Unit 3

Uncertainty:
Till now, we have learned knowledge representation using first-order logic and
propositional logic with certainty, which means we were sure about the predicates.
With this knowledge representation, we might write A→B, which means if A is true
then B is true, but consider a situation where we are not sure about whether A is true
or not then we cannot express this statement, this situation is called uncertainty.
So to represent uncertain knowledge, where we are not sure about the predicates,
we need uncertain reasoning or probabilistic reasoning.
Causes of uncertainty:
Following are some leading causes of uncertainty to occur in the real world.
1. Information occurred from unreliable sources.

2. Experimental Errors
3. Equipment fault
4. Temperature variation
5. Climate change.
Probabilistic reasoning:
Probabilistic reasoning is a way of knowledge representation where we apply the
concept of probability to indicate the uncertainty in knowledge. In probabilistic
reasoning, we combine probability theory with logic to handle the uncertainty.
We use probability in probabilistic reasoning because it provides a way to handle the

uncertainty that is the result of someone's laziness and ignorance.
In the real world, there are lots of scenarios, where the certainty of something is not
confirmed, such as "It will rain today," "behavior of someone for some situations," "A
match between two teams or two players." These are probable sentences for which
we can assume that it will happen but not sure about it, so here we use probabilistic
reasoning.
Need of probabilistic reasoning in AI:

o When there are unpredictable outcomes.
o When specifications or possibilities of predicates becomes too large to handle.
o When an unknown error occurs during an experiment.
In probabilistic reasoning, there are two ways to solve problems with uncertain
knowledge:
o Bayes' rule
o Bayesian Statistics
As probabilistic reasoning uses probability and related terms, so before

understanding probabilistic reasoning, let's understand some common terms:
Probability: Probability can be defined as a chance that an uncertain event will

occur. It is the numerical measure of the likelihood that an event will occur. The value
of probability always remains between 0 and 1 that represent ideal uncertainties.
1. 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1, where P(A) is the probability of an event A.
1. P(A) = 0, indicates total uncertainty in an event A.
1. P(A) =1, indicates total certainty in an event A.
We can find the probability of an uncertain event by using the below formula.
o P(¬A) = probability of a not happening event.

o P(¬A) + P(A) = 1.
Event: Each possible outcome of a variable is called an event.
Sample space: The collection of all possible events is called sample space.
Random variables: Random variables are used to represent the events and objects
in the real world.
Prior probability: The prior probability of an event is probability computed before

observing new information.
Posterior Probability: The probability that is calculated after all evidence or

information has taken into account. It is a combination of prior probability and new
information.
Conditional probability:
Conditional probability is a probability of occurring an event when another event has
already happened.
Let's suppose, we want to calculate the event A when event B has already occurred,
"the probability of A under the conditions of B", it can be written as:
Where P(A⋀B)= Joint probability of a and B
P(B)= Marginal probability of B.
If the probability of A is given and we need to find the probability of B, then it will be
given as:
It can be explained by using the below Venn diagram, where B is occurred event, so
sample space will be reduced to set B, and now we can only calculate event A when
event B is already occurred by dividing the probability of P(A⋀B) by P( B ).
Example:
In a class, there are 70% of the students who like English and 40% of the students
who likes English and mathematics, and then what is the percent of students those
who like English also like mathematics?
Solution:
Let, A is an event that a student likes Mathematics
B is an event that a student likes English.
Hence, 57% are the students who like English also like Mathematics.
Bayes' theorem:
Bayes' theorem is also known as Bayes' rule, Bayes' law, or Bayesian reasoning,
which determines the probability of an event with uncertain knowledge.
In probability theory, it relates the conditional probability and marginal probabilities

of two random events.
Bayes' theorem was named after the British mathematician Thomas Bayes.
The Bayesian inference is an application of Bayes' theorem, which is fundamental to
Bayesian statistics.
It is a way to calculate the value of P(B|A) with the knowledge of P(A|B).
Bayes' theorem allows updating the probability prediction of an event by observing

new information of the real world.
Example: If cancer corresponds to one's age then by using Bayes' theorem, we can
determine the probability of cancer more accurately with the help of age.
Bayes' theorem can be derived using product rule and conditional probability of
event A with known event B:
As from product rule we can write:
1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(A|B) P(B) or
Similarly, the probability of event B with known event A:

1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(B|A) P(A)
Equating right hand side of both the equations, we will get:
The above equation (a) is called as Bayes' rule or Bayes' theorem. This equation is
basic of most modern AI systems for probabilistic inference.
It shows the simple relationship between joint and conditional probabilities. Here,
P(A|B) is known as posterior, which we need to calculate, and it will be read as

Probability of hypothesis A when we have occurred an evidence B.
P(B|A) is called the likelihood, in which we consider that hypothesis is true, then we
calculate the probability of evidence.
P(A) is called the prior probability, probability of hypothesis before considering the
evidence
P(B) is called marginal probability, pure probability of an evidence.
In the equation (a), in general, we can write P (B) = P(A)*P(B|Ai), hence the Bayes' rule
can be written as:
Where A1, A2, A3,........, An is a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.
Applying Bayes' rule:

Bayes' rule allows us to compute the single term P(B|A) in terms of P(A|B), P(B), and
P(A). This is very useful in cases where we have a good probability of these three
terms and want to determine the fourth one. Suppose we want to perceive the effect
of some unknown cause, and want to compute that cause, then the Bayes' rule
becomes:
Example-1:
Question: what is the probability that a patient has diseases meningitis with a
stiff neck?
Given Data:
A doctor is aware that disease meningitis causes a patient to have a stiff neck, and it
occurs 80% of the time. He is also aware of some more facts, which are given as
follows:
o The Known probability that a patient has meningitis disease is 1/30,000.

o The Known probability that a patient has a stiff neck is 2%.
Let a be the proposition that patient has stiff neck and b be the proposition that
patient has meningitis. , so we can calculate the following as:
P(a|b) = 0.8
P(b) = 1/30000
P(a)= .02
Hence, we can assume that 1 patient out of 750 patients has meningitis disease with
a stiff neck.
Example-2:
Question: From a standard deck of playing cards, a single card is drawn. The
probability that the card is king is 4/52, then calculate posterior probability
P(King|Face), which means the drawn face card is a king card.
Solution:
P(king): probability that the card is King= 4/52= 1/13
P(face): probability that a card is a face card= 3/13

P(Face|King): probability of face card when we assume it is a king = 1
Putting all values in equation (i) we will get:
Application of Bayes' theorem in Artificial intelligence:

Following are some applications of Bayes' theorem:
o It is used to calculate the next step of the robot when the already executed
step is given.
o Bayes' theorem is helpful in weather forecasting.

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Uncertainty:

1. Information occurred from unreliable sources.

We use probability in probabilistic reasoning because it provides a way to handle the

Need of probabilistic reasoning in AI:

As probabilistic reasoning uses probability and related terms, so before

Probability: Probability can be defined as a chance that an uncertain event will

1. 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1, where P(A) is the probability of an event A.

1. P(A) = 0, indicates total uncertainty in an event A.

1. P(A) =1, indicates total certainty in an event A.

o P(¬A) = probability of a not happening event.

Event: Each possible outcome of a variable is called an event.

Prior probability: The prior probability of an event is probability computed before

Posterior Probability: The probability that is calculated after all evidence or

Where P(A⋀B)= Joint probability of a and B

P(B)= Marginal probability of B.

Let, A is an event that a student likes Mathematics

B is an event that a student likes English.

In probability theory, it relates the conditional probability and marginal probabilities

It is a way to calculate the value of P(B|A) with the knowledge of P(A|B).

Bayes' theorem allows updating the probability prediction of an event by observing

As from product rule we can write:

1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(A|B) P(B) or

Similarly, the probability of event B with known event A:

Equating right hand side of both the equations, we will get:

P(A|B) is known as posterior, which we need to calculate, and it will be read as

P(B) is called marginal probability, pure probability of an evidence.

Applying Bayes' rule:

o The Known probability that a patient has meningitis disease is 1/30,000.

P(king): probability that the card is King= 4/52= 1/13

P(face): probability that a card is a face card= 3/13

Putting all values in equation (i) we will get:

Application of Bayes' theorem in Artificial intelligence:

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