Hominine Species of Central India, Cave Painting and Stone Tools

Bipin R. Shah and Praveen Kumar February 2016

Abstract

We want to acknowledge the field work done by my co-author Praveen Kumar, who is has B.A.
degree from A.P.S. University, Rewa, M.P. India, and he has the bright future ahead of him as
a field archeologist. While conducting research on this subject, he was willing to do the field
work for joint analysis of his findings and analysis of the collected data. Most of our focus has
been the Madhya Pradesh (Central India) that was known in ancient history as Malla Republic,
where Buddha breath his last breadth at Kusinagara. However, there are many sites in south
India that need exploration near Vindhya mountain. This article limit itself to discusses the
central region during all stages of the paleolithic age, when indigenous paleolithic men shared
the space with first migration of modern humans who left during upper paleolithic age that
settled in India and some moved on the south India and beyond. Some of these early
inhabitants left their stone tools, axes and cave paintings behind. Due to difficult terrain, we
explored the limited area as marked in the map below.

For easy understanding for the readers, we like to restate the difference between various
phases of stone ages as defined by the archeologists. The Paleolithic era of human history is a
prehistoric period characterized by the development of the most primitive stone tools to
advance stone tools. The paleolithic age goes back further in time and was the longest period
in the human history going back to perhaps 2 million years. It has three stages as categorized
by the development of stone technology for early humanoid. These three stages of stone
technology were defined the era of their age based on selection of material and sophistication
of the developed tools. These phases are early, middle and last phase also called as Paleolithic,
Mesolithic and Neolithic. Mesolithic word derives from Greek word “Meso” meaning middle
and “litho” means stone. Mesolithic culture was followed by Paleolithic. Neolithic stage
followed Mesolithic. The term Neolithic is the most advanced state of Stone Age where
sophistication of stone tools were well developed. This is another way to define the entire
stone age into three phases as shown below. The dates shown are approximate as new
discoveries keep pushing the date back in the time.

We certainly know this fact with latest discovery in Kenya, Africa where hominine species
either represented by the modern humans or other unknown hominine species used the stone
tools as shown in the picture below around 3.3 million years ago. When they left Africa, they

1
were fully equipped with all the tools they need to survive in their long track of migration.
However, it is safe to assume that when they left Afrika and traveled through Indian
subcontinent 100,000 -110,000 years ago, they were fully equipped with their tool kits to
undertake such a long journey. On his journey, he should be able to hunt, fight the hostiles
and survive, cook with fire and feed the family or clans. He should maneuver the river crossing,
climb the steep hill, have tools to light the fire, collect woods and find a warm shelter for night
rest. The use of animal hide to stay warm in the cold weather must be known. In other words,
the men must have mastered the skills of survival, including waging a war against hostiles in
group with ability to communicate with its own group for coordination. The timeline
developed here is approximate, as it is constantly modified by new discoveries.
History Outline of India’s Stone Age History
Lower Paleolithic - 1.9 Million - 130 ka ( Riwaitian People)
Middle Paleolithic - 130 ka – 40 ka (Sonian People)
Upper Paleolithic / Microlithic - 40 ka – 11 ka Stone Age
100,000- 6000 BC
Mesolithic – 10,000 ka – 6000 ka (Simultaneously Indus-Sarasvati
Civilization and Pastoralist Dravidian Speakers with some
elements of Sanskrit Speakers)
Neolithic 6000ka- 4000 ka (Simultaneously Pastoralist Sanskrit
Speakers as Indus-Sarasvati Civilization extinct )

The timeline developed here is approximate is constantly modified by new

discoveries. Rebecca Morrell published an article in science section of BBC news on
20th May 2015 that displayed the stone tools found in Kenya, Africa 3.3 million years

2
ago. She also suggested that Australopithecus afarensis or Kenyanthropus
platyops, may have been the Hominine species associated with that find. See picture
below:

Kenya-Africa 3.3 million years old stone tools

However, it is safe to assume that When they left Africa, they were fully equipped with
all the tools they need to survive in their long track of migration. However, it is safe to
assume that when they left Afrika and enter Indian subcontinent 100,000 -120,000
years ago, they were fully equipped with their tool kit to undertake such a long journey.
On his journey, the man should be able to hunt, fight the hostiles and survive, cook with
fire and feed the family or clans. He should be able to maneuver the river crossing, climb
the steep hill, have tools to light the fire and find a warm shelter for night rest. The use
of animal hide to stay warm in the cold and rainy weather. In other words, the men
must have mastered the skills of survival including waging a war against hostiles in
group with ability to communicate within their own group. Brazilian archeologists have
observed the monkeys who knew how to make stone tools. See this Utube video.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FA3LN4vqtlM

Paleolithic Central India (Malwa-Madhya Pradesh or M. P.)

This is one of the most important areas of India physically, culturally and politically. It is
remarkably diverse in its geography, ancient ethnicities and tribal languages. This area have
three major rivers and Narmada being the prime River flowing from North to south, it became
a passageway to south India. To the west are chain of Aravalli hills, a perfect shelter for stone

3
age dwellers for refuge in the rock shelters and natural caves. To the south , it is bounded by
Vindhya mountain range, where a series of escarpment overlooks the rift valley of Narmada
River. The opposite are satpura mountains. It is watered by several rivers and water streams.
The area is highly forested with wildlife and trees. The soil is black and extraordinarily rich with
minerals. A perfect place for human inhabitation. This is where some of the Vedic kingdoms of
later history established themselves. Nearby Punjab also has unmatched fertility of the soil as
well and for long time , it was considered breadbasket of India with five Rivers feeding the
plains of Punjab. There have been on and off sighting of the Yeti or Abominable Snowman that
is a folkloric ape-like creature taller than an average human, that is said to inhabit the
Himalayan mountains. Ancient Hindu texts also called some people living near the foothills
who were fierce warriors and headhunters.
Indigenous - Riwaitian Hominine People (1,900,000 BCE) of Punjab

Riwaitian people were the first hominine species or stone age dwellers who
lived in ancient Punjab region prior to Indus-Sarasvati and Vedic civilizations of the early stone
age era. The present tribal are assumed to be their descendants. However, the tribal may carry
some of their DNA , their ancestors interacted with modern human, who migrated there.
Riwaitian people were native to India. Riwaitian People derives their name from place called
Riwat or Rawat that dates to Lower Paleolithic sites of Punjab and northern Pakistan, providing
evidence of their occupation in the subcontinent, dating to 1.9 million years ago, based on the
tools they used and few artifacts they left behind.

There are no systematic studies done by any archeologist or anthropologists , nor we have any
knowledge what hominine species they belonged to. The site for their occupation was
discovered in 1983 AD. The tools uncovered at the sites where the flakes and cores made from
quartzite. Another site from the same or different group shows a later occupation dated to
55,000 years ago.

Indigenous Sonian People

The Soanian of India, on the other hand is an archaeological culture of the Lower Paleolithic
age, (500,000 to 125,000 BCE) in India, attributed to native people living around the Soan
Valley, contemporary to the Acheulean, that were also present in the Soan Valley. All of India’
rivers originates from Shivalik glacier Hills of Himalaya, India. Various local tributaries carry
various individual names or generic popular names like Sarasvati.

Mr. Kumar, my co-author, works in Sone river valley of Central India and have found similar

4
Lower Pleistocene Stone tools discovered from outside of India

evidence and that will be reviewed here in this paper. Mr. Kumar is a student archeologist
striving for his doctorate degree and works in the field all the time as shown below from some
of his field pictures. He has discovered various stone tools and identified some of the cave
painting in central India. It should be enticing for international researcher to research and
discover evidence for pre-hominine species that lived in India. Some analysis of mitochondrial
DNA of selected population of that region have suggested the presence of pre-hominine
species like Neanderthals and Denisovans. Although, their genetic contribution is less than 10
percent or lower, but it may be higher with native tribal, that need to be investigated. India
received modern humans over 100,000 years ago. They may have encountered other hominine
species and mated with them. An analysis of Y chromosome Haplogroup of a Madurai man was
so unique than others that he may be direct descendants of those early people.

The early history of hominine species can span for all ages up to 1,900,000 BCE, where human
or hominine species lived in India from Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Period. The
agriculturalist /industrialist people from Zagros mountain occupied western seaboard and built
elaborate cities and became part of trade network of a fertile crescent civilization. The climate
change brought an end to their civilization and ended a bronze age of India. Then came
pastoralist, warrior tribes of Sanskrit Speakers from Steppe. The subcontinent history is rich
that covered all phases that covered the hunter-gatherer, cave dwellers, agriculturalist,
pastoralist and nomads. The last two advanced their culture to Bronze and Iron ages of India.

5
The oldest definitively identified Homo sapiens fossils yet found in South Asia is Balangoda
man, named after the location in Sri Lanka, where they were discovered, they are at least
28,000 years old. The migration were numerous, and some earlier migrants entered India and
left India and came back again. The remaining discoveries are yet to be revealed.

Mr. Kumar at work in Central India near his hometown in central India

6
 Mr. Kumar at field work showing Rock center painting

Paleolithic sites of India, evolution of culture and human migration

Indus-Sarasvati civilization was agriculturalist and Industrialist but with little pastoralism. They
built large cities that were well-planned and conducted trades with distant lands (8000-2600
BC). Their culture spread from western India to Zagros mountain in Iran. They focused on
working with available raw materials and made useful manufactured products for the world of
their time that included Mesopotamia and Egypt. They left their material cultures for us to
study as well as their DNA that shows they were mixed of Ancestral wester Asian as well as
Ancestral southeastern population of Asia in near equal proportion amounting to nearly 92
percent of DNA while. The remainder was split among other hominine species of Neanderthal
and Denisovan and one another unidentifiable hominine species.

An analysis of Y chromosome Haplogroups found with one man in a village near Madurai,
South India turned out to have enough DNA to be identified with these early people, however
they closely matched Australian aborigine people. Every Indian DNA reflects the presence of
Neanderthal and Denisovan, the cousins of modern humans. There is one species remain to be
identified. It is suspected that central India’s geography is just the right place ,where Pre-
modern hominin specie’s presence through bones, artifacts or tools can be detected, if
explored.

This modern human presence was extensive and spread throughout the Southeast Asia,
reaching Australia by around 40,000-60,000 years ago. The Cave sites in Sri Lanka have yielded
the earliest record of modern Human in South Asia. They were dated to 34,000-44,000 years
ago. While some finds in Uttar Pradesh are dated to 22000 -24000 years ago, the discovery of

7
 Map showing the archeological sites that need to be explored in India

India also have various megalithic sites that need to be explored as to who used them for what
purposes. Some work done by Mr. Subhasis Das in west Bengal have demonstrated the
potentials for further research. It seems like so many of them had astronomical purposes of
observing eclipses and other celestial events for charting astrology, as well as worshipping.
This is an additional proof that India had continuous habitation of humans and other hominine
species.

Cave painting and Rock Shelters

Bhimbetka cave painting is one of many sites, where the humans lived throughout the
Paleolithic age. Some cave paintings are dated as far as 30,000 BC. There is round saucer like
depressions found at the end of the Auditorium Rock Shelter that is dated by some estimate
as far as 100,000 years ago. The Himalaya Shivalik and some region of Pakistan also show
footprint of early humans (assumed to be sonian people or Yeti’s cousin) with finds of
Paleolithic era stone tools. India has abundant sites to indicate that it was the home of other

8
unknown humanoid species including the modern humans, who first migrated out of Africa
and spent thousands of years in India before moving out to disburse throughout the world. The
map above shows the sites location of various stages of human development.

Genetic Studies

David G. Mahal and Ianis G. Matsoukas did a study on Indian genomes with 50 different
ethnic-linguistic groups of subcontinent and published their results published in “Frontier
Genetics” in 2018 , titled “The Geographic Origins of Ethnic Groups in the Indian
Subcontinent: Exploring Ancient Footprints with Y-DNA Haplogroups”. According to these two
authors:

“The results also showed that despite their varied languages and cultural differences, most ethnic
groups shared some common ancestors because of admixture in the past. These findings provide new
insights into the ancient geographic origins of ethnic groups in the Indian subcontinent. With about
2,000 other ethnic groups and tribes in the region, it is expected that more scientific discoveries will
follow, providing insights into how, from where, and when the ancestors of these people arrived in
the subcontinent to create so many different communities. The Indian subcontinent-comprising India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, and Myanmar–became one of the first geographical
regions of the world to be populated by Homo sapiens (Dennell and Petraglia, 2012; Blink horn et al.,
2013). One group from the Arabian Peninsula took the coastal route through India, Myanmar, and
Malaysia to Australia. A study (Elhaik et al., 2013) conducted by the National Geographic Society's
Genographic Project (Behar et al., 2007) found that people living in a village near Madurai in South
India carried the same rare genetic markers as some Australian aborigines and people living in Africa
(Wells, 2007). The findings showed a link between the three continents and confirmed that the people
in Australia and India with this genetic marker were likely descendants of the original coastal migrants
from Africa.(More likely to be found with natives of Andaman Nicobar Island). More migrations out of
Africa followed. The migration through India was interrupted about 75,000 years ago by the eruption
of Mount Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia, which is recorded as one of the largest volcanic eruptions in this
planet's history (Blinkhorn et al., 2014), resulting in an extended nuclear winter and ice age (Rampino
and Self, 1993; Huang et al., 2001; Robock et al., 2009). Michael Petraglia and his team of
archeologists discovered stone tools at Jwalapuram in Andhra Pradesh, South India, above and below
a thick layer of ash from the Toba eruption (Petraglia et al., 2007). These tools matched those used in
Africa from the same period.” However, the researchers were not able to study tribal of the
Northeast region, as it is still dangerous due to Naxal communist activities.

9
 Paleolithic and Neolithic age of India- Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India

In the mid-19th century, English and Indian archaeologists in southern India identified hand
axes comparable to those of Stone Age of Europe. Since then some significant field work have
been done by ASI Archeologists of India in evaluating and cataloging the burgeoning body of
evidence that correlate Indian chronologies of Stone Age with the Mediterranean
chronologies. The picture above is from Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India. The Edakkal caves are
believed to be camping shelters of the Neolithic community of south India. The cave walls
contain a collection of Neolithic rock engravings and images.

The Genome project undertaken by National Geographic society corroborates the field work
of archeologists and it is worth mentioning here for their research. However, the
responsibilities of ASI should be reviewed for maintaining monuments of Mogul era, only
useful for the tourism, must be divested to Ministry of tourism. If tourism need help let them
hire their own. This will free up real talents for discovery, excavation and understanding our
past. The office bound archeologists does not help to advance archeology or uncover the
mystery of our past. ASI should be given generous budget to uncover the mystery of Indian
history as we are lagging the world. India must prove great Al-Biruni wrong in proving that
Indians do indeed care for their own history and past.

10
 Bhimbetka cave painting in Central India

The Bhimbetka rock shelters is an extra-ordinary archeological sites of India in central India of
Raisen district. This site covers the paleolithic period of all ages. This exhibits is rare and
depicts the earliest traces of human life in the Indian subcontinent and evidence of Stone
Age. It is designated as a UNESCO world heritage site covering seven hills and over 750 rock
shelters distributed over 10 kilometers (6.2 mi), the main tale of our study. It is determined
that that some of the shelters were inhabited more than 100,000 years ago. The rock shelters
and caves provide a rare glimpse of evidence of how hunter gatherers lived and developed
the culture and communication among themselves with ultimate sense of spirituality. The
authors believed that Neanderthal and Denisovans vanished because they lacked the
communication skills and could not work as a team, while in hostility contest against modern
humans. The earlier hominine can make sounds but could not act in concert for common
defense and that became their downfalls.

All these caves structures should be analyzed because after war or killing the modern humans
captured Neanderthal and Denisovan females and often inhabited their shelters. The cave
paintings give any clues .

11
 Defaced painting near Agra cave that dates to prehistoric period

Genome Project by National Geographic Society

To uncover modern human ancestry and history of world population and their migration, the
genome project was funded and sponsored by NGS in USA, and over 1,00,000 DNA samples
were collected from all over the world to chart human ancestry and reveal our earlier past and
the history of migration along with the interrelationship of today’s world population. Although,
small percentages of our DNA is not traceable and is assumed to be attributed to unknown
hominine species that interbred with modern humans. Those ancestors were most likely were
Stone Age people and migration theory as proposed by Genome project. The dates proposed
by Genome project is subject to change and may go back to earlier period as more samples are
analyzed. The most recent posting by Archeology news Network reported that neglect have
caused the defacing of ancient painting near Agra, (See below) that dates to ancient time.
Miguel Vilar posted in Explorer Journal the most recent research findings on India. He wrote:

“For ten years, geographic Project scientists have explored and explained how patterns in our DNA
show evidence of migration and expansion routes of our ancient ancestors across the globe. DNA
has shown that “genetically speaking” the modern humans arose in Africa some 150,000-200,000
years ago, and left Africa around 80,000-120,000 years ago in series of migration and went east into
Asia, north into Europe, and further south into Australia and pacific. But new research from Geno
graphic Project, the scientists of India shows that eventually some of them may have moved back
elsewhere and languages evolved through interchange and interactions.”

12
Courtesy National Geographic Society

13
Devoting insufficient resources and restricting access to foreign archeologists, India is doing a
disservice to itself by delaying uncovering of our past. According to one theory of formation of
continent, if India in prehistory was separated from Africa by unknown geological event, it is
possible that humans resided in India just like Africa over one million years ago. However, more
discoveries and search must do to certify that claim.

Conclusion

The genome studies only relates to the migration of modern human and does not address the
presence of early humans or other humanoid species that may have thrived during the early
Stone Age in India. North central India has number of old prehistoric sites. Madhya Pradesh
(Central India) has total ten River basins. As Madhya Pradesh is in the center of India, most of
the rivers are interstate rivers, originating from mountain springs but connecting with major
rivers. The ten rivers namely, Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Ken Rivers flow northward and meet
with Yamuna River, whereas the River Sone falls directly into River Ganges. Narmada, Tapi and
Mahi Rivers flow westward and meet Arabian Sea near Gujarat coast. The rivers Waingangā
and Pench meet Godavari River in the south. Potentially, the humanoid lived near water, so
there are Potentials. Mr. Kumar’s work is focused on three districts of Central India. These
districts include “Satna, Sindh, Panna and related Son River valleys. His findings most likely
involve the “Soanian People”, who may be there perhaps as far as 500,000 BC. It is an estimate
and subject to actual verification. The tribal of India may have inherited their culture and
customs. We do not know for sure.

Early human resided close to the water source where he can find games, fish and other edible
foods. The Son river valley is a vast and has many Paleolithic sites. The local Sone River is fed
by springs from mountain originating near Amarkantak in Central India, just east of the
headwater of the Narmada River, and flows north- northwest through Madhya Pradesh state
before turning sharply eastward where it encounters the southwest-northeast-running Kaimur
mountain range. The Son River parallels the Kaimur hills, flowing east-northeast through Uttar
Pradesh (U.P.), Jharkhand and Bihar states to join the Ganges just above Patna. The Son River
of India runs 487 miles and it is the largest river of India. Sidhhi (Sidhi) district of MP is
benefitted by Son rive and area is well known for its natural beauty, its historical importance
and rich cultural roots. Sidhhi possesses abundant natural resources with the presence of Son
River. The district also has large coal deposits which feed major industries across the country
and attest to its antiquity.

14
Satna and Panna have mostly Mesolithic and Neolithic rock paintings. Maihar in Satna have
important sites of Lower Paleolithic and Mesolithic age. As the early human migrated
constantly searching for games, foods. The hunters crisscrossed north-central Indian region
leaving remnants of hunter gatherers tools. This region has served well for hunter-gatherers-
foragers of early human tribes and various sites discovered spans Paleolithic, Mesolithic and
Neolithic periods. All these sites give us a valuable insight of development of tools technology
during various phases of human evolution. Kaimur hill range was the natural habitat of these
early human.

Rock shelter for hunter-gatherers rock art painting found at Pena (Kumar’s pictures)

15
 showing young Mr. Kumar’s work- the districts are highlighted
Satna, Panna and Sudhi as marked in red in the map above is the rich treasure tove for
archeologist to search for those early humans, who may have evolved independtly of African
origin and may have contrinuted to gene pools of tribals of Northeast regions of India. The
sheer number of rock painting depicting strange animals and worshipping signs are the subject
of the study. The hand prints outside the caves as well as found in the modern houses of tribal
carry the some meaning like “blessing from dead ancestors”. Mr. Kumar have identified some
of these areas for firther exploration.

16
Son valley topographic map and Important Paleolithic sites By Kumar

17
18
Sindh River General Map of Central India (M.P.)

Paleolithic Stone tools from the sites visited by Kumar

Tools and Technology

Initial technology found in some of the sites were hand axes that were made with exquisite
craftsmanship, and eventually pave the way to smaller, more diverse toolkits for hunter
gatherers for higher emphasis on flake tools rather than larger core tools. The River basins and
hills provided enough sources of materials to collect and make tools for hunting.

For easy understanding, Acheulean word is derived from the French word Acheulean used by
archeologist and anthropologist to characterize the stone tool manufacturing by early humans.
They are oval and pear-shaped "hand-axes" associated with hunter-gatherers of Stone Age.

19
Acheulean tools were produced during the lower Paleolithic age across India, Europe, Africa
and west Asia and are typically found with Homo erectus and Homo habilis long time ago. The
primary technology associated with Acheulean hand-axes is that the stone was worked
symmetrically on both sides. For the latter reason, hand axes are, along with cleavers, bifacial
worked tools that could be manufactured from the large flakes themselves or from Prepared
Cores .

Use of the Rock Painting and Shelters by the ancients

The primary purpose of the hunter-gatherer was food and water for survival for him and his
family, but it was secured by the shelter and warmth to be protected by vulgarities of the
inclement weather. The nearby water streams or River attracted animals and fish. The tools,
technology, invention of controlled fire determined the power of the tribe and clan with shelter
for nighttime protection and rest. In spare time, the humans artistic and imaginative minds
allow them to tell others what they encountered or seen during hunting expedition and they
can be all captured and memorized with the rock painting with bleeding color rocks found in
nature or simply the use of the tools.

20
 Cleaver and scrappers tools

Advanced (upper Paleolithic) blades, scrappers, concave scrapper in sone valley enclave

21
Small scrapper, cleaver and hand axes from stones

More Rock shelter, search for paintings or tools with the guide -Satna District

22
Mesolithic Rock Painting of Panna district depicting animals probably Bovine and a person

23
 Indian antelope for hunting and gaming

Ken River Panna, North central India

24
25
Stone tools that were used to hunt, kill, defend and cure animal hide for
clothing and covering for cold night

The numerous Cave paintings found in various part of India are painted on cave walls and
narrow cave ceilings of prehistoric origin that may date back to over 50,000 years or longer in
India and other parts of world. The exact purpose of these Paleolithic cave paintings is not
known but we can speculate that to be a favorite past time for leisure activity for family or clan
gathering or just an artist desire to leave something for posterity.

The sites may or may not be the living areas in some cases as some sites do not show the
inhabitation of early humans. There are many theories as to the intent of early humans. Some
theories suggest that it was past time activity when humans had a free time during inclement
weather or way of communicating with each other’s. Some speculate that it was for some
religious or ceremonial purpose. Most of the paintings found have animals, person or the
objects. Indian bull and antelope were favorites. Some are strange animals not found now. It
is interesting to note that the paintings are remarkably like others in rest of the world. The
handprints found In Madhya Pradesh and group dance for some religious purposes suggest
some support for religious purposes. The handprints are mostly hand stencils made by blowing
pigment on a handheld to the wall.

26
 The painting of “group dance” by ancients in Siddhi district enclave in Central India

Group hunting party in Penna district enclave forest region the party of Group dancing in Sone River enclave
in Sidhi District

Hunting Party in Satna district

27
 An example of handprints found in a cave in Argentina

Neolithic - Rock paintings from Son River Sidhi district (see below)

28
Neolithic animal Derm, Sidhi district

Mesolithic Tools from Rock Shelters -More Precision

29
Significance of handprints

Hand Printing on the house like house Blessing

The significance of handprints becomes more obvious when we find in today’s house of tribal
people living in Central India. The state of Madhya Pradesh(Central India) located in the central
part of India is mostly inhabited by different tribal communities. Madhya Pradesh is home to a
large tribal population, who have not enjoyed the benefits of the development. Some of the
tribal adapt to their age-old tradition. This makes Madhya Pradesh one of the least developed
states in India. Some of the aboriginal tribal groups residing in the state are Baigas, Bhilals,
Bhils, Gonds, Halba, Kamaras, Kols, Korkens, Murias, Oraons and Sahariya. Among these tribes,
Bhils are said to be a group of hunters and warriors. Most of the Oraons have now adapted to
Christianity. Not too long ago, they used to be semi-nomads of the prehistory, but now almost
everyone has settled down with some occupation. The agriculture is the main occupation of
the Panikas and the Khaiwas whereas the Mangetri Pradhan earn their livelihood by dancing
and singing. Some have escaped and got them education and moved towards the city to take
a professional job. Some of them belong to Austro-Asiatic speakers group.

Interestingly, modernization have not deviated them from their unique age-old traditions and
customs, perhaps coming from their ancestors from ages as you can see from the above picture.
These are modern tribal people and their houses still show the handprints on the wall either
as a good omen or divine ancestral protection from the spirit world. This hardly shows any

30
religious significance since there are multitudes of idols to be worshipped. The tribal
communities of Bhilalas and Bhils follow an exclusive method of marriage, where life partner
is chosen in “Bhagoriya Haat”, a fair organized for the matrimonial match. Strange custom
indeed, but it reminds us of the generational handover of ancient customs and beliefs once
practiced probably by their ancestors.

To learn more about Stone Age era, there are several YouTube videos and one that we
recommend are in 15-part series. The first link is given here, and other links are found on
the same Utube page on side bar.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7bqi70B3tE

References

1. Whitley, David S. (2009). Cave Paintings and the Human Spirit: The Origin of Creativity and
Belief. Prometheus, ISBN 978-1-59102-636-5.

2. Hammond, Norman (September 11, 2009). "Cave painters' giveaway handprints at Pech-
Merle". The Times published 31 December 2012.

3. Ghosh, Pallab. "Cave paintings change ideas about the origin of art". BBC News. 8 October
2014.

4. "Modern Human Origins and the Evolution of Behavior in the Later Pleistocene Record of
South Asia" by James, Hannah V. A.; Petraglia, Michael D. (December 2005). Current
Anthropology 46 (Supplement)

5. God-Apes and Fossil Men: Paleo- anthropology of South Asia by Kennedy, Kenneth Adrian
Raine (2000), University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

6. Distribution of Acheulean sites in the Siwalik region- An Overview of the Siwalik Acheulean
& Reconsidering Its Chronological Relationship with the Soanian – A Theoretical Perspective
by Parth R. Chauhan.

7., The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. Random House, by Spencer Wells ISBN 0-8129-
7146-9

8 Genographic studies, Genome Project, The human Migration by National Geographic

31
Society of USA

9. Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Asia: A Working Synthesis “in Journal of World
Prehistory 20, p.42 "Ganges Neolithic" by Fuller, Dorian 2006

10. Field work by student archeologist Mr. Praveen Kumar of India and following reference
papers by main author Bipin shah

11.
https://www.academia.edu/11676960/Our_Distant_Ancestors_and_their_migration_out_of
_India_during_prehistoric_times_and_peopling_of_the_world

12.

https://www.academia.edu/7299351/Genetic_History_of_People_of_India

13. http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/prehistoric/hand-stencils-rock-art.htm Prehistoric

hand stencil 14. An Inquiry into the Meaning of Prehistoric Red Ochre Handprints
http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/9.2/forum_kimball.htm
14. Shipton C., Clarkson C., Pal J.N., Jones SC., Roberts R.G., Harris C., Gupta M.C., Ditchfield
P.W., Petraglia M.D., 2013 Generativity, hierarchical action and recursion in the technology of
the Acheulean to Middle Palaeolithic transition: A perspective from Patpara, the Son Valley,
India Journal of Human Evolution 65 93- 108.27

15. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-32804177 stone Tools in Kenya Africa,

BBC

32