed.
c. Electrons present in delocalized molecular orbitals can move
freely and conduct electricity. Hence graphite is a good
conductor of electricity.
d. Graphite is sufficiently hard due to presence of relatively
stronger covalent bonds. The adjacent layers of carbon atoms
are held together by weak van der Waal’s forces of attraction.
e. The layers of carbon atoms in graphite can slide over other
layers. Hence, graphite is used as lubricant for reducing
friction. Layer Structure of
f. It is used in ribbons used for printing in computers and Graphite
typewriters. It is also used in lead pencils.
iii. Fullerene:
a. Fullerene is an allotrope of carbon. It is also called Buckball
or Buckminster fullerene.
b. When a high power laser was focused on carbon, fullerene was
formed. It has formula C60 and shape of a soccer ball (hollow
sphere).
c. sp2 hybridized carbon atoms occupy sixty equidistant places on
this sphere. They form hexagons and pentagons.
d. Fullerenes are present in carbon soot.
e. Fullerene reacts with potassium to form K35C60. This
compound is a superconductor of electricity at 18 K. It reacts
The Structure of C60,
with transition metal to form a catalyst.
Buckminster-Fullerene
f. Tubes made from fullerene and graphite are called nanotubes.
These are used as high strength materials, electric conductors,
molecular sensors and semiconductors.
Q.15. What is the hybridisation of carbon atom in diamond and graphite? 0.1 mole of Buckminster
fullerene contains how many kg of carbon? [Atomic mass of carbon = 12] [Oct 15]
Ans: Hybridisation of carbon atom in diamond is sp3 and that in graphite is sp2. [1 Mark]
The chemical formula of Buckminster fullerene is C60.
∴ 1 mole of C60 contains 60 moles of C.
0.1 mole of C60 will contain 6.0 moles of C. [½ Mark]
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 Chapter 01: Solid State
Weight of C-atoms = Number of moles of C × atomic mass of C
= 6.0 × 12
= 72.0 g
= 0.072 kg
∴ 0.1 mole of Buckminster fullerene contains 0.072 kg of carbon. [½ Mark]
Q.16. Ionic solids conduct electricity in molten state but not in solid state. Explain. (NCERT)
Ans: In ionic solids, constituent ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction and they are
present in fixed position in crystal lattice. Therefore, they cannot move when an electric field is applied.
However, in molten state the well defined arrangement of ions in the crystal is destroyed and the ions can
move freely when electric field is applied. Hence, ionic solids conduct electricity in molten state.
Q.17. Classify the following solids into different types
*i. Plastic (NCERT) *ii. P4 molecule (NCERT) *iii. S8 molecule
*iv. Iodine molecule (NCERT) *v. Tetra phosphorus decoxide (P4O10) (NCERT)
*vi. Ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4 (NCERT)
*vii. Brass (NCERT) *viii. Rubidium *ix. Graphite (NCERT)
*x. Diamond *xi. NaCl *xii. Silicon (NCERT)
xiii. SiC (NCERT) xiv. LiBr (NCERT)
Ans: i. Amorphous solid − Plastic
ii. Molecular solids − P4 molecule, S8 molecule, Iodine molecule, Tetra phosphorus decoxide
iii. Ionic solids − Ammonium phosphate, NaCl, LiBr
iv. Metallic solids − Brass, Rubidium
v. Covalent or Network solids − Graphite, Diamond, Silicon, SiC.
Q.18. Explain
i. a. the basis of similarities between metallic and ionic crystals. (NCERT)
b. the basis of differences between metallic and ionic crystals. (NCERT)
*ii. why ionic solids are hard and brittle. (NCERT)
*iii. why solid ice is lighter than water.
Ans: i. Metallic and ionic crystals:
a. Similarities:
1. Both ionic and metallic crystals have electrostatic forces of attraction.
2. In ionic crystals, these are between the oppositely charged ions. In metals, these are among the
valence electrons (negatively charged) and the positively charged metal ions (kernels).
3. This is the reason why both metallic and ionic crystals have high melting points.
4. In both the cases, the bond is non-directional.
b. Differences:
1. In ionic crystals, the ions are not free to move. Hence, they cannot conduct electricity in the
solid state. They can do so only in the molten state or in aqueous solution.
2. In metals, the valence electrons are free to flow. Hence, they can conduct electricity in the solid
state.
3. Ionic bond is strong due to electrostatic forces of attraction.
4. Metallic bond may be weak or strong depending upon the number of valence electrons and the
size of the kernels.
5. On application of shearing force, ionic crystals undergo distortion and fracture in the crystal
structure while on application of shearing force, metals are not fractured, but rather the layers
of metallic ions slide on one another.
6. Metallic solids are malleable (hammered into sheets) and ductile (drawn into thin wires)
whereas ionic solids are neither malleable nor ductile.
ii. Ionic solids are hard and brittle:
a. In ionic crystalline solids, constituent particles are positively charged cations and negatively
charged anions placed at alternate lattice points.
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Std. XII Sci.: Perfect Chemistry - I
b. The ions are held by strong coulombic electrostatic forces of attraction compensating opposite
forces. Hence, they are hard.
c. Since there are no free electrons, they are not malleable and on applying a shearing force, ionic
crystals break into small units. Hence, they are brittle.

iii. Solid ice is lighter than water:

a. The volume of a single water molecule (as obtained from the knowledge of the atomic radii of
hydrogen and oxygen atoms) is found to be equal to 15 × 10−24 cm3.
b. If it is assumed that all the water molecules in liquid state are closely packed, the total volume
of 1 mole (i.e., 18 g) of water may be obtained by the multiplication of volume of one molecule
of water with the Avogadro’s number, 6.022 × 1023.
Hence, the volume of 1 mole of water = 15 × 10−24 cm3 × 6.022 × 1023 = 9 cm3.
c. It is found that the volume of 1 mole of water with density 1 g mL−1 is equal to 18 cm3. It is
evident that out of the total 18 cm3 (the molar volume of water), the actual volume occupied by
water molecules is about 9 cm3 and the remaining half (i.e., 9 cm3) of the total volume is empty.
d. According to X-ray studies, the structure of solid ice is almost identical to that of liquid water.
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding present in ice forms a hexagonal three dimensional crystal
structure. About one half of the total space remains unoccupied. When ice melts, some of the
hydrogen bonds are broken. Water molecules occupy some of the empty spaces.
e. Thus, the hexagonal crystalline structure of solid ice collapses and the liquid water molecules
are more closely spaced. Due to this, the density of liquid water is higher than that of solid ice.
Since solid ice is lighter than liquid water, ice floats on water.
Note: Usually the density of solid state is more than that of liquid state, but water is an exception.

O
H
Hydrogen bond
H
H
H
Covalent bond
O
H H
O
O
H
H

H
O

Two covalent and two hydrogen bonds in water resulting in the

tetrahedral geometry

1.4 Unit cell and two and three dimensional lattices

*Q.19. What is a unit cell? Explain Bravais lattices.
Ans: i. A unit cell is the smallest repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid. A crystalline solid can be
obtained by repeating the unit cells (of the same crystalline substance) in space in all directions.
ii. The lines connecting centres of the constituent particles are drawn to represent a unit cell. The
constituent particle can be an ion or an atom or molecule of the crystalline solid.
iii. The points at the intersection of lines which represent constituent particles are called lattice points.
These lattice points are arranged in a definite repeating pattern. Any one lattice point is identical to
the number of other lattice points.
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 Chapter 01: Solid State
iv. Space lattice is the collection of all the points in the crystal having similar environment.

a b
c
α c
ββ
γ
Unit cell

A Portion of a Three Dimensional Cubic Lattice and its Unit Cell

Bravais Lattices:
i. The three dimensional arrangement of lattice points represents a crystal lattice. Thus, a crystal lattice
is a regular arrangement of the constituent particles (atoms, ions or molecules) of a crystalline solid
in three dimensional space.
ii. There are only 14 possible three dimensional lattices, as proved by the French mathematician,
Bravais. These are called Bravais Lattices.
iii. Lattice points when joined by straight lines gives the geometry of the lattice.
iv. Shape of any crystal lattice depends upon the shape of the unit cell which in turn depends upon
following two factors,
a. The length of the three edges: a, b and c.
b. The angles between the edges: α (between edges b and c), β (between edges a and c) and γ
(between edges a and b).
Thus, a unit cell is characterised by six parameters a, b, c, α, β and γ. The complete crystal lattice can
be obtained by extending the unit cell in all three directions.

Enrich Your Knowledge

Unit cells can be broadly classified into two categories:
i. Primitive unit cells: When constituent particles are present only at the corner positions of a unit cell, it
is called as primitive unit cell.
These are also called simple unit cells. In all, there are seven types of primitive unit cells. They are
cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic, hexagonal and rhombohedral.
ii. Centred unit cells: When a unit cell contains one or more constituent particles present at positions
other than corners in addition to those at corners, it is called a centred unit cell.
Centred unit cells are of three types:
a. Body-centred unit cells: These unit cells contain one constituent particle (atom, molecule or ion)
at its body-centre besides the ones present at its corners.
b. Face-centred unit cells: These unit cells contain one constituent particle present at the centre of
each face, besides the ones present at its corners.
c. End-centred unit cells: In such a unit cell, one constituent particle is present at the centre of any
two opposite faces besides the ones present at its corners.
*Q.20. Explain with the help of diagram:
i. Seven types of unit cells ii. Three types of cubic cells
iii. Two types of tetragonal unit cells iv. Four types of orthorhombic unit cells
v. Two types of monoclinic unit cells vi. Triclinic unit cell
vii. Primitive hexagonal unit cell
Ans: i. There are seven types of simple or primitive unit cells among crystals. These unit cells are
characterized by the edges a, b and c and the angles α, β and γ.
These are as follows:
a. Cubic lattice: All the three edges (sides) are of equal length and are at right angles to each
other (a = b = c, α = β = γ = 90°).
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Std. XII Sci.: Perfect Chemistry - I
b. Tetragonal lattice: The three edges (sides) are at right angles to each other, but only two axes
are equal (a = b ≠ c, α = β = γ = 90°).
c. Orthorhombic lattice: It has three unequal edges (sides) which are at right angles to each other
(a ≠ b ≠ c, α = β = γ = 90°).
d. Monoclinic lattice: The three edges (sides) are of unequal lengths and two angles are of 90°
while the third angle is other than 90° (a ≠ b ≠ c, α = β = 90° and γ angle ≠ 90°).
e. Triclinic lattice: The three edges (sides) are of unequal lengths and all angles are different but
none is perpendicular to any of the others (a ≠ b ≠ c, α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90°).
f. Hexagonal lattice: It has two edges (sides) of equal lengths and differs in the length of the
third side. Two of its angles are 90° and one angle is 120° (a = b ≠ c, α = β = 90° and γ = 120°).
g. Rhombohedral lattice: The three edges (sides) are of equal lengths and all the three angles are
equal, but not equal to 90° (a = b = c, α = β = γ ≠ 90°).
b b
a a
b b
a a
c c
c c
α α α
β β α
β β
γ γ γ γ
SIMPLE CUBIC TETRAGONAL ORTHORHOMBIC MONOCLINIC
a=b=c a=b≠c a≠b≠c a≠b≠c
α = β = γ = 90° α = β = γ = 90° α = β = γ = 90° α = β = 90°, γ ≠ 90°
(1) (2) (3) (4)
a b
a b γ
a b

β c c c
α
β β α
γ α γ
TRICLINIC
HEXAGONAL RHOMBOHEDRAL
a≠b≠c
a=b≠c a=b=c
α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90°
α = β = 90°, γ = 120° α = β = γ ≠ 90°
(5) (6) (7)
The Seven Crystal Systems
ii. Three types of cubic cells: The three types of cubic cells are:
a. Simple cubic b. Body centred cubic c. Face centred cubic

Body-centred
Primitive (or simple) Face-centred
centred
Three Type of Cubic Cells (a = b = c, α = β = γ = 90°)
centred

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 Chapter 01: Solid State
iii. Two types of tetragonal unit cells: The two types of tetragonal unit cells are:
a. Primitive or simple tetragonal b. Body centred tetragonal

Primitive Body-centred
Two Types of Tetragonal Unit Cells (a = b ≠ c, α = β = γ = 90°)
iv. Four types of orthorhombic unit cells: The four types of orthorhombic unit cells are:
a. Primitive or Simple orthorhombic b. Body centred orthorhombic
c. End centred orthorhombic d. Face centred orthorhombic

Primitive Body-centred End-centred Face-centred

Four Types of Orthorhombic Unit Cells ( a ≠ b ≠ c, α = β = γ = 90°)
v. Two types of monoclinic unit cells: The two types of monoclinic unit cells are:
a. Primitive or Simple monoclinic b. End centred monoclinic

More than
90°

Less than
90°
Primitive End-centred
Two Types of Monoclinic Unit Cells ( a ≠ b ≠ c, α = β = 90°, γ ≠ 90°)
vi. Triclinic unit cell: vii. Primitive hexagonal unit cell:
Triclinic unit cell exists in only Hexagonal unit cell exists in only
one type i.e., primitive. one type i.e., primitive.

β
β α
α
γ
Triclinic Unit Cell Hexagonal Unit Cell
( a ≠ b ≠ c, α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90°) (a = b ≠ c, α = β =90°, γ = 120°)

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Std. XII Sci.: Perfect Chemistry - I
Note:
No. Crystal system Type Edge length Angle Examples
1. Cubic Simple/primitive a=b=c α = β = γ = 90° Polonium
2. Cubic Body centred a=b=c α = β = γ = 90° Fe, Rb, Na, Ti, W, U, Zr
3. Cubic Face centred a=b=c α = β = γ = 90° Cu, Al, Ni, Au, Ag, Pt
4. Tetragonal Primitive a=b≠c α = β = γ = 90° SnO2
5. Tetragonal Body centred a=b≠c α = β = γ = 90° TiO2, CaSO4
6. Orthorhombic Primitive a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90° Rhombic sulphur
7. Orthorhombic Body centred a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90° KNO3
8. Orthorhombic Face centred a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90° BaSO4
9. Orthorhombic End centred a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90° MgSO4. 7H2O
10. Monoclinic Primitive a≠b≠c α = β = 90°, γ ≠ 90° Monoclinic sulphur
11. Monoclinic End centred a≠b≠c α = β = 90°, γ ≠ 90° Na2SO4. 10H2O
12. Triclinic Primitive a≠b≠c α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90° K2Cr2O7, H3BO3
13. Hexagonal Primitive a=b≠c α = β = 90°, γ = 120° ZnO, BeO, CoS, SnS
14. Rhombohedral Primitive a=b=c α = β = γ ≠ 90° Calcite, NaNO3, FeCO3

Q.21. Give the significance of a lattice point. (NCERT)

Ans: Each lattice point represents one constituent particle of the solid, which may be an atom, a molecule or an
ion.

Q.22. *Explain coordination number. OR

What is meant by the term ‘coordination number’? (NCERT)
Ans: i. The coordination number of constituent particle of the crystal lattice is the number of particles
surrounding a single particle in the crystal lattice.
ii. In the crystal lattice having higher coordination number, the constituent particles are more tightly
packed. Coordination number is also the measure of hardness of the crystal.

Enrich Your Knowledge

• Open structures are those structures where each small sphere represents only the centre of the particle
occupying that position and not the actual size of the particle.
In this structure, the arrangement of particles is easier to follow as shown in the following figures:

(a) Simple cubic (b) Face-centred cubic (c) Body-centred cubic

• Space filling structures are those structures which show how the particles are packed within the solids.

(a) Simple cubic (b) Body centred cubic (c) Face-centred cubic

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