Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is a branch of physics concerned with heat and

temperature and their relation to other forms ofenergy and work. The
behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of
thermodynamics, irrespective of the composition or specific
properties of the material or system in question. The laws of
thermodynamics are explained in terms of microscopic constituents
by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety
of topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry,
chemical engineering and mechanical engineering.

Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase

the efficiency of early steam engines, particularly through the work
of French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1824) who
believed that engine efficiency was the key that could help France
win the Napoleonic Wars.[1] Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin was the
first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854[2]
which stated, "Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat Annotated color version of the original 1824Carnot
to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation heat engine showing the hot body (boiler), working
of heat to electrical agency." body (system, steam), and cold body (water), the
letters labeled according to the stopping points in
The initial application of thermodynamics tomechanical heat engines Carnot cycle.
was extended early on to the study of chemical compounds and
chemical reactions. Chemical thermodynamics studies the nature of
the role of entropy in the process of chemical reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the
field.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11] Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged in the following decades. Statistical thermodynamics,
or statistical mechanics, concerned itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic
behavior. In 1909, Constantin Carathéodory presented a purely mathematical approach to the field in his axiomatic formulation of
thermodynamics, a description often referred to asgeometrical thermodynamics.

Contents
Introduction
History
Etymology
Branches of thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics
Statistical mechanics
Chemical thermodynamics
Treatment of equilibrium
Laws of thermodynamics
System models
States and processes
Instrumentation
Conjugate variables
 Potentials
Applied fields
See also
Lists and timelines
Wikibooks
References
Further reading
External links

Introduction
A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four laws of thermodynamics that form an axiomatic basis. The first law
specifies that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat and work.[12] The second law defines the existence of a
quantity called entropy, that describes the direction, thermodynamically
, that a system can evolve and quantifies the state of order of a
[13]
system and that can be used to quantify the useful work that can be extracted from the system.

In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of
the thermodynamic system and its surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, and
those properties are in turn related to one another through equations of state. Properties can be combined to express internal energy
and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions forequilibrium and spontaneous processes.

With these tools, thermodynamics can be used to describe how systems respond to changes in their environment. This can be applied
to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena,
and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields ofphysics and for chemistry, chemical engineering,
aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering, materials science, and economics, to name a
few.[14][15]

This article is focused mainly on classical thermodynamics which primarily studies systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. Non-
equilibrium thermodynamics is often treated as an extension of the classical treatment, but statistical mechanics has brought many
advances to that field.

History
The history of thermodynamics as a scientific discipline generally begins with Otto von Guericke who, in 1650, built and designed
the world's first vacuum pump and demonstrated a vacuum using his Magdeburg hemispheres. Guericke was driven to make a
vacuum in order to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that 'nature abhors a vacuum'. Shortly after Guericke, the English
physicist and chemist Robert Boyle had learned of Guericke's designs and, in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert
Hooke, built an air pump.[17] Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed a correlation between pressure, temperature, and volume. In
time, Boyle's Law was formulated, which states that pressure and volume are inversely proportional. Then, in 1679, based on these
concepts, an associate of Boyle's named Denis Papin built a steam digester, which was a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that
confined steam until a high pressure was generated.

Later designs implemented a steam release valve that kept the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up
and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and a cylinder engine. He did not, however, follow through with his design.
Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer Thomas Savery built the first engine, followed by Thomas Newcomen in
1712. Although these early engines were crude and inef
ficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time.

The fundamental concepts of heat capacity and latent heat, which were necessary for the development of thermodynamics, were
developed by Professor Joseph Black at the University of Glasgow, where James Watt was employed as an instrument maker. Black
and Watt performed experiments together, but it was Watt who conceived the idea of the external condenser which resulted in a large

[18]
increase in steam engine efficiency.[18] Drawing
on all the previous work led Sadi Carnot, the
"father of thermodynamics", to publish
Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire (1824), a
discourse on heat, power, energy and engine
efficiency. The book outlined the basic energetic
relations between the Carnot engine, the Carnot
cycle, and motive power. It marked the start of
thermodynamics as a modern science.[10]

The first thermodynamic textbook was written in

1859 by William Rankine, originally trained as a
physicist and a civil and mechanical engineering
professor at the University of Glasgow.[19] The
first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged
simultaneously in the 1850s, primarily out of the
works of William Rankine, Rudolf Clausius, and
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).
The thermodynamicists representative of the original eight founding
The foundations of statistical thermodynamics schools of thermodynamics. The schools with the most-lasting ef fect
were set out by physicists such as James Clerk in founding the modern versions of thermodynamics are the Berlin
school, particularly as established inRudolf Clausius’s 1865
Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, Max Planck,
textbook The Mechanical Theory of Heat, the Vienna school, with
Rudolf Clausius and J. Willard Gibbs.
the statistical mechanics of Ludwig Boltzmann, and the Gibbsian
school at Yale University, American engineer Willard Gibbs' 1876 On
During the years 1873-76 the American
the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substanceslaunching chemical
mathematical physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs
thermodynamics.[16]
published a series of three papers, the most
famous being On the Equilibrium of
Heterogeneous Substances,[3] in which he showed how thermodynamic processes, including chemical reactions, could be graphically
analyzed, by studying theenergy, entropy, volume, temperature and pressure of the thermodynamic systemin such a manner, one can
determine if a process would occur spontaneously.[20] Also Pierre Duhem in the 19th century wrote about chemical
thermodynamics.[4] During the early 20th century, chemists such as Gilbert N. Lewis, Merle Randall,[5] and E. A. Guggenheim[6][7]
applied the mathematical methods of Gibbs to the analysis of chemical processes.

Etymology
The etymology of thermodynamics has an intricate history.[21] It was first spelled in a hyphenated form as an adjective (thermo-
[21]
dynamic) and from 1854 to 1868 as the nounthermo-dynamics to represent the science of generalized heat engines.

American biophysicist Donald Haynie claims that thermodynamics was coined in 1840 from the Greek root θέρμη therme, meaning
heat and δύναμις dynamis, meaning power.[22] However, this etymology has been cited as unlikely.[21]

Pierre Perrot claims that the term thermodynamics was coined by James Joule in 1858 to designate the science of relations between
heat and power,[10] however, Joule never used that term, but used instead the term perfect thermo-dynamic engine in reference to
Thomson’s 1849[23] phraseology.[21]

By 1858, thermo-dynamics, as a functional term, was used in William Thomson's paper "An Account of Carnot's Theory of the
Motive Power of Heat."[23]

Branches of thermodynamics
The study of thermodynamical systems has developed into several related branches, each using a different fundamental model as a
theoretical or experimental basis, or applying the principles to varying types of systems.

Classical thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states of thermodynamic systems at near-equilibrium, that uses macroscopic,
measurable properties. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work and heat based on the laws of thermodynamics. The qualifier
classical reflects the fact that it represents the first level of understanding of the subject as it developed in the 19th century and
describes the changes of a system in terms of macroscopic empirical (large scale, and measurable) parameters. A microscopic
interpretation of these concepts was later provided by the development ofstatistical mechanics.

Statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics, also called statistical thermodynamics, emerged with the development of atomic and molecular theories in the
late 19th century and early 20th century, and supplemented classical thermodynamics with an interpretation of the microscopic
interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual
atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining
classical thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and
quantum theory at the microscopic level.

Thermodynamics navigation
Chemical thermodynamics image.svg
Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of energy with chemical
reactions or with a physical change of state within the confines of the laws of
thermodynamics.

Treatment of equilibrium
Equilibrium thermodynamics is the systematic study of transformations of matter
and energy in systems as they approach equilibrium. The word equilibrium implies a
state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials, or
driving forces, within the system. A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is:
given a system in a well-defined initial state, subject to accurately specified
constraints, to calculate what the state of the system will be once it has reached
equilibrium.

Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with

systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Most systems found in nature
are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because they are not in stationary states, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to
flux of matter and energy to and from other systems. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general
concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently
known macroscopic thermodynamic methods.

Laws of thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is principally based on a set of four laws which are universally valid when applied to systems that fall within the
constraints implied by each. In the various theoretical descriptions of thermodynamics these laws may be expressed in seemingly
differing forms, but the most prominent formulations are the following:

Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
This statement implies that thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation on the set of thermodynamic systems under consideration.
Systems are said to be in equilibrium if the small, random exchanges between them (e.g. Brownian motion) do not lead to a net
change in energy. This law is tacitly assumed in every measurement of temperature. Thus, if one seeks to decide if two bodies are at
the same temperature, it is not necessary to bring them into contact and measure any changes of their observable properties in
time.[24] The law provides an empirical definition of temperature and justification for the construction of practical thermometers.

The zeroth law was not initially recognized as a law, as its basis in thermodynamical equilibrium was implied in the other laws. The
first, second, and third laws had been explicitly stated prior and found common acceptance in the physics community. Once the
importance of the zeroth law for the definition of temperature was realized, it was impracticable to renumber the other laws, hence it
was numbered the zeroth law.

First law of thermodynamics: The internal energy of an isolated system is constant.

The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy. It states that energy can be transformed
[25]
(changed from one form to another), but cannot be created or destroyed.

The first law is usually formulated by saying that the change in the internal energy of a closed thermodynamic system is equal to the
difference between the heat supplied to the system and the amount of work done by the system on its surroundings. It is important to
note that internal energy is a state of the system (see Thermodynamic state) whereas heat and work modify the state of the system. In
other words, a change of internal energy of a system may be achieved by any combination of heat and work added or removed from
the system as long as those total to the change of internal energy. The manner by which a system achieves its internal energy is path
independent.

Second law of thermodynamics: Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder location to a hotter location.
The second law of thermodynamics is an expression of the universal principle of decay observable in nature. The second law is an
observation of the fact that over time, differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential tend to even out in a physical
system that is isolated from the outside world. Entropy is a measure of how much this process has progressed. The entropy of an
isolated system which is not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium. However,
principles guiding systems that are far from equilibrium are still debatable. One of such principles is the maximum entropy
production principle.[26][27] It states that non-equilibrium systems behave such a way as to maximize its entropy production.
[28]

In classical thermodynamics, the second law is a basic postulate applicable to any system involving heat energy transfer; in statistical
thermodynamics, the second law is a consequence of the assumed randomness of molecular chaos. There are many versions of the
second law, but they all have the same effect, which is to explain the phenomenon ofirreversibility in nature.

Third law of thermodynamics: As a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy of the
system approaches a minimum value.
The third law of thermodynamics is a statistical law of nature regarding entropy and the impossibility of reaching absolute zero of
temperature. This law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy. The entropy determined relative to this
point is the absolute entropy. Alternate definitions are, "the entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is smallest at absolute
zero," or equivalently "it is impossible to reach the absolute zero of temperature by any finite number of processes".

Absolute zero, at which all activity would stop if it were possible to happen, is −273.15 °C (degrees Celsius), or −459.67 °F (degrees
Fahrenheit) or 0 K (kelvin).

System models
An important concept in thermodynamics is the thermodynamic system, which is a precisely defined region of the universe under
study. Everything in the universe except the system is called the surroundings. A system is separated from the remainder of the
universe by a boundary which may be a physical boundary or notional, but which by convention defines a finite volume. Exchanges
of work, heat, or matter between the system and the surroundings take place across this boundary
.
In practice, the boundary of a system is simply an imaginary dotted line drawn around a
volume within which is going to be a change in the internal energy of that volume.
Anything that passes across the boundary that effects a change in the internal energy of
the system needs to be accounted for in the energy balance equation. The volume can be
the region surrounding a single atom resonating energy, such as Max Planck defined in
1900; it can be a body of steam or air in a steam engine, such as Sadi Carnot defined in
1824; it can be the body of a tropical cyclone, such as Kerry Emanuel theorized in 1986
in the field of atmospheric thermodynamics; it could also be just one nuclide (i.e. a
system of quarks) as hypothesized in quantum thermodynamics, or the event horizon of
a black hole. A diagram of a generic
thermodynamic system
Boundaries are of four types: fixed, movable, real, and imaginary. For example, in an
engine, a fixed boundary means the piston is locked at its position, within which a
constant volume process might occur. If the piston is allowed to move that boundary is movable while the cylinder and cylinder head
boundaries are fixed. For closed systems, boundaries are real while for open systems boundaries are often imaginary. In the case of a
jet engine, a fixed imaginary boundary might be assumed at the intake of the engine, fixed boundaries along the surface of the case
and a second fixed imaginary boundary across the exhaust nozzle.

Generally, thermodynamics distinguishes three classes of systems, defined in terms of what is allowed to cross their boundaries:

Interactions of thermodynamic systems

Type of system Mass flow Work Heat
Open
Closed
Thermally isolated
Mechanically isolated
Isolated

As time passes in an isolated system, internal differences of pressures, densities, and temperatures tend to even out. A system in
which all equalizing processes have gone to completion is said to be in state
a of thermodynamic equilibrium.

Once in thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. Systems in equilibrium are much
simpler and easier to understand than are systems which are not in equilibrium. Often, when analysing a dynamic thermodynamic
process, the simplifying assumption is made that each intermediate state in the process is at equilibrium, producing thermodynamic
processes which develop so slowly as to allow each intermediate step to be an equilibrium state and are said to be reversible
processes.

States and processes

When a system is at equilibrium under a given set of conditions, it is said to be in a definite thermodynamic state. The state of the
system can be described by a number of state quantities that do not depend on the process by which the system arrived at its state.
They are called intensive variables or extensive variables according to how they change when the size of the system changes. The
properties of the system can be described by an equation of state which specifies the relationship between these variables. State may
be thought of as the instantaneous quantitative description of a system with a set number of variables held constant.

A thermodynamic processmay be defined as the energetic evolution of a thermodynamic system proceeding from an initial state to a
final state. It can be described by process quantities. Typically, each thermodynamic process is distinguished from other processes in
energetic character according to what parameters, such as temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed. Furthermore, it is
useful to group these processes into pairs, in which each variable held constant is one member ofconjugate
a pair.
Several commonly studied thermodynamic processes are:

Adiabatic process: occurs without loss or gain of energy byheat

Isenthalpic process: occurs at a constant enthalpy
Isentropic process: a reversible adiabatic process, occurs at a constantentropy
Isobaric process: occurs at constant pressure
Isochoric process: occurs at constant volume (also called isometric/isovolumetric)
Isothermal process: occurs at a constant temperature
Steady state process: occurs without a change in theinternal energy

Instrumentation
There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter is any device which
measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an
idealized measuring instrument. For example, the zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body,
they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to
measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure. From the ideal gas law pV=nRT, the
volume of such a sample can be used as an indicator of temperature; in this manner it defines temperature. Although pressure is
defined mechanically, a pressure-measuring device, called a barometer may also be constructed from a sample of an ideal gas held at
a constant temperature. Acalorimeter is a device which is used to measure and define the internal ener
gy of a system.

A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that its state parameters are not appreciably altered when it is brought into
contact with the system of interest. When the reservoir is brought into contact with the system, the system is brought into equilibrium
with the reservoir. For example, a pressure reservoir is a system at a particular pressure, which imposes that pressure upon the system
to which it is mechanically connected. The Earth's atmosphere is often used as a pressure reservoir. If ocean water is used to cool a
power plant, the ocean is often a temperature reservoir in the analysis of the power plant cycle.

Conjugate variables
The central concept of thermodynamics is that of energy, the ability to do work. By the First Law, the total energy of a system and its
surroundings is conserved. Energy may be transferred into a system by heating, compression, or addition of matter, and extracted
from a system by cooling, expansion, or extraction of matter. In mechanics, for example, energy transfer equals the product of the
force applied to a body and the resulting displacement.

Conjugate variables are pairs of thermodynamic concepts, with the first being akin to a "force" applied to some thermodynamic
system, the second being akin to the resulting "displacement," and the product of the two equalling the amount of energy transferred.
The common conjugate variables are:

Pressure-volume (the mechanical parameters);

Temperature-entropy (thermal parameters);
Chemical potential-particle number (material parameters).

Potentials
Thermodynamic potentials are different quantitative measures of the stored energy in a system. Potentials are used to measure the
energy changes in systems as they evolve from an initial state to a final state. The potential used depends on the constraints of the
system, such as constant temperature or pressure. For example, the Helmholtz and Gibbs energies are the energies available in a
system to do useful work when the temperature and volume or the pressure and temperature are fixed, respectively
.

The five most well known potentials are:

 Name Symbol Formula Natural variables

Internal energy

Helmholtz free energy

Enthalpy

Gibbs free energy

Landau Potential (Grand potential) ,

where is the temperature, the entropy, the pressure, the volume, the chemical potential, the number of particles in the
system, and is the count of particles types in the system.

Thermodynamic potentials can be derived from the energy balance equation applied to a thermodynamic system. Other
thermodynamic potentials can also be obtained throughLegendre transformation.

Applied fields
Atmospheric thermodynamics Maximum entropy thermodynamics
Biological thermodynamics Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
Black hole thermodynamics Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics
Chemical thermodynamics Psychrometrics
Classical thermodynamics Quantum thermodynamics
Equilibrium thermodynamics Statistical thermodynamics
Industrial ecology (re: Exergy) Thermoeconomics

See also

Lists and timelines

List of important publications in thermodynamics
List of textbooks in statistical mechanics
List of thermal conductivities
List of thermodynamic properties
Table of thermodynamic equations
Timeline of thermodynamics

Wikibooks
Engineering Thermodynamics
Entropy for Beginners

References
1. Clausius, Rudolf (1850).On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the
'Theory of Heat'. Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik, LXXIX (Dover Reprint).ISBN 0-486-59065-8.
2. William Thomson, LL.D. D.C.L., F.R.S. (1882). Mathematical and Physical Papers(https://books.google.com/books?i
d=nWMSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA100&dq=On+an+Absolute+Thermometric+Scale+Founded+on+Carnot%E2%80%99s+T
heory&ei=roDISOecOKayjAHajoXyCw#v=onepage&q=On%20an%20Absolute%20Thermometric%20Scale%20Foun
ded%20on%20Carnot%E2%80%99s%20Theory&f=false) . 1. London, Cambridge: C.J. Clay, M.A. & Son, Cambridge
University Press. p. 232.
 3. Gibbs, Willard, J. (1876).Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, III, pp. 108-248, Oct. 1875-May 1876, and pp.
343-524, May 1877-July 1878.
4. Duhem, P.M.M. (1886). Le Potential Thermodynamique et ses Applications
, Hermann, Paris.
5. Lewis, Gilbert N.; Randall, Merle (1923).Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances
. McGraw-
Hill Book Co. Inc.
6. Guggenheim, E.A. (1933).Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of J.W
. Gibbs, Methuen, London.
7. Guggenheim, E.A. (1949/1967).Thermodynamics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists, 1st edition
1949, 5th edition 1967, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
8. Ilya Prigogine, I. & Defay, R., translated by D.H. Everett (1954). Chemical Thermodynamics. Longmans, Green &
Co., London. Includes classical non-equilibrium thermodynamics.
9. Enrico Fermi (1956). Thermodynamics (https://books.google.com/books?id=VEZ1ljsT3IwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=
thermodynamics). Courier Dover Publications. pp. (ix).ISBN 048660361X. OCLC 230763036 (https://www.worldcat.
org/oclc/230763036).
10. Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-856552-6. OCLC 123283342
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/123283342).
11. Clark, John, O.E. (2004).The Essential Dictionary of Science. Barnes & Noble Books.ISBN 0-7607-4616-8.
OCLC 58732844 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/58732844).
12. Van Ness, H.C. (1983) [1969].Understanding Thermodynamics. Dover Publications, Inc.ISBN 9780486632773.
OCLC 8846081 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8846081).
13. Dugdale, J.S. (1998). Entropy and its Physical Meaning. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0-7484-0569-0. OCLC 36457809
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36457809).
14. Smith, J.M.; Van Ness, H.C.; Abbott, M.M. (2005). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics
. McGraw
Hill. ISBN 0-07-310445-0. OCLC 56491111 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56491111).
15. Haynie, Donald, T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-79549-4.
OCLC 43993556 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43993556).
16. Schools of thermodynamics(http://www.eoht.info/page/Schools+of+thermodynamics) - EoHT.info.
17. Partington, J.R. (1989). A Short History of Chemistry. Dover. OCLC 19353301 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/193533
01).
18. The Newcomen engine was improved from 1711 until W att's work, making the efficiency comparison subject to
qualification, but the increase from the 1865 version was on the order of 100%.
19. Cengel, Yunus A.; Boles, Michael A. (2005).Thermodynamics - an Engineering Approach. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-
310768-9.
20. Gibbs, Willard (1993). The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, Volume One: Thermodynamics. Ox Bow Press.
ISBN 0-918024-77-3. OCLC 27974820 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27974820).
21. "Thermodynamics (etymology)"(http://www.eoht.info/page/Thermo-dynamics). EoHT.info.
22. Donald T. Haynie (2008). Biological Thermodynamics(2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 26.
23. Kelvin, William T. (1849) "An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat - with Numerical Results
Deduced from Regnault's Experiments on Steam."Transactions of the Edinburg Royal Society , XVI. January
2.Scanned Copy (http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?Destination=Gallica&O=NUMM-95118)
24. Moran, Michael J. and Howard N. Shapiro, 2008.Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics
. 6th ed. Wiley and
Sons: 16.
25. "Energy Rules! Energy Conversion and the Laws of Thermodynamics - More About the First and Second Laws"(http
s://web.archive.org/web/20100605173901/http://www .uwsp.edu/cnr/wcee/keep/Mod1/Rules/ThermoLaws.htm).
Uwsp.edu. Archived fromthe original (http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/wcee/keep/mod1/rules/ThermoLaws.htm)on 5 June
2010. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
26. Onsager, Lars (1931). "Reciprocal Relationsin Irreversible Processes".Phys. Rev. 37 (405).
27. Ziegler, H. (1983). An Introduction to Thermomechanics. North Holland.
28. Belkin, Andrey; et., al. (2015). "Self-Assembled Wiggling Nano-Structures and the Principle of Maximum Entropy
Production". Sci. Rep. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E8323B(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015NatSR...5E8323B) .
doi:10.1038/srep08323 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep08323).
Further reading
Goldstein, Martin & Inge F. (1993). The Refrigerator and the Universe. Harvard University Press.ISBN 0-674-75325-
9. OCLC 32826343. A nontechnical introduction, good on historical and interpretive matters.
Kazakov, Andrei; Muzny, Chris D.; Chirico, Robert D.; Diky, Vladimir V.; Frenkel, Michael (2008)."Web Thermo
Tables - an On-Line Version of the TRC Thermodynamic T ables". Journal of Research of the National Institute of
Standards and Technology. 113 (4): 209–220. doi:10.6028/jres.113.016. ISSN 1044-677X. PMC 4651616 .

The following titles are more technical:

Bejan, Adrian (2016). Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics(4 ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-05209-8.
Cengel, Yunus A., & Boles, Michael A. (2002). Thermodynamics - an Engineering Approach. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-
07-238332-1. OCLC 45791449.
Dunning-Davies, Jeremy (1997).Concise Thermodynamics: Principles and Applications
. Horwood Publishing.
ISBN 1-8985-6315-2. OCLC 36025958.
Kroemer, Herbert & Kittel, Charles (1980).Thermal Physics. W. H. Freeman Company. ISBN 0-7167-1088-9.
OCLC 32932988.

External links
Thermodynamics Data & Property Calculation Websites
Thermodynamics Educational Websites
Thermodynamics at ScienceWorld
Biochemistry Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
Engineering Thermodynamics - A Graphical Approach
Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanicsby Richard Fitzpatrick

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