Baguio City National Science High School

Purok 12, Irisan, Baguio City

S.Y. 2022-2023

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

CELL DIVISION

Did you know that there are two million cells being produced by the adult human body
each day? The cell division processes are one of the cell’s important tasks to keep you alive.
This concept is related to what you have learned in the cell theory: all living things are
composed of cells and all cells arise from pre-existing cells. This emphasizes the importance
of cell division, and no cells will exist today if not from a previous parent cell.

Talking of cell division, the chromosome containing the organisms’ genetic material is
very important. These could be found in the nucleus, mitochondrion, and chloroplasts.

PARTS OF THE CHROMOSOME

a. Sister chromatids – two identical copies of
the same chromosome formed by DNA replication
b. p arm – shorter arm
c. q arm – longer arm
d. centromere – structure holding the two sister
chromatids, where the kinetochore is attached
e. kinetochore – protein structure
- forms at the centromere of every
chromosome
- bind microtubules of the spindle fiber to
the chromosome
f. band – describe the location of genes on a
chromosome
• heterochromatin – darker, chromatin is
tightly packed
• euchromation – lighter, chromatin is
loosely packed
g. telomere – region of repetitive DNA sequences
at the end of the chromosome

TYPE OF CHROMOSOME based on CENTROMERE LOCATION

a. metacentric – centromere is located centrally
equal division of the arm

b. submetacentric – centromere not equally divided on both sides

one arm is short while the other arm is longer

c. telocentric – located at the end, one arm

d. acrosentric – one arm is very short and the other is very long
e. acentric – no centromere
get lost during cell division
f. dicentric – several centromere, tends to break into smaller pieces

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 Source: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-3-genetics/32-chromosomes/chromosome-types.html

CELL DIVISION
-the process where one cell divides into two cells

TWO PROCESSES
A. KARYOKINESIS – nuclear division, precise division (equal)
B. CYTOKINESIS – cytoplasmic division, unequal division

In cell division, karyokinesis comes first before cytokinesis.

NUCLEAR DIVISION
somatic/body more somatic
cells cells
mitosis
vegetative vegetative
cells cells
A.

sex cells/gametes/germ cells

sex glands
meiosis (follicles-ovaries)
semineferous glands-testes)

sperm/egg

B.

CELL CYCLE
In order for the cell divide, it must undergo several processes under the cell cycle.
Before the cell undergo division (mitosis or meiosis),the cell must first make the necessary
preparations.
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 A. INTERPHASE – this is the growth period in the cell cycle and is divided into three parts

Part Function
Gap 1 (G1) - cells undergo rapid growth (increase in
size)
- copies organelles
- makes molecular building blocks
*The size of the cell must not be that too
large or too small as it will affect its function,
thus a checkpoint must be done before
proceeding to the next stage.

G1 CHECKPOINT: checks for cell size,

nutrients, growth factors, and DNA damage
Synthesis (S) - copy genetic material in the form of DNA
- duplicates microtubule-organizing
structure (centrosome/centriole)
Gap 2 (G2) -further growth of the cell
-protein and organelles are made
-contents are reorganized before mitosis
-ends when mitosis begins

*This stage contains a critical checkpoint

before transitioning to the next stage.

G2 CHECKPOINT: checks for DNA damage

and DNA replication completeness

G0 stage – while in this phase, cells exist in quiescent (inactive) state, meaning they are not
dividing, or they are preparing to divide. The process can be reversible, meaning that they
can leave it and progress along the cell cycle into interphase. Other cells however, remain in
the quiescent G0 phase for the rest of their lives. These cells have reached their mature and
specialized forms and cannot exit. They are irreversible. Examples are heart cells, blood cells,
and neurons.

MITOSIS – division of nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei containing the same full
set of DNA.

STAGE EVENTS
PROPHASE (EARLY PROPHASE) - chromosomes condense
- mitotic spindle (spindle fiber) begins to
form
- nucleolus breaks down

LATE PROPHASE (PROMETAPHASE) -chromosomes condense even more

(compact)
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 -nuclear envelope breaks down
-mitotic spindle grows more and some of
the microtubule starts to “capture” the
chromosomes

METAPHASE: CHROMOSOME AT THE -spindle has captured all the

CENTER chromosomes
-chromosomes align at the metaphase
plate (imaginary)
-kinetochores are attached to the spindle
fiber

*Spindle checkpoint (ensure sister

chromatids will split evenly between two
daughter cells when they separate)

ANAPHASE: CHROMATIDS TO OPPOSITE -sister chromatids separate and are

POLES pulled towards the opposite end of the
cell
-protein holding chromatids break down
-formation of cleavage furrow starts to
form
-

TELOPHASE:REFORMATION OF NUCLEI -cell is nearly dividing

-starts to re-establish its normal
structures as cytokinesis takes place
-mitotic spindle breaks down into
building blocks

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 -two nuclei form, one for each set of
chromosomes
-decondensation of chromosomes

CYTOKINESIS -division of the cytoplasm to form new

cells overlaps with the final stages of
mitosis
-may either start in anaphase or
telophase depending on the cell
- instead of the cleavage furrow for
plants, they have cell plates
- two cells are formed

IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS

growth and cell asexual

cloning
development replacement reproduction

MEIOSIS – cell division which is involve in the production of sex cells/gametes (sperm cell
and egg cell). The goal is to make daughter cells with exactly half as many chromosomes as
the starting cell or from diploid cell (two sets of chromosomes – 2n) to haploid cell (single
set of chromosomes - n).

The process undergo the Interphase stage like that of the Miotosis, however, Meiosis
follows a two-step division process.

MEIOSIS I – REDUCTION DIVISION

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PROPHASE I 5 SUBSTAGES
a.LEPTOTENE
-chromatin become organized into rod-
shaped body called chromosomes

b. ZYGOTENE
-homologous chromosome (one pair of
chromosomes carrying same genes from
each parental source) undergo pairing –
forming synapsis (actively happening)

c.PACHYTENE
-stable pairing of homologous chromosomes
where they are very close with each other
(seen as 1 – tetra group)
Source: https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/explain-the-stages-of-
-crossing-over may start (recombination of
prophase-i-of-meiosis/ genes)

d.DIPLOTENE
-paired homologous chromosomes (tetrads)
will move away from each other
-crossing over is completed where
homologous chromosomes remain attached
at the point of chiasma

e.DIAKINESIS
-homologous chromosomes start to separate
and synaptonemal complex (protein
structure) disappears. The nuclear
membrane also disappears.
METAPHASE I -homologous pairs line up at the metaphase
plate for separation
-this is process is important as it ensures the
chromosomes are mixed and when
separated, they create genetic diversity and
variation.

https://pediaa.com/difference-between-metaphase-1-and-2/
ANAPHASE I -the homologues are pulled apart and move
apart to opposite ends of the cell

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 -sister chromatids remain together and do
no separate at their centromeres.

TELOPHASE I -chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the

cell
-reappearance of the nuclear membrane and
disassembly of spindle fibers

CYTOKINESIS
-the cytoplasm divides forming new two cells

MEIOSIS II – “mitosis for haploid cells” since the goal is to divide the sister chromatids with
only half of the chromosome number.

PROPHASE II -new spindle forms around the chromosomes

-nuclear envelope breaks down with chromosomes
pulled at opposite sides of the cell by the spindle fiber
METAPHASE II -chromosomes line up along the equator through the
spindle fiber
-each chromosome has sister chromatids attached to
the centromere
ANAPHASE II -centromeres divide and sister chromatids are
individually pulled apart, then move to opposite poles
of the cell
TELOPHASE II -nuclear envelope forms around each set of
chromosomes at opposite ends of the cell
-spindle fiber breaks down

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 Cytokinesis – results to four haploid cells with a
recombination of the chromosomes both from the
mother and fater.

GAMETOGENESIS – formation of gametes

OOGENESIS

APPLICATION OF MEIOSIS

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-genetic variation (crossing-over, independent assortment-random distribution of
homologous chromosomes, random fertilization-fusion of sperm cell and egg cell is done at
random)
-production of gametes

SOME GENETIC DISORDERS AND DISEASES

A. MOSAICISM – cells within the same person have a different genetic makeup
B. TURNER’S SYNDROME (45, XO)
-seen in female individuals where nondisjunction of chromosomes occurred

C. DOWN SYNDROME (TRISOMY 21)

-occurs in one of 800 newborns, three chromosomes under 21
-most abnormalities occur in egg cells

D.KLINEFELTER SYNDROME (47, XXY)

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-affects the males

E.TRISOMY X (47, XXX)

-affects 1 in 1000 females

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