101lyb w6 Dayot Zaballero

Biology Department
College of Arts & Sciences Date submitted: 9/16/2021

BIOL 101L - Zoology Group No. 2
Adapted from D Dawang & L Saab; Modified by E Besoro & E Villaluz
Members: Michael Zaballero
Exercise 6: Cell Division
Cleriza Dayot
Exercise 6: Cell Division
A. MITOSIS Therefore, from a biochemical point

of view, this phase includes the most
All cells arise from pre-existing cells, dynamic part of the cell cycle, the so-
principally by a process of cell division. called "S" (synthesis) stage. The S
Cells multiply to bring about the stage is preceded by a G1 stage (pre-
development of a new individual from a synthesis) and followed by G2 stage
fertilized egg; the transformation from larva (post synthesis). All three (G and S
to adult as in frogs; the growth of body parts; stages) make up what we traditionally
and the repair of old, injured or worn out refer to as Interphase.
cells. In these examples, mitotic type of cell
division is involved. The characteristic features of a cell at
this stage include the presence of the:
Mitosis is a universal phenomenon in animals a) nuclear membrane or envelope –
and plants, and can be observed in all kinds intact and appears thin,
of cells, but is studied most readily in large surrounding the nuclear contents;
cells having few chromosomes and b) chromosomal material
undergoing frequent cell division. The eggs (chromatin) – is scattered within
of the large intestinal roundworm, Ascaris sp. the nucleus in the form of
will be used in this activity. The process of speckled dots (actually the dark-
mitosis involves a continuous structural and staining materials are DNA
physiological change. For convenience of threads which have been
study, this is divided into several stages or sectioned in the preparation of
phases: Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, the slide. In a living cell, DNA is
Anaphase, and Telophase. The non-dividing a tightly massed conglomeration
stage is then called Interphase. of fine threads);
c) nucleoli (nucleolus, sing.) – one
STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE or more are present;
d) centrosome – generally found
1. INTERPHASE. This phase is not only in animal cells; a small clear
part of mitosis proper. Many old sphere in the cytoplasm, it is
books erroneously call this stage "the usually close to the nucleus and
resting stage" since the cell does not has a dark staining dot called the
appear to be doing anything. In centriole.
reality, many important events of cell
cycle takes place during this phase. 2. PROPHASE. By now, the nuclear
For example, it is during this phase material has duplicated and the
that the DNA molecules are following characteristics can be
replicated and other substances observed:
needed for actual division are
accumulated or synthesized.
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BIOL 101L - Zoology
Adapted from D Dawang & L Saab; Modified by E Besoro & E Villaluz Exercise 6: Cell Division
a) nuclear membrane – gradually

disappears; 4. METAPHASE. At this phase the
b) chromosomal material chromosomes are lined up at the
(chromatin) – condenses into midline or equator of the cell. The
chromosomes that are duplicated. double nature of the chromosomes
Duplicates/sister chromatids are may be evident, each of the
held together by a centromere but chromosomes being composed of 2
these are not discernible; sister chromatids. The centrioles, if
c) nucleoli – are starting to evident (these are found only in
disappear; animal cells), are now at the opposite
d) centrioles – (in animal cells only) sides of the cell. This phase is
divide, separate, and migrate to usually of short duration.
each of the poles of the nucleus.
Spindle fibers (or mitotic spindle)
form between the separating 5. ANAPHASE. At this phase the:
centrioles, and a series of short a) centromere splits lengthwise and
radiating "fibers" called asters duplicates of the chromosomes
form about each centriole are separated and are moved
towards the opposite poles of the
In early prophase, the chromatin
cell;
network forms into thick threads that
b) cytoplasm and cell membrane
stain darkly. In late prophase the
begin to constrict between
chromatin materials aggregate into
separating chromosomes (start of
distinct rod-like chromosomes.
cleavage and observed in animal
cells only). The spindle fibers are
3. PROMETAPHASE. Chromosomes usually evident between the
start moving towards the cell’s separating duplicates.
equator. The following changes are Each chromatid is now considered as
apparent: an individual chromosome. Evidence
a) nuclear membrane - no longer as to how sister chromatids are
visible; separated is somewhat contradictory.
b) chromosomes- now more evi- Some experiments indicated that the
dent, and scattered about the spindle fibers are contracting and
middle portion of the cell; actually pulling the duplicates apart.
c) nucleoli- no longer present; Other findings indicate that the
d) centrioles - (in animal cells only) protoplasm between the sister
have reached the poles. Some chromatids takes up water, swells and
microtubules of the spindle start pushes them apart. Perhaps both are
to interact with the unbound operative.
chromosomes. The kinetochore
(a special part of the centromere),
then becomes attached to the 6. TELOPHASE. This is the terminal
mitotic spindle phase of mitosis in which the:
Biology Department
BIOL 101L - Zoology
a) chromosomes approach the poles dividing cell in both cases is

(or the centrioles in animal cells) called cytokinesis.
and rapidly decondense into
chromatin materials; It is easier to remember the events of
b) nuclear material form around Telophase if you imagine it as just the
each of the two chromatin masses, reverse of prophase.
thus forming two nuclei;
c) asters and spindle fibers Identify the following features:
disappear; a) cleavage furrow – constriction
d) constriction of the cytoplasm and between two animal daughter
cell membrane continue in animal cells
cells, forming the cleavage b) forming daughter cells – the two
furrow, until the two daughter new cells in the making
cells are entirely distinct. The
division of the cytoplasm of the
NOTE: It should be remembered that the process of mitosis is a continuous one, and
the stages are just “snapshots” of the “movie” that is mitosis. Many times it is difficult
to distinguish which stage a cell is in, e.g., late anaphase or early telophase?
Additional Tasks:
Identify the following structures in each of the cells undergoing the stages of cell cycle:
a) cell or plasma membrane – very thin, entirely surrounding the cell contents
b) cytoplasm – material within the cell membrane
c) nucleoplasm – the material filling up chromatin network
NOTE: Centrosome (small sphere in the cytoplasm usually close to the nucleus) and
centriole (dark-staining dot or granule within the centrosome) are found only in
animal cells and are hardly visible under the CM).
Biology Department
BIOL 101L - Zoology
Activity:
Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Plate 6.1: Interphase
 Which materials or structures in the interphase stage provide the substance of

densely staining chromosomes present during mitosis?
chromosomal material (chromatin)
 What hereditary components do the chromosomes carry?

Chromosomes carry genes which is encoded in the DNA.
Nuclear envelope
Two sister chromatids
chromatin
Plate 6.2: Prophase

Biology Department
BIOL 101L - Zoology
Nuclear envelope
Kinetochore
chromatin
Plate 6.3: Prometaphase
 What changes in the cell do you observe at this stage?
Changes include; nuclear membrane - no longer visible;

chromosomes- now more evident, and scattered about the middle portion of the cell; nucleoli- no
longer present; centrioles - (in animal cells only)have reached the poles. Some microtubules of
the spindle start to interact with the unboundchromosomes. The kinetochore (a special part of
the centromere),then becomes attached to the mitotic spindle
Nuclear envelope
Metaphase plate
Centrosome
chromatins
Plate 6.4: Metaphase

 How are the chromosomes arranged in the cell?
are generally organized in approximate order of size from largest to smallest.
Biology Department
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Nuclear envelope
Daughter chromosomes
Chromatins
Plate 6.5: Anaphase
Nuclear envelope Daughter chromosomes
Spindle fibers
Cleavage furrow
Plate 6.6: Telophase
 How many chromosomes would be in each daughter cell?

23 chromosomes
Biology Department
BIOL 101L - Zoology
Questions to answer [Refer to textbook or reliable good reference book(s)]

1. Examine animal mitosis based on the following criteria:
CRITERIA
a) Occurrence (where cell division occurs) Nucleus
b) When it occurs and function(s) , mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic
cells whereas plant shows mitotic division in both haploid
and diploid cells. Its function on animals is for growth
and repair of tissues
c) Presence / Absence of centrosome There is a presence of centrosome in animal mitosis
d) Chromosome number in daughter cells Each daughter cell will have half of the original 46
chromosomes, or 23 chromosomes. Each chromosome
consists of 2 sister chromatids
e) Duration of the process In sum, then, interphase generally takes between 18 and
20 hours. Mitosis, during which the cell makes
preparations for and completes cell division only takes
about 2 hours.
2. Of what significance is the qualitative and quantitative division of the chromosomes during
mitosis?
It ensures that each daughter cell has the correct number of chromosomes. ... They divide in two
before the cell divides, and each daughter cell gets one chromosome from each of the sister
chromatids.
3. What are the biological functions of mitosis?
Mitosis is a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (cell division).
During mitosis one cell? divides once to form two identical cells. The major purpose of mitosis
is for growth and to replace worn out cells.
Biology Department
BIOL 101L - Zoology
B. MEIOSIS
NOTE: Many students find Meiosis confusing. Study the material beforehand before
doing the activity in class.
Meiosis is a special kind of cell division that Meiotic Divisions. Meiosis differs in three
ensures the constancy of the chromosome important respects from the ordinary mitosis.
number in the cells of the succeeding First, the final number of chromosomes in a
generations of a sexually reproducing gamete resulting from meiosis is only half
organism. During fertilization, the germ cells' that of the parent cell and each gamete re-
nuclei fuse and the cells' chromosomes are ceives only one chromatid from each of the
added together. Thus, in order to maintain homologous pairs of chromosomes present in
constant number of chromosomes in the original cell. Second, crossing over may
successive generations (and to avoid occur during the first meiotic division, lead-
doubling of chromosome number in every ing to genetic recombination. Third,
generation) a mechanism is necessary to chromosomes separate at random so that each
provide a reduction (halving) of chromosome gamete receives a chromatid from one or the
number between successive fertilization. other member of each homologous pair.
The somatic cells of every species have a STAGES OF MEIOSIS

definite and characteristic number of chro-
1. PROPHASE I. This is similar to the pro-
mosomes. In man, it is 46; in the fruit fly
phase in Mitosis. There are however,
(Drosophila), 8; and in Allium, 32. This is
important events that occur during this
referred to as the diploid (2N) number of
prolonged stage to justify its division into
chromosomes because the chromosomes are
the following substages:
in pairs. The paired condition results from
fertilization. One member of each pair comes a) Leptotene – chromosomes have just
from the father through the sperm (paternal begun to shorten and thicken and
chromosome) and the other from the mother become visible as thin chromatin
through the egg (maternal chromosome). strands with many bead-like
During the formation of gametes (sex cells) structures (chromomeres) along their
in animals, the number of chromosomes is length
reduced to half and the resulting gametes b) Zygotene – homologous chromo-
have a haploid (N) chromosome number. somes appear to attract each other and
The subsequent fusion of two haploid enter into a very close longitudinal or
gametes (e.g. the sperm and egg during zipper-like pairing called synapsis.
fertilization) returns the chromosome number The two sister chromatids of one
to diploid. chromosome are associated with the
two sister chromatids of their
Meiosis generally consists of two successive homologous partner. This pair of two
cell divisions called the First and Second
Biology Department
BIOL 101L - Zoology
bivalents, forming a group of four disappears and nuclear membrane

chromatids, is known as a tetrad. dissolves, and the bivalents (or "dy-
ads") attach themselves by their cen-
c) Pachytene – A progressive
tromere to the rapidly formed spindle.
shortening and coiling of the
chromosomes. Each tetrad becomes
closely intertwined and a series of 2. METAPHASE I. At the onset of Meta-
exchange of genetic material occurs phase I, the synapsed chromosome pairs
between the homologous chromatids. (or tetrads) move together to the equa-
Such exchanges signify the genetic torial plane of the spindle in such a way
mechanism of crossing-over or that the homologues of each can eventu-
recombination. ally move to opposite poles. Each of the
chromosome pair is attached to a single
d) Diplotene – chromosomes now act as spindle fiber by its centromere, and in this
though they are repulsing their process, each bivalent acts independently
closely paired homologue. Visible of the others so that it results in random
separation occurs between homo- shuffling of the chromosomes into the
logues except for specific regions daughter cells.
where an actual physical crossing-
over appear to have taken place 3. ANAPHASE I. During this phase the
between homologous chromatids. entire chromosome set of each
These crossed areas or chiasmata homologue pair (having been modified
(singular, chiasma), are X-shaped by crossing-over) separate so that each
attachments between the pole receives either a paternal or maternal
chromosomes and seem to be the only double chromosome of each pair. There
remaining force holding paired is no division of the centromere.
bivalents (tetrads) together.
e) Diakinesis – coiling and contraction 4. TELOPHASE I. This phase is marked
of the chromosomes continue until by the arrival of the chromosomes at the
they are thick, heavy-staining bodies. poles of the spindle. The spindle fibers
The centromeres of the original pair and asters disappear but the nucleoli re-
of homologous chromosomes are no appear. The nuclear membrane appears
longer close together but the two around the reforming nuclei in the forth-
chromatids derived from each chro- coming daughter cells. The chromosomes
mosome of a pair are still joined at begin to elongate, gradually fading from
their centromeres. The nucleolus view. Cytokinesis completes the
formation of two unlike daughter cells.
 Can the two cells formed from meiosis I ever be identical? When?
Meiosis I ends when the chromosomes of each homologous pair arrive at opposing poles of the
cell. The microtubules disintegrate, and a new nuclear membrane forms around each haploid set
of chromosomes. The chromosomes uncoil, forming chromatin again, and cytokinesis occurs,
forming two non-identical daughter cells.
Biology Department
BIOL 101L - Zoology
5. INTERKINESIS. It is a brief stage centromeres attach to a spindle fiber until

between two successive divisions in they become arranged in the equatorial
meiosis. It is generally similar to the plane of the spindle.
interphase of mitosis except that, there is
no replication of genetic material and 8. ANAPHASE II. The centromere divides
therefore, no new chromatids are formed. lengthwise, and the newly separated,
Each daughter cell prepares for the single stranded chromosomes migrate
second division. toward opposite poles of the spindle. The
arrival at the poles signals the close of this
6. PROPHASE II. The Second Meiotic phase.
Division is essentially an ordinary mitotic
division, except that the chromosome 9. TELOPHASE II. The single-stranded
number has already been halved at the chromosomes return to their long,
start. In this stage, there is no synapsis reticulate configuration. The nuclear
nor crossing-over as in Prophase I. The membrane re-appear and the nucleoli
double-stranded member of the homolo- reform. The new single-stranded
gous pair (dyad) reappears. chromosomes in the nucleus contain only
half of the number of chromosomes as in
7. METAPHASE II. Each double- Prophase I. Cytokinesis generally
stranded chromosome moves into the separates each nucleus from the others,
spindle independently and their thus forming four daughter cells.
 How many daughter cells are formed from meiosis?

Four daughter cells.
 In terms of chromosomal content, are the daughter cells identical or different?
They are identical.
 Are the daughter cells identical to the original cell?
Yes, since the daughter cells are identical to the parent.
 Where in the human female does this process take place?
Ovaries
 Where in the human male does this process take place?

Testis
Biology Department
BIOL 101L - Zoology
In summary, in the first meiotic division, two and with respect to the original cell that
haploid cells are produced, each containing produced them. This is called "genetic re-
double-stranded chromosomes (dyads). In combination".
the second meiotic division, each of the
haploid cells divides just like in mitosis. Be sure you understand the process
Thus, a total of four haploid cells are completely as you would need this
produced from a single diploid cell. There are foundation for the entire study of genetics
two rather significant results of meiosis. One depends on it.
is obviously the reduction of chromosome
number from 2N to the n condition. The Refer Figure 5.2, page 74 of your Zoology
second result is that the cells produced are textbook for illustration on Meiosis.
genetically unlike with respect to each other
Activity:
The actual observation of Meiosis is difficult because of the small size of the chromosomes.
However, the good illustrations from textbook and /or related reference book(s) can serve as
reference materials.
Drawings: Make a diagram of a hypothetical animal cell undergoing meiosis. The cell must
have only one pair of chromosomes. Use the sheet provided at page 13.
Review:
Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis. Write A for Mitosis and B for Meiosis, and C for both:
 Which process has two cell divisions? B
 In which process do homologous chromosomes separate? B
 In which process do sister chromatids divide? B
 Which process produces four daughter cells? B
 Which process produces identical daughter cells? C
Biology Department
BIOL 101L - Zoology
Questions to answer:
1) Briefly explain why you would expect genetic differences between cells to arise from meiosis
and not from mitosis.
You would expect genetic differences between cells to arise from meiosis and not from mitosis
because the daughter cells that are produced in meiosis is not genetically identical with each other
unlike those of mitosis.
2) Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis. Fill out table below.

Table 6.1: Comparison between mitosis and meiosis
CRITERION MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Somatic cells. Humans, animals, All organisms. Meiosis occurs in the
Where it occurs? plants, fungi. primordial germ cells
The purpose of mitosis is cell Cellular reproduction and general

regeneration, growth, and asexual growth and repair of the body
Function(s) reproduction,
Mitosis creates two identical meiosis gives rise to four unique

daughter cells daughter cells
Chromosome number in
daughter cells
1 2
Number of cytokinetic
divisions
completes cell division only takes The complete meiosis process in

about 2 hours. human males takes about 74 hours.
Duration of each division Spermatogenesis usually begins at 12-
13 years of age and continues
throughout life.
Biology Department
BIOL 101L - Zoology
DRAWINGS: Labeled diagram of a hypothetical animal cell undergoing meiosis with only one
pair of chromosomes (Note: Depict the crossing over by shading or color)
Biology Department
BIOL 101L - Zoology
Reflections / Generalizations:
In this exercise we were able to learn about the cell division in general. We were able to learn about
the distinct differences between meiosis and mitosis. We were also able to learn about their processes
and how each of these cells undergo through different stages like the mitosis, it has only one cell
division that is composed of prophase, metaphase, prometaphase, anaphase and telophase. Meanwhile
meiosis on the other hand, undergoes two stages which are prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I,
Telophase I, interkinesis, Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and Telophase II.
END OF EXERCISE 6

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Biology Department

College of Arts & Sciences Date submitted: 9/16/2021

Exercise 6: Cell Division

A. MITOSIS Therefore, from a biochemical point

a) nuclear membrane – gradually

a) chromosomes approach the poles dividing cell in both cases is

Plate 6.1: Interphase

 Which materials or structures in the interphase stage provide the substance of

chromosomal material (chromatin)

 What hereditary components do the chromosomes carry?

Plate 6.2: Prophase

Plate 6.3: Prometaphase

 What changes in the cell do you observe at this stage?

Changes include; nuclear membrane - no longer visible;

Plate 6.4: Metaphase

Plate 6.5: Anaphase

Nuclear envelope Daughter chromosomes

Plate 6.6: Telophase

 How many chromosomes would be in each daughter cell?

Questions to answer [Refer to textbook or reliable good reference book(s)]

a) Occurrence (where cell division occurs) Nucleus

3. What are the biological functions of mitosis?

The somatic cells of every species have a STAGES OF MEIOSIS

bivalents, forming a group of four disappears and nuclear membrane

5. INTERKINESIS. It is a brief stage centromeres attach to a spindle fiber until

 How many daughter cells are formed from meiosis?

 In terms of chromosomal content, are the daughter cells identical or different?

They are identical.

 Are the daughter cells identical to the original cell?

Yes, since the daughter cells are identical to the parent.

 Where in the human female does this process take place?

 Where in the human male does this process take place?

2) Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis. Fill out table below.

The purpose of mitosis is cell Cellular reproduction and general

Mitosis creates two identical meiosis gives rise to four unique

completes cell division only takes The complete meiosis process in

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