ECW 557:

ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

STREAMFLOW
MEASUREMENT
WEEK 4 – STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the week, students should be
able to:
At the end of the week, students should be able to:
➢ estimate streamflow discharge using velocity-area method
& dilution method (CO2);
➢ read and interpret rating curve (CO2).
 Streamflow
Streamflow represents the runoff phase of the
hydrological cycle

P–L=R (assuming S = 0)

Streamflow – the most important basic data for

hydrologic studies
 Streamflow Measurement
Streamflow can be measured relatively accurately.
The techniques can be classified as follows:
(I) Direct determination
- Area-velocity method
- Dilution method
- Electromagnetic method
- Ultrasonic method
(II) Indirect determination
- Hydraulic structure
- Slope-area method
 Area-Velocity Method
Measurement should be performed at a site where
• The stream has well-defined cross section which
does not change with season
• It is easily accessible throughout the year
• The reach is straight and stable
• The reach is free from back-water effect

Section line of the gauging site is marked off by

permanent survey marking.
 Area-Velocity Method
The river cross section is divided into large number of
segments by verticals using the following
guidelines:
• Segment width <1/15 to 1/20 of river width
• Discharge in each section should be <10% of total
discharge
• Velocities difference between adjacent segments
should be <20%

*Note that segments need not be equally spaced.

 Velocity Measurement
Measure velocity in the flow cross section using:
• Current meter (most common mechanical devices)
- vertical-axis
- horizontal-axis
• Floats

Typical relationship:
Stream velocity v = aN + b
where a,b are instrument constant, N = rotation /s
 Vertical-axis Current Meter
Range: 0.15-4.0m/s, up to 0.3% accuracy at >1m/s
E.g; Price Current Meter & Gurley Current Meter
 Horizontal-axis Current Meter
Range: 0.15-4.0m/s, up to 0.25% accuracy at > 0.3m/s
Swoffer 2100. Sources; Irma et al., 2008
 Floats
Primitive way of measuring time and distance traveled
by a float. Suitable for:
• Small stream in flood/ rapidly changing water
surface
• Preliminary survey

Floats usu. released at uniform interval across the

width, at relatively straight reach, and over longer
time (and hence distance) if possible.
Submerged float (e.g. rod float) is preferred to surface
float to minimize effect of wind.
Average velocity is typically reduced by a factor.
 Field Velocity
Velocity distribution in a stream across a vertical
section varies according to depth and distance
from boundary. Hence velocity measurement
typically must be done on large number of points.
 Field Velocity
Some simplified approaches:
• Single-point observation method: Average velocity
is taken at 0.6x depth below water surface for
shallow stream <3m.
• For moderately deep streams, velocity is observed
at two points (0.2x and 0.8x depth below water
surface) and the values averaged.
• For flood flow, only velocity within 0.5m deep
below surface is measured. The average velocity is
multiplied by a reduction factor (0.85-0.95) based
on observations at lower stages.
 Area-Velocity Method
Depth and velocity are measured at the verticals.
* d = 0.6d (shallow stream, < 3m) & d = 0.2d & 0.8d (deep
stream, > 3m)
 Area-Velocity Method
Discharge in each segment is given by

Qi = yi viWi
1
where Wi = (Wi + Wi +1 ) For i = 2 to (N-2)
2
2
1  W2 
W1 = W1 +  For i = 1
2W1  2 
2
1  WN −1 
WN −1 =  N
W +  For i = N-1
2WN  2 
N −1

and the total discharge is Q =  Qi - mid-sections method

i =1
Example 4.1, pg 111
 Dilution Method
Known as Chemical Method
Based on continuity principle applied to a tracer which
is allowed to mix completely with the flow.
Assumed steady state flow only:
• Sudden injection method @ Gulp @ Integration
Method
• Constant rate injection method @ Plateau
Gauging
 Dilution Method
The method determine flow rate in an absolute way
(based on volume of tracer & time), and is suitable
for small turbulent streams.
When??- Very shallow stream, inaccessible area &
high velocity
Types of Tracer ;
i) Chemicals - Common Salt, Sodium Dichromate
ii) Fluorescent dyes (Rhodamine-WT, Sulpho-
Rhodamine B Extra)
iii) Radioactive (Bromine-82, Sodium-24, Iodine-132)
 Sudden Injection Method
Let C0 be the small initial concentration of the tracer in
the flow, C1 be the injected tracer concentration
upstream, and V1 the volume of tracer injected.

V1C1
Q= t2
t1
(C 2 − C 0 )dt

where C2 is the peak concentration taken at a

downstream section sufficiently far away for complete
mixing of the tracer.
 Constant Injection Method
Let C0 be the small initial concentration of the tracer in
the flow, C1 be the injected tracer concentration
upstream, and Qt the rate of injection.

Qt (C1 − C2 )
Q=
(C2 − C0 )

where C2 is the steady peak concentration taken at a

downstream section sufficiently far away for complete
mixing of the tracer.

Example 4.2, pg 115

 OTHER METHOD TO
MEASURE DISCHARGE, Q m3/s?
 Hydraulic Structures
e.g; notches, weirs, flumes, sluice gates
The structures produce a control section
in the flow where correlation of
discharge and water surface
elevation can be established.
Generally Q = KHn
where H = head above structure
K and n are system constants

V-notch weir and sampling bridge

flume

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/topics/water/tts/caspartts.html
 http://www.eng.miami.edu/~dchin/sluice1.jpg

SLUICE GATES

http://www.flickr.com/photos/squelch/227089954
 Stage Measurement
An easier and cheaper approach ( to measure discharge)
is to measure the stage (water level) which can be
related to the discharge.
This require the stage-discharge relationship to be first
established through a series of careful measurement
of both quantities and relating them by a plot or an
equation.
 Stage Measurement
Measured with respect to a datum, usu. the MSL or any
arbitrary datum, using:
• Staff gauge
Manual Gauges
• Wire gauge
• Automatic stage recorder
- float-gauge recorder (measure displacement of a
float on water surface)
- bubble gauge (measure hydrostatic pressure at
river bed)
Staff Gauge
 Staff Gauge

http://www.crh.noaa.gov/images/ahps2/gid/spln1/SPLN1_SG1.JPG

ahps.srh.noaa.gov
Float-Gauge Recorder
Float-Gauge Recorder
 Bubble Gauge

Gas circuit

* Compressed air/gas bleed out through an outlet at

the bottom of the river
 Stage-Discharge (S-Q) Relationship

Normally presented in a rating curve.

There are two types of correlation:
• Permanent control when S-Q relationship is
constant and does not change with time.
• Shifting control when S-Q relationship is changes
with time.
 Permanent Control

Generally the rating equation is given by

Q = Cr (S – a)β
OR log Q = β log (S – a) + log Cr
where a is the gauge reading corresponding to zero
discharge, b and Cr are rating curve constant (can
vary across the range of S).
 Permanent Control
Stage (m)
 Permanent Control
Stage (m)
 Permanent Control

N ( XY ) − ( X )( Y )
β=
N ( X 2 ) − ( X ) 2

b @ log C r =
 b( X )
Y −β
N

where X = log( S − a ) and Y = log Q

and the correlation coefficient R @ r given by:

N ( XY ) − ( X )( Y )
R @r =
N ( X 2 ) − ( X ) 2 N ( Y 2 ) − ( Y ) 2
 Stage for zero discharge a
Method 1:
• Draw best fit curve S-Q

Stage (m)
• Extrapolate to get a
• Plot log Q vs log(S-a);
verify whether data plot as
straight line.
• If NO, repeat steps.
 Stage for zero discharge a
Method 2:
• Draw best fit curve S-Q
• Select points A,B,C such
that QA/QB = QB/QC
• Get point D,E
• Extrapolate DE and AB
• Identify point F to get a
=a
 Stage for zero discharge a
Method 3:
• Draw best fit curve S-Q
• Select points Q1, Q2 & Q3

Stage (m)
such that Q1/Q2 = Q2/Q3
• Read S1, S2 & S3
• Hence S1 − a S 2 − a
=
S2 − a S3 − a
S1S3 − S 22
• OR a=
S1 + S3 − 2S 2

Example 4.4, pg 127

 Shifting Control
S-Q relationship can change due to:
• Weed growth/ dredging or channel encroachment
• Aggradation/ Degradation
• Backwater effects Rating curve can be adjusted to
accommodate for these effects
• Unsteady flow
 Backwater Effect
• Measure stage at a secondary
(auxiliary) gauge some distance
downstream of the main gauge
m
Q F 
• Let =  
Q0  F0 
where
fall F = S – Saux , m = constant
F0 is the selected normalizing value,
Q0 is the normalized discharge at F0
F/F0
• Plot (i) Q0 vs S (constant fall curve), and
(ii) Q/Q0 vs F/F0 (normalized curve)
• Hence, for a set of reading S and F:
(i) calculate F/F0,
(ii) read Q/Q0 and Q0 from plots,
Example 4.5, pg 131
(iii) calculate Q.
 Unsteady Flow Effect
Approach velocities of advancing flood wave is larger
than steady flow at the same stage. Hence Q
increases correspondingly.
Approach velocities of receding flood wave is smaller
than steady flow at the same stage. Hence Q
decreases correspondingly;
This results in a looped S-Q curve.
Each flood may produce different S-Q curve.
Looped S-Q Curve
 Extrapolation of Rating Curve
Typically to extrapolate available data to determine
design-flood stage.
• Conveyance method
• Logarithmic plot method

Reliability of extrapolation depends on the stability of

gauging section control.
 Conveyance Method

For a stage and Q:

•Calculate K, plot stage vs K.
•Calculate Sf = (Q/K)2, plot stage vs S f / n
 Conveyance Method

•For a stage, read K and S f / n

•Design flood Q = K Sf
 Logarithmic plot method
Q = Cr (S – a)b

plot S-Q in log-log

graph

• determine best-fit
linear relationship to
cover extrapolation
range