What’s More: Activity 1.2 (To be done in 8.

5 x 13 coupon)
What I Can Do: Activity 1.4 (To be uploaded in FB Page and submitted as soft copy
– Performance task)
Assessment: Write TRUE or FALSE in each number in a ¼ sheet of paper.

What I Can Do: Activity 1.5 (To be done in 8.5 x 13 coupon)

Assessment: Write TRUE or FALSE in each number in a ¼ sheet of paper.

What’s More: Activity 1.2 (To be done in 8.5 x 13 coupon)

What I Can Do: Activity 1.4 (To be uploaded in FB Page and submitted as soft copy
– Performance task)
Assessment: Write TRUE or FALSE in each number in a ¼ sheet of paper.

Assessment: Choose the letter of the correct answer in each number. Do this in a ¼ sheet of
paper.
Additional Activity: (To be done in 8.5 x 13 coupon)

Physical Science
2nd Semester Quarter 2 – Module 4
How we came to realize that the Earth is not the Center of the Universe
Motion is the action of changing location or position. Life is motion. From the coordination of the
muscles of our body which enables us to walk, run, and dance to the pumping of our hearts to deliver
blood to the different parts of our bodies are motion.
The first evidence of the study of the motion of heavenly bodies can be traced back to the people of
Sumeria and Egypt. While the Greeks were the first ones to study systematically and in detail the heavenly
bodies. They regarded the Earth as the center of the universe, geocentric. This idea of geocentric earth was
replaced by the heliocentric model of Nicolaus Copernicus, where earth and other planets revolve in
circular orbits around the Sun.
These early studies were the foundations of Galileo Galilei, an Italian physicist to revolutionized
Science.
Our current understanding on the physics of motion did not happen overnight. Instead, it gradually
developed as philosophers took up previously held philosophies and improved on it or gave critique
identifying possible weakness or inconsistencies with observations.
One such philosophical concept held is the philosophy behind motion in two particular points,
namely, the existence of one unifying explanation for the horizontal and vertical motions and how projectile
motions can be derived from the two and the quantification of the “rate of fall” or “acceleration”.
Aristotle held that the Universe was divided into two regions, the terrestrial region and the celestial
region. He also divided motion into two main classes which are natural motion and violent motion. On the
other hand, Galileo Galilei believed that a projectile motion is a combination of uniform motion in the
horizontal direction and uniformly accelerated motion in the vertical direction.

I. Aristotle’s Concept of Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile Motion

1. Vertical Motion
Vertical motion is referred to as natural motion. In a natural motion, the object will move and will
return to its natural state based on the object's material or composition - earth, water, air, and fire.
 For example, Aristotle believed that because a ball fell when thrown upward, its element was earth.
 Smoke goes up the air because it seeks its natural place in the atmosphere.
 Aristotelian concept of natural motion is largely vertical motion which is falling or rising.
2. Horizontal Motion
An object moving in a violent motion requires push or pull to maintain horizontal motion. Motion
continues only so long as there is an applied force to an object. When the force is removed, motion stops.
 The example at the right shows piled boxes of food donations. The boxes will remain on the floor
unless a push or a pull force is applied.
 Violent motion is imposed motion caused by pushing or pulling.
 Aristotle classified any motion that required a force as a "violent motion". (He did not mean violent
in the sense that it is marked by the use of harmful or destructive physical force.)
3. Projectile Motion
  Aristotle believed that the projectile motion of an
object is parallel to the ground until it is the object's
time to fall back into the ground. An impetus will be
kept by the object until such time that the initial
force is forgotten, and the object returns to its
natural state to stop moving and fall to the ground.
 He viewed projectile motion as natural and violent
motion. He said that heavy objects fall faster than
light ones.
 A notorious problem for the Aristotelian view was
why arrows shot from a bow continued to fly
through the air after they had left the bow and the
string was no longer applying force to them.

Aristotle's Explanation:
• Initial motive force transfers to the medium initially surrounding the object a "power" to act as a motive
force.
Air flow Power transfer

II. Galileo’s Concept of Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile Motion
1. Vertical Motion
In the absence of a resistance, objects would fall not
depending on their weight, but in the time of fall. Also, if the
object encountered a resistive force from a fluid equal or greater
than its weight, it will slow down and reaches a uniform motion
until it reaches the bottom and stops.
 For example, without any resistance, a 1-kg object will
be as fast as a 10-kg object when falling because they
fall with the same amount of time, given that they are
released from the same height.
 Also, a stone dropped in the ocean will sooner or later
travel at constant speed.
2. Horizontal Motion
 An object in motion, if unimpeded, will continue to be in
motion, and an external force is not necessary to maintain the
motion. If the Earth’s surface is very flat and extended infinitely,
objects that are pushed will not be impeded. Thus, the objects
will continue to move. This kind of motion, however, is not evident
in nature.
For example, if a ball is pushed on an infinitely flat plane, the ball will continue to roll if unimpeded.
3. Projectile Motion
Galileo performed experiments on uniformly accelerated
motion using an inclined plane, and used the same apparatus
to study projectile motion.
Galileo was credited for quantifying the “rate of fall” by
measurement of distance and time and plotting it graphically.
He was able to slow down the “fall” using ramps rather than
viscous materials as Aristotle did resulting to significantly
different conclusions related to the “rate of fall”.
He correctly measured motion in two independent directions (horizontal and vertical) and deduced that
the “rate of fall” is better measured in terms of downward acceleration.
He used geometry to provide better description (kinematics) of projectile motion whereby horizontal
motion has zero acceleration (constant speed horizontally) and content vertical acceleration.
 By varying the ball's horizontal velocity and vertical drop, Galileo was able to determine that the path of
a projectile is parabolic.
He believed that a projectile is a combination of uniform motion in the horizontal direction and uniformly
accelerated motion in the vertical direction. If it is not impeded, it will continue to move even without an
applied force.
For example, when you shoot a ball in a basketball ring, the ball does not need a force to keep it moving.
What’s More
Activity 1.2 Mini Lab: Aristotle or Galileo?
Test the following activities below. Take note that in every activity, both objects should be dropped
at the same time and at the same height. (In choosing the height, be sure that you are safe).
1. Drop a book and a flat sheet of paper.
2. Drop a book and a sheet of paper crumpled to a ball.
3. Drop a book with a small flat sheet of paper on top of it.
Activity 1.2 Guide Questions
1. In all three cases, which object reaches the ground first?
2. In activity 1, what causes the flat sheet of paper to move sideways?
3. In activities 2 and 3, why did the objects fall at the same rate regardless of their masses?
4. Whose view is more acceptable? Why?
What I Can Do
Activity 1.4 Create your own five-minute Experiment video of a ball rolling on a table.
Rubric for Grading
The video will be scored from 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest. The criteria for grading are as follows:
Criteria Expectations
Visuals The video is clear and engaging. Camera shots tell the story visually and no lighting
problems.
Audio Loudness and dialogue are balanced. Spoken words show confidence and are
convincing.
Content Delivery of content is precise and complete. Emphasis given should be based on the
discussion.
Timeliness The video should consume the required 5 minutes. For every less or added
minute/s, points will be deducted.
Assessment
Modified True or False. Read each statement carefully. Write True if the statement is correct and if
FALSE, change the italicized word or group of words to make the statement correct. Use a separate paper
for your answer.
_______________1. Aristotle claimed that violent motion is an imposed motion.
______________2. In natural motion, an object will move and will eventually return to its natural state
depending on the composition that the object is made of.
_______________3. According to Galileo, heavy objects will fall faster than light ones.
_______________4. Aristotle said that to keep the object moving in horizontal motion, a constant amount of
force is needed.
_______________5. Objects dropped simultaneously will reach the ground at the same time regardless of
their masses and air resistance.
_______________6. Galileo concluded that the path taken by a projectile is parabolic.
_______________7. Galileo used an inclined plane to perform his experiments both on uniformly accelerated
motion and to study projectile motion.
_______________8. Aristotle believed that a projectile is a combination of uniform motion in the horizontal
direction and uniformly accelerated motion in the vertical direction.
_______________9. A kicked ball is an example of a natural motion.
_______________10. Vertical motion does affect the horizontal motion of a projectile.
_______________11. The “rate of fall” of an object is better measured in terms of upward acceleration.
_______________12. According to Galileo, a stone dropped in the ocean will sooner or later travel at constant
speed.
_______________13. In Galileo’s view of vertical motion, the fall of the object is dependent on its weight.
_______________14. To Galileo, natural motion is largely vertical motion.
_______________15. The fall of heavy object toward the center of the earth is a violent motion.

Physical Science
2nd Semester Quarter 2 – Module 5
 Motion is defined as the ability of an object to change its position with respect to its surroundings
in given time. Motion is always observed and measured with a point of reference. All living things show
motion whereas non-living things show motion only when force acts on it.
These are the terms associated with motion. First, Free fall, which is an example of motion with
uniform acceleration. Second is acceleration which means the change in velocity with a given time. Third
is speed which is the distance travelled of an object in a specific amount of time.
What Is It
I. Aristotle's View of Motion
Aristotle was an Ancient Greek philosopher who thought that heavier objects fall faster than lighter
ones.
Force would be needed to have a constant velocity according to Aristotle. Force is required for violent
but not natural motion.
II. Galileo's View of Motion
Italian Mathematician .Father of modern Science
Discredited Aristotelian view of motion
Object in vacuum will fall at the same time because in a vacuum
there is nothing. Since there is no air or anything in space, objects
that are heavy or light, will fall at the same time.
Force is not necessarily required for violent motion. Force is not
required for object moving at constant velocity.
Galileo's Experimentation to prove his
Ideas about motion
Experiment I
Galileo dropped two different weights of cannon ball to the Leaning
Tower of Pisa and they fell at the same time but could not measure the
distance travelled therefore he proceeded to another experimentation.
Experiment II
Galileo used the inclined ramp in order to measure the acceleration of an object. He used a rolling ball
to measure the changes. He measured that objects accelerates at the same time regardless of their size
and mass.
Speed is the distance traveled by an object divided by the time taken to travel the distance
A ball rolling down an inclined plane increases its speed by the same value after every second
The speed of a rolling ball was found to increase by 2 m/s every second. This means that the rolling
ball would have the following speeds for every given second.
TIME SPEED m/s
0 0
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10

Freely falling bodies undergo constant acceleration in which it is referred to as free fall. The free fall
acceleration represent a symbol g which means gravity.
At the surface of the earth, gravity (g) is approximately 9.8 m/s2.
Gravity leads the object to accelerate in a constant rate.
Horizontal Motion
View of Aristotle
Natural state of object at rest
View of Galileo
Imagined motion will continue without friction
Horizontal versus Vertical Motion
Horizontal : constant in value which represent by x axis
rolling balls
inertia

leaning tower of Pisa

Vertical: changing value which represent by y axis
free fall
Aristotle versus Galileo
Activity 1.5 Try it
This activity depends on the availability of materials at home. Get a basketball ball and ping pong
ball. Hold the balls on your hand, at the height level of your shoulder, then simultaneously drop the
ball. Observe what happens.
Guide Questions:
1. Which ball reached the ground first? Defend your answer.
2. What can you say about Galileo's view of motion?
3. What is the impact of this activity to you?
ASSESSMENT
Modified True or False. Read each statement carefully. Write True if the statement is correct. If it is
not, provide the right term that made the statement false. Write your answer on a separate sheet of
paper.
_____1. All living things show motion whereas non- living things show motion only when force acts on
them.
_____2.Galileo inferred that objects in vacuum fall with constant acceleration.
_____3. Aristotle had the idea that heavier object fall faster than lighter objects.
_____4. In Galileo's experimentation using two different weights of ball dropping in the leaning Pisa
tower, he proves that heavier and lighter object fall at the same time provided that there is no air
resistance. He also measures the acceleration.
_____5. Freely falling bodies undergo constant acceleration.
_____6. Motion is constantly changing.
_____7. Galileo used an inclined ramp in order to measure acceleration.
_____8. When the object, is changing position with respect to its surrounding with a given time it is
called motion.
_____9. In measuring motion, point of reference is considered.
_____10. According to Aristotle, free- fall undergoes constant acceleration.
_____11. The gravity of earth surface is 9.8m/s².
_____12. A ball rolling down in an inclined plane increases its speed by different value after every second.
_____13. Aristotle believed that objects fall at a speed which is proportional to their weight.
_____14. The role of air resistance in falling heavier and lighter objects is to slow down the lighter one.
_____15. Rolling ball is an example of vertical motion.

Physical Science
2nd Semester Quarter 2 – Module 6

Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist change when in motion or when at rest. Newton’s first
law of motion is also called law of inertia. If an object is moving, inertia will keep it in motion. When it is
at rest, it will continue to be at rest, unless there is a force applied on it.
WHAT IS IT
I. Galileo and Inertia
Galileo Galilei 1564-1642
Galileo developed the first concept of laws of motion.
Among these are the following:
Developed the concept of motion in terms of velocity (speed and direction) by using inclined planes.
Developed the idea of force that causes motion.
Determined that the natural state of an object is rest or uniformed motion.
Developed the idea that objects resist motion, inertia.
According to Galileo, objects in
motion eventually stop because of a force
called friction. Friction is a force that
opposes motion between any surfaces that
are touching. This is based on his
experiment observed in inclined planes. He
said that a difference between initial and
final heights was due to the presence of
friction. Galileo hypothesized that if friction
could be entirely eliminated, the ball would
reach exactly the same height. Or if the ball
rolls horizontally and there’s no friction that
acts on it, the ball will never stop.
 II. Isaac Newton and his First Law of
Motion
Isaac Newton 1642-1727

Isaac Newton was born the same

year Galileo died. Newton’s law of inertia is
based on Galileo’s idea of inertia. He
expanded Galileo’s work and came up with
his Three Laws of Motion.
Newton’s first law of motion states that…
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and
in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Mass and Inertia
An object’s inertia depends on its mass. Mass is the amount of matter or substance that makes
up an object. It is measured in units called kilogram. An object with a greater mass has a greater inertia
and an object with a lesser mass will also have a lesser
inertia.
An object’s tendency to resist change in its motion
depends on its mass. Below is a wooden box and a styrofoam
box, which do you think has a greater mass? lesser? Which
has a greater inertia?
Exploring Inertia
Inertia has three types:
Inertia of rest- an object will stay in place unless something
or somebody moves it.
Example: a plate on the table
Inertia of motion- an object will continue at the same speed
until a force acts on it.
Example: a rolling ball
Inertia of Direction- an object will stay moving in the same
direction unless a force acts on it.
Example: a moving car turning right
Forces
What causes an object to move, to stop or remain at rest? A force causes an object to move, to
stop or remain at rest.
Force is defined as a push or a pull.
Newton (N) is the unit of force
One Newton is the amount of force required to give a 1-kg mass an acceleration of 1 m/s/s. Thus, the
following unit equivalency can be stated as:
1 Newton = 1 kg • m/s²
1. Friction
A rolling marble on the floor that suddenly stops when it reached a rough surface does not stop
because of the absence of a force, it stops because of the presence of a force called friction.
Friction is a force that opposes motion between any surfaces that are touching.
Friction occurs because no surface is perfectly smooth.
Rough surfaces have more friction than smooth surfaces.
Heavier objects also have more friction because they are pressed harder with greater force than
lighter objects.
Friction produces heat because it causes the molecules on rubbing surfaces to move faster and have
more energy.
Newton’s first law of motion has always stated that:
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the
same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
2. Balanced and Unbalanced Forces
A balanced force is a force in which the net force is equal to zero.
What is a net force? A net force is the total combination of forces (in opposite direction or the
same direction) acting on an object.
Let’s consider the free body diagram of a flower vase on the table. There are two forces acting on the
flower vase. The force of the table pushing the flower vase upward also called the normal force and the
gravitational force pushing the flower vase downward.
The forces on the flower vase are balanced

Since the two forces are equal and in opposite directions, they balanced each other. The net force
is zero, it means the flower vase is at its equilibrium. There is no unbalanced force acting on it thus it
remains at rest.
What is an unbalanced force?
An unbalanced force is a force in which the net force is greater than zero.
Unbalanced forces cause
acceleration. Only unbalanced force
can change the motion and direction
of an object.

Example: Your pet dog can move you

faster if he pulls you with enough
force.

What’s More
Activity 1.2 Identification
Test your understanding on the different types of inertia. Read and analyze the different situations
given below. Identify the type of inertia. Use a separate sheet of paper for your answer.
1. When pulling a Band-Aid off, it is better to pull it fast. Your skin will remain at
rest due to inertia, and the force pulls the Band-Aid off.
2. When pedaling a bicycle and you stop pedaling, the bike continues going until
friction or gravity slows it down.
3. When you stir coffee in a cup and stop, the swirling motion continues due to
inertia.
4. If a car is moving forward it will continue to move forward unless friction or the
brakes interfere with its movement.
5. If the wind is blowing, tree branches are moving. Fruits that fall from the tree
will fall in the direction the wind is moving into because of inertia.
What I Can Do
Activity 1.4 Create an Acrostic Poem
Now that you have understood the law of inertia, create an acrostic poem using the word INERTIA. In
creating your poem, you may share what you have learned or experienced facing the COVID-19
pandemic.
I
N
E
R
T
I
A
Rubric for Acrostic 4 3 2
Poem 1
Poetic Form The acrostic Most of the lines of Some of the lines of the The acrostic does not follow
follows poetic the acrostic poem acrostic follows poetic poetic form
form follow poetic form form
Focus The acrostic is The acrostic relates to The acrostic somewhat The acrostic does not relate to
very well the topic relates to the topic the topic
developed and
relates to the
topic
Spelling No spelling errors 1 to 2 spelling errors 3 to 4 spelling errors 5 or more spelling errors
Assessment
Modified True or False. Read each statement carefully. Write True if the statement is correct and Write
the correct term if the statement is incorrect. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
_____1. Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist motion.
____2. Newton’s first law of motion is also called the law of acceleration.
____ 3. If an object is at rest, inertia will keep it at rest.
____4. The inertia of an object is determined by its speed
____5. The speed of an object changes only when it is acted on by an unbalanced force.
_____6. A stationary object resists movement only because of gravity.
_____7. The tendency of an object to resist a change in motion depends on its mass.
_____8. If the net force acting on an object is zero, its inertia is also zero.
_____9. When you are moving at a high rate of speed, inertia makes it to stop.
_____10. Newton’s first law of motion applies to objects that are already moving and at rest.
_____11. A balanced force is a force in which the net force is greater to zero.
_____12. Unbalanced force causes an object to accelerates.
_____13. Isaac Newton was the first one who developed the idea of inertia.
_____14. In inertia of direction an object will stay moving in the same direction unless a force acts on it.
_____15. Smooth surfaces has greater friction than rough surfaces.

Physical Science
2nd Semester Quarter 2 – Module 7
What is true of light, is it a wave or a flow of extremely small particles? This has been the debate
of scientists for so long.
Newton concluded in 1700 that light was a group of particles (corpuscular theory) but at the same
time others thought that it was a wave (wave theory). Light travels in a straight line so Newton believed
that it was a flow of particles coming from a light source. However, it cannot explain wave-like phenomenon
such as diffraction and interference. On the other hand, the wave theory cannot explain why photons fly
out of metal that is exposed to light (known as the photoelectric effect) which was discovered at the end of
the 19th century. In this manner, the great physicists have continued to debate and demonstrate the true
nature of light over the centuries.
In this lesson, you will learn the different evidences that proved light can propagate either as a wave
or a particle. This lesson will help you understand how light behaves as a wave and as a particle. A better
understanding of reflection and refraction of light will be gained after going through this module.
Rene Descartes was the first who studied and explained the concept of refraction. He used a
spherical glass filled with water and sunlight to produce a rainbow. He explained that refraction brought
about the formation of rainbows. He then used a prism to observe the emergence of colors of light.
He also explained the emergence of colors of light through the concept of the plenum, the invisible
substance that permeated the universe. He visualized that the plenum was made of tiny rotating balls with
the same speed. Light travelled through this plenum. As the plenum reached the edge of a prism, the balls
changed their rotational speeds resulting to the emergence of colors.
Sir Isaac Newton also studied the emergence of colors of light through a prism. He stated that the
difference in refraction was due to the differences in the mass of the colors of light.
Particles of matter also exert equal force to the particles of light. The colors of light with different mass and
inertia will be deflected at varying degrees.
What’s New
Activity 1: Dual Property of Light (A Wave and a Particle)
Analyze the pictures about an experiment showing a beam of monochromatic (single color) light
being focused on a screen with two slits. Two things can happen to the light beam as shown in the pictures,
Fig. A and Fig. B.

FIG. A FIG. B
1. Describe what happens to the beam of light as it passes through the slits in both figures.
2. Describe the kind of images formed by light after passing through the two slits.
3. How does the beam of light behave in both cases?
4. What can be concluded about the nature of light as described in the two pictures?
Activity 2: Reflection and Refraction of Light
Refer to the figures to explain how reflection and refraction are explained by the wave and particle
models of light. Fill up with the appropriate word/s to give meaning to the paragraphs that follow. Choose
from among the words inside the box to complete each sentence.
refraction force spread changes
bend bounce off slower wavefront
interface reversed particles smooth

Reflection and refraction are phenomena that are well-explained by the behaviors of light. When a
source emits light, its dual property can be observed in different circumstances.
Light, as waves, 1) __________ in all directions when emitted. Upon impacting a smooth, specular
surface, such as a mirror, these waves 2) __________ or reflect according to the arrival angles. The waves
turn back to front as they reflect producing a 3) __________ image.
On the otherhand, light can also arrive at the mirror surface as a stream of 4) ____________. Since
these are very tiny, a huge number are involved in a propagating light beam. Upon arriving a 5) __________
surface, the particles bounce off in different points so their order in the beam is reversed resulting to a
reversed image.
A beam of light undergoes 6) __________ when it travels between two media with different refractive
indices.
Light, as waves, 7) __________ direction upon passing from first medium to second medium. A small
portion of each angled 8) ___________ should impact the second medium before the rest of the front reaches
the 9) ___________. This part will travel along the second medium while the rest of the waves is still travelling
in the first medium. Movement will be 10) __________ through the second medium due to higher refractive
index. Since the wavefronts are travelling at different speeds, light will 11) ___________ into the second
medium, thus, changing the angle of propagation.
Refracting particles of light should also change direction upon passing between two media. It is
suggested in this theory that a special 12) _________ directed perpendicular to the interface acts to change
the speed of the particles as they enter the second medium, resulting to bending of light particles.
Activity 3: Propagation of Light
Directions: Describe what happens to the beam of light in each of the instances. Match each illustration
in Column A with the corresponding description on Column B. Write the letters on your answer sheet.
What is it
This section gives brief and thorough explanation about the wave and particle models of light, how
reflection and refraction are explained using the two models, the laws of reflection and refraction, drawing
ray diagrams of reflection on mirrors, and describing images formed by plane, concave, and convex mirrors.
Activity 1: Dual Property of Light (A Wave and a Particle)
Light can behave both as a wave and as a particle. As particles, they travel in straight lines, thus,
producing shadows when they hit an obstruction.
It is also the reason why light bounces off or reflects off of mirrors. Refraction is alsobrought about by light
particles when they traverse through media or materials ofdifferent refractive indices. It is thought that
opposing forces pull the particles of light from and into the medium resulting to changes of their direction.
The photo-electric effect is also an evidence that light behaves as particles. When light with enough energy
falls or hits a metal, electrons are dislodged or knocked off from it to produce a positive (+) metal surface.
The amount of light energy (known as photon) contains a fixed amount of energy or quantum that depends
on the frequency of the light.
Light also acts as a wave. It has the ability to diffract or bend around an object. Diffraction involves
a change in direction of waves when they pass from an opening or around obstacles along their path.
Refraction happens when light waves change direction as they travel through materials of different
refractive indices, say water and air. Light waves also undergo interference, the phenomenon that occurs
when two waves meet while traveling along the same medium.
Activity 2: Reflection and Refraction of Light
Reflection and refraction are phenomena that are well-explained by the behaviors of light. When a
source emits light, its dual property can be observed in different circumstances.
Light, as waves, spread in all directions when emitted. Upon impacting a smooth, specular surface, such
as a mirror, these waves bounce off or reflect according to the arrival angles. The waves turn back to front
as they reflect producing a reversed image.
On the otherhand, light can also arrive at the mirror surface as a stream of particles. Since these are very
tiny, a huge number are involved in a propagating light beam. Upon arriving a smooth surface, the particles
bounce off in different points so their order in the beam is reversed resulting to a reversed image.
A beam of light undergoes refraction when it travels between two media with different refractive
indices.
Light, as waves, changes direction upon passing from first medium to second medium. A small
portion of each angled wavefront should impact the second medium before the rest of the front reaches
the interface. This part will travel along the second medium while the rest of the waves is still travelling in
the first medium. Movement will be slower through the second medium due to higher refractive index.
Since the wavefronts are travelling at different speeds, light will bend into the second medium, thus,
changing the angle of propagation.
Refracting particles of light should also change direction upon passing between two media. It is suggested
in this theory that a special force directed perpendicular to the interface acts to change the speed of the
particles as they enter the second medium, resulting to bending of light particles.
Reflection produces different types of images depending on what kind of surface light strikes on. Usually,
the study on images is carried out using mirrors as the reflecting surface. Mirrors can be palnar, concave,
or convex.
Plane mirrors consist of perfectly flat surface with no distortions and reflect 100% of the light that
strikes them back at a predictable angle.
Concave and convex mirrors have reflective surfaces that curve inward and outward, respectively.
Concave mirrors are known as converging mirrors because light is focused at a point as it strikes
and reflects back from the reflecting surface.
Convex mirrors are diverging mirrors because as light strikes and bounces back it spreads over a
required region.
Plane mirrors produce images that are same size as the object, laterally inverted (left becomes right
and right becomes left), upright, virtual, and as far behind the mirror as the object is in front. Virtual
images are formed due to imaginary intersection of light rays and cannot be formed on the screen.

As the object distance from the mirror is decreased, the image distance is also decreased and the
image size is increased.
Concave mirrors produce images that depend on the location of the object. At several locations
different characteristics of images can be observed. The images formed can be located somewhere between
the center of curvature (C) and the focal point (F), at C, beyond C, and somewhere on the opposite side of
the mirror. At times, no images are formed by the mirror. Images can be inverted or upright, smaller,
bigger, or the same size as the object, and real or virtual.
Activity 3: Propagation of Light
Light is an electromagnetic radiation that
travels through space as vibrating or oscillating
waves. It is composed of alternating electric and
magnetic fields that oscillate perpendicular to
each other to the direction of propagation. It
travels at a speed of 3.0x108 𝑚𝑠 through a
vacuum.
The electromagnetic spectrum (EM) is
composed of waves with varying frequencies,
thus, carrying different amounts of energy. The
figure below shows the EM spectrum and the
corresponding wavelengths of each wave.
The wavelength is inversely proportional to the amount of energy or frequency it carries. Longer
wavelengths have lower frequencies than those with shorter wavelengths. The frequency is directly
proportional to the amount of energy carried by a particular wave. Part of this EM is the visible light (known
as white light) which is seen by our naked eye. Light wave travels at a speed of 3.0x108 𝑚𝑠 through a
vacuum. The speed of light varies when it passes and refracts through different media. The index of
refraction of a material can be determined by the ratio 𝑐𝑣, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum while
v is the speed of light in a particular medium. When light passes through a material with higher index of
refraction, its speed is slower. There are more matter that scatters light in this material making light moves
slower. Water scatters more light than air, so light energy moves slower in water than in air.
Once propagated, the colours of white light vibrate at different frequencies and can be dispersed
when they strike water droplets suspended in the air or through a prism. White light is then split into the
colours ROY-G-BIV (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet).
 The speed of each colour of white light depends on the wavelength of each wave. The waves with
longer wavelengths such as red, orange, and yellow propagate faster than blue, indigo, and violet which
have shorter wavelengths. Due to their speed, refraction and dispersion are affected when they enter into
a prism or droplet of water in the air. Red is refracted the least and blue is refracted the most. This is the
reason why red is always seen on top of a rainbow while blue is always at the bottom.
When light is incident on a surface, it can be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted. Light rays that fall
on smooth surfaces bounce off with equal angles of incidence and reflection, producing images that our
eyes can perceive. Absorption of light depends on the frequency of the electrons of atoms present in the
objects. If the frequency of a light wave is the same as the frequency of the electrons in the object, light
energy will be set in vibrating motion and eventually be absorbed. During vibration, the electrons interact
with neighbouring atoms converting the vibrational energy into heat (thermal) energy, never again to be
released as light energy. This happens during photosynthesis where light energy is absorbed by the leaves
and converted into heat energy.
Selective absorption of light by a certain material happens because the frequency of the light wave
matches the frequency at which electrons in the atoms of that material vibrate.
Reflection and transmission happens when the frequencies of the light waves do not match the natural
frequencies of vibration of objects. Upon light incidence, the electrons of the atoms vibrate for a short
period of time with small amplitudes of vibration. Light energy is then reemitted as a light wave.
If the object is transparent, then vibration of the electrons are passed on to neighbouring atoms
through the material and reemitted on the opposite side of the object. The light frequencies are then said
to be transmitted through the object.
Light rays are selectively absorbed by materials and the reflected rays reach our eyes as the colour
of the object. The object appears black when all the colours of the visible light are absorbed. On the
other hand, white is seen when all the colours of light are reflected.
Light waves also experience scattering when they bump mixtures of particles along the path of
propagation. The component wavelengths of light vary in sizes. The size of the particles suspended in the
air also varies. If the size of atmospheric particles are small, only light with smaller wavelengths are
scattered while light with longer wavelengths are scattered by bigger particles in the air. Since the
particulates are small, then blue light is scattered more than red or orange due to its shorter wavelength.
This is the reason why the sky is blue during daytime.
At sunrise and sunset, the sun is low at the horizon. Light travels through more molecules in the
air. The dense atmosphere scatters more blue or violet light out of our line of sight. The rest of the colours
travel and reach our eyes as yellow, orange, and red.
What’s More
Activity 1.1 Solve the following problems completely on your answer sheet.
A. Apply Snell’s Law to solve the angle of refraction, given the following diagrams and values. Draw the
refracted ray, using broken lines with arrow ( ) in each of the examples. Use the protractor to measure the
angles of refraction in each case.

B. Calculate the speed of light in zircon, a material used in jewelry to imitate diamond. (c = 3.0 x 108 𝑚𝑠 ,
nZircon= 1.923)
C. The speed of light in an unknown medium is 1.76 × 108 m/s. Calculate the refractive index of the
medium. (c = 3.0 x 108 𝑚𝑠)
What I Can Do
Knowledge of concepts is not enough for a learning experience to be meaningful. We should also
understand how the concepts we learned on the propagation of light can be applied to real life situations
to get the most out of what we learned. Let us look at this simple situation that will help us realize the
advantage of fully understanding propagation of light.
Situation:
Suppose you are with a group of researchers out in a forested area. Suddenly the rain poured and
there was zero visibility in the place. You want to help your companions out in the woods to find the right
path to the lodging area. One thing that came to your mind is to flash waves of light so that they could see
where you are. What color of light are you going to use and why?
Assessment
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. In what ways can light’s behaviour be described?
a. Curve and linear motions
b. Projectile motion
c. Waves and particles
d. Waves and shadows
2. What are knocked off when light photons strike metal surfaces?
a. Electrons
b. Neutrons
c. Positrons
d. Protons
3. What do light particles not able to exhibit as they move along obstacles or
slits?
a. Diffraction c. Photoelectric effect
b. Doppler effect d. Refraction
4. How does refraction happen when light rays travel in a straight line from
air until it encounters another medium like water?
a. The speed of light will be slower as it enters water, making the angle of
refraction (θr) smaller than the angle of incidence (θ i).
b. The angle of refraction (θr) will be bigger than the angle of incidence
(θi) because light will travel faster as it enters water.
c. Light rays will refract at a smaller angle because light rays will travel
faster in water.
d. Light rays will refract at a bigger angle because light rays will travel
slower in water.
5. What is the angle of reflection made by light that is incident at 10 o on the
mirror, as shown in the figure below?
a. 100
b. 800
c. 900
d. 1100
6. A light ray passes from water into air. The angle that the light makes with the normal in air is 44 0.
The indices of refraction for both water and air are given in the diagram. What angle does the light ray
make with the normal as it approaches the boundary from the water?
a. 29.70
b. 30.00
c. 31.50
d. 58.50

Use your understanding of selective absorption of light waves to answer #s 7- 9.

7. A sheet of paper is illuminated with white light (ROYGBIV) as shown in the figure. It is capable of
absorbing ROYBIV. What color does the paper reflect and what is the color of the paper?
10. What phenomenon happens when the frequency of incident light does not match the vibrational
frequency of the electrons in the atoms of a transparent material, such that light energy is reemitted on
the opposite side of the same material?
a. absorption c. refraction
b. dispersion d. transmission
11. Rainbow is a natural phenomenon that occurs when there are sunlight and drizzles of rain. What
interaction happens to produce such a scenery?
a. Drizzles of water trap heat energy from light and convert it to rainbow.
b. The colours of sunlight are split by molecules of water and change it to heat energy.
c. Water droplets serve as the transparent material where light energy passes through.
d. Light waves pass through droplets of water which disperse light into the colours of the rainbow.
12. Light waves bump mixtures of particles in the air upon their propagation. Which among the following
statements is true when this happens?
a. Small particles in the air scatter blue waves most so we see the sky as blue.
b. Big particulates in the air scatter blue waves most so we see the sky as white and blue.
c. Light waves with longer wavelengths are scattered the most, so we see the sky as blue.
d. Red waves are scattered more by small particles in the air, so we see red colour during sunset.
13. White light is separated into its component colours when directed to a prism because the different
colours bend
a. away from the normal line at different angles.
b. away from the normal at same speed to each other.
c. towards the normal line at different angles.
d. towards the normal line at same speed to each other.
14. Why is red colour always seen on top while blue is at the bottom of a rainbow?
a. Blue has a short wavelength so it moves faster and refracted the most by droplets of water in the
atmosphere.
b. Blue has a long wavelength so it moves faster and refracted the most by water droplets in the air.
c. Red has a short wavelength so it moves faster and refracted the least by droplets of water in the
atmosphere.
d. Red has a long wavelength so it moves faster and refracted the least by water droplets in the air.
15. Light waves that are absorbed are transformed into heat energy. This is no longer reemitted as light
energy. In which of the following processes is sunlight absorbed and transformed into heat energy?
a. metabolism c. respiration
b. photosynthesis d. transpiration
ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES
This part will test whether you fully understand the propagation of light as explained by the wave
and particle models. This will also gauge how much knowledge you gained about reflection and
refraction of light. You can answer this by recalling the concepts discussed and skills acquired earlier in
this module.
1. Use Snell’s law to solve for the angle of incidence of light rays in the given situation.
2. The refractive index of medium A is 1.2, while that of medium B is 1.36. Through which medium does
light travel faster and at what speed does it travel?
3. The appearance of a transparent object is dependent upon what color(s) of light is/are incident upon
the object and what color(s) of light is/are transmitted through the object. Express your understanding of
transmission of color(s) of light upon transparent objects. What color of the paper will appear to an
observer.