Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to
energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these quantities is
governed by the four laws of thermodynamics which convey a quantitative description using measurable
macroscopic physical quantities, but may be explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical
mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, especially
physical chemistry, biochemistry, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering, but also in other
complex fields such as meteorology.

Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines,
particularly through the work of French physicist Sadi Carnot (1824) who believed that engine efficiency
was the key that could help France win the Napoleonic Wars.[1] Scots-Irish physicist Lord Kelvin was the
first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854[2] which stated, "Thermo-dynamics is the
subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to
electrical agency." Rudolf Clausius restated Carnot's principle known as the Carnot cycle and gave so the
theory of heat a truer and sounder basis. His most important paper, "On the Moving Force of Heat",[3]
published in 1850, first stated the second law of thermodynamics. In 1865 he introduced the concept of
entropy. In 1870 he introduced the virial theorem, which applied to heat.[4]

The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was quickly extended to the study of
chemical compounds and chemical reactions. Chemical thermodynamics studies the nature of the role of
entropy in the process of chemical reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the
field. Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged. Statistical thermodynamics, or statistical mechanics,
concerns itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic
behavior. In 1909, Constantin Carathéodory presented a purely mathematical approach in an axiomatic
formulation, a description often referred to as geometrical thermodynamics.

Contents
Introduction
History
Etymology
Branches of thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics
Statistical mechanics
Chemical thermodynamics
Equilibrium thermodynamics
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
Laws of thermodynamics
Zeroth law
First law
Second law
 Third law
System models
States and processes
Instrumentation
Conjugate variables
Potentials
Axiomatic thermodynamics
Applied fields
See also
Lists and timelines
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Introduction
A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four laws of thermodynamics that form an
axiomatic basis. The first law specifies that energy can be transferred between physical systems as heat, as
work, and with transfer of matter.[5] The second law defines the existence of a quantity called entropy, that
describes the direction, thermodynamically, that a system can evolve and quantifies the state of order of a
system and that can be used to quantify the useful work that can be extracted from the system.[6]

In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to
this are the concepts of the thermodynamic system and its surroundings. A system is composed of particles,
whose average motions define its properties, and those properties are in turn related to one another through
equations of state. Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials,
which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes.

With these tools, thermodynamics can be used to describe how systems respond to changes in their
environment. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines,
phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of
thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, corrosion
engineering, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering,
materials science, and economics, to name a few.[7][8]

This article is focused mainly on classical thermodynamics which primarily studies systems in
thermodynamic equilibrium. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is often treated as an extension of the
classical treatment, but statistical mechanics has brought many advances to that field.

History
The history of thermodynamics as a scientific discipline generally begins with Otto von Guericke who, in
1650, built and designed the world's first vacuum pump and demonstrated a vacuum using his Magdeburg
hemispheres. Guericke was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition
that 'nature abhors a vacuum'. Shortly after Guericke, the Anglo-Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle
had learned of Guericke's designs and,
in 1656, in coordination with English
scientist Robert Hooke, built an air
pump.[10] Using this pump, Boyle and
Hooke noticed a correlation between
pressure, temperature, and volume. In
time, Boyle's Law was formulated,
which states that pressure and volume
are inversely proportional. Then, in
1679, based on these concepts, an
associate of Boyle's named Denis
Papin built a steam digester, which
was a closed vessel with a tightly
fitting lid that confined steam until a
high pressure was generated.

Later designs implemented a steam

release valve that kept the machine
from exploding. By watching the
valve rhythmically move up and The thermodynamicists representative of the original eight founding
down, Papin conceived of the idea of a schools of thermodynamics. The schools with the most-lasting
piston and a cylinder engine. He did effect in founding the modern versions of thermodynamics are the
not, however, follow through with his Berlin school, particularly as established in Rudolf Clausius’s 1865
design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based textbook The Mechanical Theory of Heat, the Vienna school, with
on Papin's designs, engineer Thomas the statistical mechanics of Ludwig Boltzmann, and the Gibbsian
Savery built the first engine, followed school at Yale University, American engineer Willard Gibbs' 1876 On
by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances launching chemical
Although these early engines were thermodynamics.[9]
crude and inefficient, they attracted the
attention of the leading scientists of the
time.

The fundamental concepts of heat capacity and latent heat, which were necessary for the development of
thermodynamics, were developed by Professor Joseph Black at the University of Glasgow, where James
Watt was employed as an instrument maker. Black and Watt performed experiments together, but it was
Watt who conceived the idea of the external condenser which resulted in a large increase in steam engine
efficiency.[11] Drawing on all the previous work led Sadi Carnot, the "father of thermodynamics", to
publish Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire (1824), a discourse on heat, power, energy and engine
efficiency. The book outlined the basic energetic relations between the Carnot engine, the Carnot cycle, and
motive power. It marked the start of thermodynamics as a modern science.[12]

The first thermodynamic textbook was written in 1859 by William Rankine, originally trained as a physicist
and a civil and mechanical engineering professor at the University of Glasgow.[13] The first and second
laws of thermodynamics emerged simultaneously in the 1850s, primarily out of the works of William
Rankine, Rudolf Clausius, and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).
The foundations of statistical
thermodynamics were set out by physicists such as James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, Max
Planck, Rudolf Clausius and J. Willard Gibbs.

During the years 1873–76 the American mathematical physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs published a series of
three papers, the most famous being On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances,[14] in which he
showed how thermodynamic processes, including chemical reactions, could be graphically analyzed, by
studying the energy, entropy, volume, temperature and pressure of the thermodynamic system in such a
manner, one can determine if a process would occur spontaneously.[15] Also Pierre Duhem in the 19th
century wrote about chemical thermodynamics.[16] During the early 20th century, chemists such as Gilbert
N. Lewis, Merle Randall,[17] and E. A. Guggenheim[18][19] applied the mathematical methods of Gibbs to
the analysis of chemical processes.

Etymology
The etymology of thermodynamics has an intricate history.[20] It was first spelled in a hyphenated form as
an adjective (thermo-dynamic) and from 1854 to 1868 as the noun thermo-dynamics to represent the
science of generalized heat engines.[20]

American biophysicist Donald Haynie claims that thermodynamics was coined in 1840 from the Greek
root θέρμη therme, meaning “heat”, and δύναμις dynamis, meaning “power”.[21]

Pierre Perrot claims that the term thermodynamics was coined by James Joule in 1858 to designate the
science of relations between heat and power,[12] however, Joule never used that term, but used instead the
term perfect thermo-dynamic engine in reference to Thomson's 1849[22] phraseology.[20]

By 1858, thermo-dynamics, as a functional term, was used in William Thomson's paper "An Account of
Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat."[22]

Branches of thermodynamics
The study of thermodynamical systems has developed into several related branches, each using a different
fundamental model as a theoretical or experimental basis, or applying the principles to varying types of
systems.

Classical thermodynamics

Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states of thermodynamic systems at near-equilibrium,

that uses macroscopic, measurable properties. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work and heat based
on the laws of thermodynamics. The qualifier classical reflects the fact that it represents the first level of
understanding of the subject as it developed in the 19th century and describes the changes of a system in
terms of macroscopic empirical (large scale, and measurable) parameters. A microscopic interpretation of
these concepts was later provided by the development of statistical mechanics.

Statistical mechanics

Statistical mechanics, also known as statistical thermodynamics, emerged with the development of atomic
and molecular theories in the late 19th century and early 20th century, and supplemented classical
thermodynamics with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or
quantum-mechanical states. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules
to the macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby
explaining classical thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum
theory at the microscopic level.

Chemical thermodynamics
Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of energy with chemical reactions or with a
physical change of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. The primary objective of
chemical thermodynamics is determining the spontaneity of a given transformation.[23]

Equilibrium thermodynamics

Equilibrium thermodynamics is the study of transfers of matter and energy in systems or bodies that, by
agencies in their surroundings, can be driven from one state of thermodynamic equilibrium to another. The
term 'thermodynamic equilibrium' indicates a state of balance, in which all macroscopic flows are zero; in
the case of the simplest systems or bodies, their intensive properties are homogeneous, and their pressures
are perpendicular to their boundaries. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials, or driving
forces, between macroscopically distinct parts of the system. A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics
is: given a system in a well-defined initial equilibrium state, and given its surroundings, and given its
constitutive walls, to calculate what will be the final equilibrium state of the system after a specified
thermodynamic operation has changed its walls or surroundings.

Non-equilibrium thermodynamics

Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in
thermodynamic equilibrium. Most systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because
they are not in stationary states, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and
energy to and from other systems. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more
general concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics.[24] Many natural systems still today
remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods.

Laws of thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is principally based on a set of four laws which are universally valid when applied to
systems that fall within the constraints implied by each. In the various theoretical descriptions of
thermodynamics these laws may be expressed in seemingly differing forms, but the most prominent
formulations are the following.

Zeroth law

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they
are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

This statement implies that thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation on the set of thermodynamic
systems under consideration. Systems are said to be in equilibrium if the small, random exchanges between
them (e.g. Brownian motion) do not lead to a net change in energy. This law is tacitly assumed in every
measurement of temperature. Thus, if one seeks to decide whether two bodies are at the same temperature,
it is not necessary to bring them into contact and measure any changes of their observable properties in
time.[25] The law provides an empirical definition of temperature, and justification for the construction of
practical thermometers.

The zeroth law was not initially recognized as a separate law of thermodynamics, as its basis in
thermodynamical equilibrium was implied in the other laws. The first, second, and third laws had been
explicitly stated already, and found common acceptance in the physics community before the importance of
the zeroth law for the definition of temperature was
realized. As it was impractical to renumber the other
laws, it was named the zeroth law.

First law

The first law of thermodynamics states: In a process

without transfer of matter, the change in internal
energy, , of a thermodynamic system is equal to
the energy gained as heat, , less the thermodynamic
work, , done by the system on its
surroundings.[26][nb 1]

where denotes the change in the internal energy

of a closed system (for which heat or work through the
system boundary are possible, but matter transfer is not Annotated color version of the original 1824 Carnot
possible), denotes the quantity of energy supplied to heat engine showing the hot body (boiler), working
the system as heat, and denotes the amount of body (system, steam), and cold body (water), the
letters labeled according to the stopping points in
thermodynamic work done by the system on its
Carnot cycle.
surroundings. An equivalent statement is that perpetual
motion machines of the first kind are impossible; work
done by a system on its surrounding requires that
the system's internal energy decrease or be consumed, so that the amount of internal energy lost by that
work must be resupplied as heat by an external energy source or as work by an external machine acting
on the system (so that is recovered) to make the system work continuously.

For processes that include transfer of matter, a further statement is needed: With due account of the
respective fiducial reference states of the systems, when two systems, which may be of different chemical
compositions, initially separated only by an impermeable wall, and otherwise isolated, are combined into a
new system by the thermodynamic operation of removal of the wall, then

where U0 denotes the internal energy of the combined system, and U1 and U2 denote the internal
energies of the respective separated systems.

Adapted for thermodynamics, this law is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy, which
states that energy can be transformed (changed from one form to another), but cannot be created or
destroyed.[27]

Internal energy is a principal property of the thermodynamic state, while heat and work are modes of
energy transfer by which a process may change this state. A change of internal energy of a system may be
achieved by any combination of heat added or removed and work performed on or by the system. As a
function of state, the internal energy does not depend on the manner, or on the path through intermediate
steps, by which the system arrived at its state.

Second law
A traditional version of the second law of thermodynamics states: Heat does not spontaneously flow from a
colder body to a hotter body.

The second law refers to a system of matter and radiation, initially with inhomogeneities in temperature,
pressure, chemical potential, and other intensive properties, that are due to internal 'constraints', or
impermeable rigid walls, within it, or to externally imposed forces. The law observes that, when the system
is isolated from the outside world and from those forces, there is a definite thermodynamic quantity, its
entropy, that increases as the constraints are removed, eventually reaching a maximum value at
thermodynamic equilibrium, when the inhomogeneities practically vanish. For systems that are initially far
from thermodynamic equilibrium, though several have been proposed, there is known no general physical
principle that determines the rates of approach to thermodynamic equilibrium, and thermodynamics does
not deal with such rates. The many versions of the second law all express the irreversibility of such
approach to thermodynamic equilibrium.

In macroscopic thermodynamics, the second law is a basic observation applicable to any actual
thermodynamic process; in statistical thermodynamics, the second law is postulated to be a consequence of
molecular chaos.

Third law

The third law of thermodynamics states: As the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, all
processes cease and the entropy of the system approaches a minimum value.

This law of thermodynamics is a statistical law of nature regarding entropy and the impossibility of
reaching absolute zero of temperature. This law provides an absolute reference point for the determination
of entropy. The entropy determined relative to this point is the absolute entropy. Alternate definitions
include "the entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is smallest at absolute zero," or equivalently
"it is impossible to reach the absolute zero of temperature by any finite number of processes".

Absolute zero, at which all activity would stop if it were possible to achieve, is −273.15  °C (degrees
Celsius), or −459.67 °F (degrees Fahrenheit), or 0 K (kelvin), or 0° R (degrees Rankine).

System models
An important concept in thermodynamics is the thermodynamic
system, which is a precisely defined region of the universe under
study. Everything in the universe except the system is called the
surroundings. A system is separated from the remainder of the
universe by a boundary which may be a physical or notional, but serve
to confine the system to a finite volume. Segments of the boundary are
often described as walls; they have respective defined 'permeabilities'.
Transfers of energy as work, or as heat, or of matter, between the
system and the surroundings, take place through the walls, according
to their respective permeabilities. A diagram of a generic
thermodynamic system
Matter or energy that pass across the boundary so as to effect a change
in the internal energy of the system need to be accounted for in the
energy balance equation. The volume contained by the walls can be the region surrounding a single atom
resonating energy, such as Max Planck defined in 1900; it can be a body of steam or air in a steam engine,
such as Sadi Carnot defined in 1824. The system could also be just one nuclide (i.e. a system of quarks) as
hypothesized in quantum thermodynamics. When a looser viewpoint is adopted, and the requirement of
thermodynamic equilibrium is dropped, the system can be the body of a tropical cyclone, such as Kerry
Emanuel theorized in 1986 in the field of atmospheric thermodynamics, or the event horizon of a black
hole.

Boundaries are of four types: fixed, movable, real, and imaginary. For example, in an engine, a fixed
boundary means the piston is locked at its position, within which a constant volume process might occur. If
the piston is allowed to move that boundary is movable while the cylinder and cylinder head boundaries are
fixed. For closed systems, boundaries are real while for open systems boundaries are often imaginary. In the
case of a jet engine, a fixed imaginary boundary might be assumed at the intake of the engine, fixed
boundaries along the surface of the case and a second fixed imaginary boundary across the exhaust nozzle.

Generally, thermodynamics distinguishes three classes of systems, defined in terms of what is allowed to
cross their boundaries:

Interactions of thermodynamic systems

Type of system Mass flow Work Heat
Open
Closed
Thermally isolated
Mechanically isolated
Isolated

As time passes in an isolated system, internal differences of pressures, densities, and temperatures tend to
even out. A system in which all equalizing processes have gone to completion is said to be in a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium.

Once in thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. Systems
in equilibrium are much simpler and easier to understand than are systems which are not in equilibrium.
Often, when analysing a dynamic thermodynamic process, the simplifying assumption is made that each
intermediate state in the process is at equilibrium, producing thermodynamic processes which develop so
slowly as to allow each intermediate step to be an equilibrium state and are said to be reversible processes.

States and processes

When a system is at equilibrium under a given set of conditions, it is said to be in a definite thermodynamic
state. The state of the system can be described by a number of state quantities that do not depend on the
process by which the system arrived at its state. They are called intensive variables or extensive variables
according to how they change when the size of the system changes. The properties of the system can be
described by an equation of state which specifies the relationship between these variables. State may be
thought of as the instantaneous quantitative description of a system with a set number of variables held
constant.

A thermodynamic process may be defined as the energetic evolution of a thermodynamic system

proceeding from an initial state to a final state. It can be described by process quantities. Typically, each
thermodynamic process is distinguished from other processes in energetic character according to what
parameters, such as temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed; Furthermore, it is useful to group
these processes into pairs, in which each variable held constant is one member of a conjugate pair.

Several commonly studied thermodynamic processes are:

 Adiabatic process: occurs without loss or gain of energy by heat
Isenthalpic process: occurs at a constant enthalpy
Isentropic process: a reversible adiabatic process, occurs at a constant entropy
Isobaric process: occurs at constant pressure
Isochoric process: occurs at constant volume (also called isometric/isovolumetric)
Isothermal process: occurs at a constant temperature
Steady state process: occurs without a change in the internal energy

Instrumentation
There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter
is any device which measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases, the
thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For example,
the zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to
measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure. From the
ideal gas law pV=nRT, the volume of such a sample can be used as an indicator of temperature; in this
manner it defines temperature. Although pressure is defined mechanically, a pressure-measuring device,
called a barometer may also be constructed from a sample of an ideal gas held at a constant temperature. A
calorimeter is a device which is used to measure and define the internal energy of a system.

A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that its state parameters are not appreciably altered
when it is brought into contact with the system of interest. When the reservoir is brought into contact with
the system, the system is brought into equilibrium with the reservoir. For example, a pressure reservoir is a
system at a particular pressure, which imposes that pressure upon the system to which it is mechanically
connected. The Earth's atmosphere is often used as a pressure reservoir. The ocean can act as temperature
reservoir when used to cool power plants.

Conjugate variables
The central concept of thermodynamics is that of energy, the ability to do work. By the First Law, the total
energy of a system and its surroundings is conserved. Energy may be transferred into a system by heating,
compression, or addition of matter, and extracted from a system by cooling, expansion, or extraction of
matter. In mechanics, for example, energy transfer equals the product of the force applied to a body and the
resulting displacement.

Conjugate variables are pairs of thermodynamic concepts, with the first being akin to a "force" applied to
some thermodynamic system, the second being akin to the resulting "displacement," and the product of the
two equaling the amount of energy transferred. The common conjugate variables are:

Pressure-volume (the mechanical parameters);

Temperature-entropy (thermal parameters);
Chemical potential-particle number (material parameters).

Potentials
Thermodynamic potentials are different quantitative measures of the stored energy in a system. Potentials
are used to measure the energy changes in systems as they evolve from an initial state to a final state. The
potential used depends on the constraints of the system, such as constant temperature or pressure. For
example, the Helmholtz and Gibbs energies are the energies available in a system to do useful work when
the temperature and volume or the pressure and temperature are fixed, respectively.

The five most well known potentials are:

Name Symbol Formula Natural variables

Internal energy

Helmholtz free energy

Enthalpy

Gibbs free energy

Landau potential, or
,
grand potential

where is the temperature, the entropy, the pressure, the volume, the chemical potential, the
number of particles in the system, and is the count of particles types in the system.

Thermodynamic potentials can be derived from the energy balance equation applied to a thermodynamic
system. Other thermodynamic potentials can also be obtained through Legendre transformation.

Axiomatic thermodynamics
Axiomatic thermodynamics is a mathematical discipline that aims to describe thermodynamics in terms of
rigorous axioms, for example by finding a mathematically rigorous way to express the familiar laws of
thermodynamics.

The first attempt at an axiomatic theory of thermodynamics was Constantin Carathéodory's 1909 work
Investigations on the Foundations of Thermodynamics, which made use of Pfaffian systems and the
concept of adiabatic accessibility, a notion that was introduced by Carathéodory himself.[28][29] In this
formulation, thermodynamic concepts such as heat, entropy, and temperature are derived from quantities
that are more directly measurable.[30] Theories that came after, differed in the sense that they made
assumptions regarding thermodynamic processes with arbitrary initial and final states, as opposed to
considering only neighboring states.

Applied fields
Atmospheric thermodynamics
Biological thermodynamics
Black hole thermodynamics
Chemical thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics
Equilibrium thermodynamics
Industrial ecology (re: Exergy)
Maximum entropy thermodynamics
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics
Psychrometrics
 Quantum thermodynamics
Statistical thermodynamics, i.e. Statistical mechanics
Thermoeconomics
Polymer chemistry
Renewable Energy Thermodynamics

See also
Thermodynamic process path

Lists and timelines

List of important publications in thermodynamics
List of textbooks on thermodynamics and statistical mechanics
List of thermal conductivities
List of thermodynamic properties
Table of thermodynamic equations
Timeline of thermodynamics
Thermodynamic equations

Notes
1. The sign convention (Q is heat supplied to the system as, W is work done by the system) is
that of Rudolf Clausius. The opposite sign convention is customary in chemical
thermodynamics.

References
1. Clausius, Rudolf (1850). On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be
deduced from it for the Theory of Heat. Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik, LXXIX (Dover
Reprint). ISBN 978-0-486-59065-3.
2. William Thomson, LL.D. D.C.L., F.R.S. (1882). Mathematical and Physical Papers (https://bo
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unded+on+Carnot%E2%80%99s+Theory&pg=PA100). Vol. 1. London, Cambridge: C.J.
Clay, M.A. & Son, Cambridge University Press. p. 232. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
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augoog). London: John van Voorst. Retrieved 19 June 2012. "editions:PwR_Sbkwa8IC."
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ttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8846081).
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ch0000part_q6h4). Dover. OCLC 19353301 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/19353301).
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12. Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
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Substances (https://archive.org/details/thermodynamicsfr00gnle). McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.
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ynamics) from the original on 25 May 2010. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
21. Donald T. Haynie (2008). Biological Thermodynamics (https://archive.org/details/biologicalth
ermo0000hayn) (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 26 (https://archive.org/details/biologi
calthermo0000hayn/page/26).
22. Kelvin, William T. (1849) "An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat – with
Numerical Results Deduced from Regnault's Experiments on Steam." Transactions of the
Edinburg Royal Society, XVI. January 2.Scanned Copy (http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?
Destination=Gallica&O=NUMM-95118) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170724100
855/http://www.archive.org/stream/mathematicaland01kelvgoog) 24 July 2017 at the
Wayback Machine
23. Klotz, Irving (2008). Chemical Thermodynamics: Basic Theory and Methods. Hoboken, New
Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-471-78015-1.
24. Pokrovskii, Vladimir (2020). Thermodynamics of Complex Systems: Principles and
applications. IOP Publishing, Bristol, UK. Bibcode:2020tcsp.book.....P (https://ui.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/abs/2020tcsp.book.....P).
25. Moran, Michael J. and Howard N. Shapiro, 2008. Fundamentals of Engineering
Thermodynamics. 6th ed. Wiley and Sons: 16.
26. Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics, AIP Press,
Woodbury NY, ISBN 0883187973, p. 79.
27. Callen, H.B. (1960/1985).Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics, second
edition, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken NY, ISBN 9780471862567, pp. 11–13.
28. Carathéodory, C. (1909). "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Thermodynamik" (http://
link.springer.com/10.1007/BF01450409). Mathematische Annalen (in German). 67 (3): 355–
386. doi:10.1007/BF01450409 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01450409). ISSN 0025-5831
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0025-5831).
29. Frankel, Theodore (2004). The Geometry of Physics: An Introduction (second ed.).
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521539272.
30. Rastall, Peter (1 October 1970). "Classical Thermodynamics Simplified" (https://aip.scitation.
org/doi/10.1063/1.1665080). Journal of Mathematical Physics. 11 (10): 2955–2965.
doi:10.1063/1.1665080 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1665080). ISSN 0022-2488 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2488).

Further reading
Goldstein, Martin & Inge F. (1993). The Refrigerator and the Universe (https://archive.org/det
ails/refrigeratoruniv0000gold). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-75325-9.
OCLC 32826343 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32826343). A nontechnical introduction,
good on historical and interpretive matters.
Kazakov, Andrei; Muzny, Chris D.; Chirico, Robert D.; Diky, Vladimir V.; Frenkel, Michael
(2008). "Web Thermo Tables – an On-Line Version of the TRC Thermodynamic Tables" (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4651616). Journal of Research of the National
Institute of Standards and Technology. 113 (4): 209–220. doi:10.6028/jres.113.016 (https://d
oi.org/10.6028%2Fjres.113.016). ISSN 1044-677X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1044-677
X). PMC 4651616 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4651616).
PMID 27096122 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27096122).
Gibbs J.W. (1928). The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs Thermodynamics. New York:
Longmans, Green and Co. Vol. 1, pp. 55–349.
Guggenheim E.A. (1933). Modern thermodynamics by the methods of Willard Gibbs.
London: Methuen & co. ltd.
Denbigh K. (1981). The Principles of Chemical Equilibrium: With Applications in Chemistry
and Chemical Engineering. London: Cambridge University Press.
Stull, D.R., Westrum Jr., E.F. and Sinke, G.C. (1969). The Chemical Thermodynamics of
Organic Compounds. London: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Bazarov I.P. (2010). Thermodynamics: Textbook. St. Petersburg: Lan publishing house.
p. 384. ISBN 978-5-8114-1003-3. 5th ed. (in Russian)
Bawendi Moungi G., Alberty Robert A. and Silbey Robert J. (2004). Physical Chemistry. J.
Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
Alberty Robert A. (2003). Thermodynamics of Biochemical Reactions. Wiley-Interscience.
Alberty Robert A. (2006). Biochemical Thermodynamics: Applications of Mathematica.
Methods of Biochemical Analysis. Vol. 48. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 1–458. ISBN 978-0-
471-75798-6. PMID 16878778 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16878778).
 Dill Ken A., Bromberg Sarina (2011). Molecular Driving Forces: Statistical Thermodynamics
in Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and Nanoscience. Garland Science. ISBN 978-0-8153-4430-
8.
M. Scott Shell (2015). Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics: An Integrated Approach.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107656789.
Douglas E. Barrick (2018). Biomolecular Thermodynamics: From Theory to Applications.
CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398-0019-5.

The following titles are more technical:

Bejan, Adrian (2016). Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics (4 ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-1-

119-05209-8.
Cengel, Yunus A., & Boles, Michael A. (2002). Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach
(https://archive.org/details/thermodynamicsen00ceng_0). McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-
238332-4. OCLC 45791449 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45791449).
Dunning-Davies, Jeremy (1997). Concise Thermodynamics: Principles and Applications.
Horwood Publishing. ISBN 978-1-8985-6315-0. OCLC 36025958 (https://www.worldcat.org/
oclc/36025958).
Kroemer, Herbert & Kittel, Charles (1980). Thermal Physics. W.H. Freeman Company.
ISBN 978-0-7167-1088-2. OCLC 32932988 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32932988).

External links
Media related to Thermodynamics at Wikimedia Commons

Callendar, Hugh Longbourne (1911). "Thermodynamics"  (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/191

1_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Thermodynamics). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26
(11th ed.). pp. 808–814.
Thermodynamics Data & Property Calculation Websites (http://tigger.uic.edu/~mansoori/The
rmodynamic.Data.and.Property_html)
Thermodynamics Educational Websites (http://tigger.uic.edu/~mansoori/Thermodynamics.E
ducational.Sites_html)
Biochemistry Thermodynamics (http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/revi
ews/thermo/thermo_intro.htm)
Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics (http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/sm1/lectur
es/lectures.html)
Engineering Thermodynamics – A Graphical Approach (https://web.archive.org/web/200904
30200028/http://www.ent.ohiou.edu/~thermo/)
Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics (http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/sm1/statm
ech.pdf) by Richard Fitzpatrick

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