BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology

CELL TYPES OF CELL

● Smallest or basic unit of life.
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
● Basic structural, functional and
biological unif of all known organisms. No-membrane bound Membrane bound
● Contains many biomolecules such as nucleus. nucleus.
proteins and nucleic acids.
● Composed of “organelles” which are Cell wall is made of Cell wall (if present)
small organs. peptidoglycan is made of cellulose
(bacteria). or chitin (in fungi).
4 FUNCTIONS OF THE CELLS Have pili & fimbriae Have cilia and flagella
1. Cell Metabolism and Energy Use - (for adhesion) and for movement.
chemical reactions that occur within the flagella (for
cells collectively (ATP - major source of propulsion).
energy of cells; oxygen and glucose).
unicellular multicellular
2. Synthesis of Molecules - cells
synthesize various types of molecules Smaller in size Larger in size
including proteins, carbohydrates,
nucleic acids, and lipids (production of Bacteria, archaea, Fungi, plant, protest,
molecules). and blue-green algae and animal cells are
★ Nucleic acids - DNA; are prokaryotic cells. eukaryotic cells.
★ Carbohydrates - energy;
Nucleolus is absent Nucleolus is present
★ Lipid - they store energy from
carbohydrates in the form of
fats; 2 TYPES OF ANIMAL CELLS
★ Protein - involved in the creation (HUMAN CELLS)
of hormones and regulating cell 1. Somatic Cell - body cells (ex. blood
growth. cell, bone cell, neuron).
★ A cell's structural and functional 2. Germ Cell (Gametes) - sex cells (ex.
characteristics are determined egg cells and sperm cells).
by the types of molecules the
cell produces. 3 MAJOR PARTS OF A CELL
3. Communication - cells produce and ● Cell Membrane
receive chemical and electrical signals ● Nucleus
that allow them to communicate with ● Cytoplasm
one another.
★ Neuromuscular Junction - ★ Water - most abundant substance in the
communication (junction) of cell. (either in and out).
nerve and muscle. Nerve will
release a lot of chemicals to CELL / PLASMA MEMBRANE
signal muscles to contract and ● The outer boundary of the cell is the
produce a certain action. plasma membrane.
4. Reproduction and Inheritance - each ● Encloses the cytoplasm and forms the
cell contains a copy of the genetic boundary between material inside the
information of the individual. cell and the material outside it.
★ Specified cells (sperm cells & ★ Composed of a double layer or (bilayer)
oocytes) transmit that genetic of phospholipid (polar, hydrophilic
information to the next “water loving” head made up of
generation. phosphate and glycerol, and a nonpolar,
hydrophobic “water fearing” tail made up

1
BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology

of two fatty acid chains) molecules NUCLEUS

embedded with other molecules. - Large organelle within the cells;
★ Cholesterol - limits the movement of command center of cell.
phospholipids, providing stability to the - Carries the genetic materials that
plasma membrane. contain information for cell activities and
★ Selective Permeable (Barrier) - allows cell division.
other substances but not others to pass - Cell’s control center.
into or out of the cell.
★ Fluid Mosaic Model - highly flexible 3 DISTINCT PARTS:
and can change its shape and 1. Nuclear Envelope - consists of outer
composition through time. and inner membrane (covering).
a. nuclear pores - for the
FUNCTIONS movement of different
1. Barrier substances inside and outside
2. Control of the nucleus (nutrients).
3. Signaling 2. Nucleolus - diffuse bodies with no
surrounding membrane (manufactures
★ Extracellular Substance - substance ribosome RNA).
outside the cell. 3. Chromatin - consists of DNA and
★ Cytoplasmic or Intercellular proteins; chromosomes(protein) loosely
Substance - substance inside the cell. coiled.

CYTOPLASM ORGANELLES
- Viscous fluid containing organelles. ● Parts of the cell (meaning “small
- It surrounds all the internal cell organs” that carry out specialized
structures on both prokaryotes and function within the cell.
eukaryotes.
★ It is enclosed by the cell membrane or RIBOSOMES
plasma membrane. - Organelles where proteins are
produced.
COMPONENTS OF CYTOPLASM - Site of protein synthesis.
● Interconnected filaments and fiber - Contains lysozyme and other digestive
● Fluid = cytosol (water substance inside enzymes.
the cell which contains proteins = - Breakdowns food, bacteria and worn out
nutrients) cell parts.
● Organelles (not nucleus)
● Storage Substance ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
- Network of tubular and flat vesicular
structures in the cytoplasm.
- Series of membranes forming sacs and
tubules that extend from the outer
nuclear membrane (envelope)
throughout the cytoplasm.
● Fxn: Transport of PROTEIN

2
BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology

2 TYPES - Detoxifies of free radical and harmful

● Rough ER - ER with attached substances.
ribosomes (site of protein synthesis).
○ Ribosomes do protein CYTOSKELETON
synthesis. - The internal framework of the cell.
● Smooth ER - ER without ribosomes. It - A structure that supports or helps cells
is a site for lipid synthesis and maintain their shape and internal
participates in detoxification of organization, and it also provides
chemicals within the cell. mechanical support that enables cells to
carry out essential functions like division
MITOCHONDRIA and movement.
- Small organelle with inner and outer
membranes separated by space. PROTEIN STRUCTURES:
- Site of aerobic respiration and the major 1. Microtubules - hollow structures formed
site of ATP synthesis. from protein subunits.
- Powerhouse of the cell. a. Help support cytoplasm cells,
★ Also called as Mitochondrion. assist in cell division and form
essential components of certain
GOLGI APPARATUS organelles (cilia and flagella).
- Closely packed stacks of curved, 2. Microfilaments - small fibrils formed
membrane-bound sacs. from protein subunits that structurally
- Responsible for transporting, modifying support the cytoplasm, determining cell
and packaging protein structures and shape.
lipids in (secretory vesicles; secreted by 3. Intermediate Filaments - provides
exocytosis) sent by rough ER. mechanical support to cells (eg. keratin).
★ Also produces lysosomes.
★ Also called as Golgi Complex or traffic MICROVILLI
director. - Function: Increase the surface area of
plasma membrane for absorption and
LYSOSOMES secretion of nutrients.
- Membrane bound vesicles formed from - Structure: Extensions of plasma
the golgi apparatus. membrane containing microfilaments.
- Variety of enzymes (digests material ★ Mostly seen in the intestine (abundant)
taken into the cell via endocytosis): ★ Not all cells have it
intracellular digestive system (cell
scavenger). CENTRIOLES
- Transport final products of digestion into - Small cylindrical organelle composed of
cytosol. microtubules.
- Destroys bacteria > responsive for - Only active during cell division.
detoxification. - Facilitate the movement of
● Autophagy - when lysosomes detect chromosomes during cell division.
that the organelle inside the cytoplasm ★ Produce spindle fibers which attach to
is worn out, it also digests it. chromosomes. The fibers pull a copy of
each chromosome to opposite sides of
PEROXISOMES the cell so that when it splits, each new
- Small, membrane bound vesicles daughter cell has all the DNA it needs.
containing enzymes that breakdown
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen
peroxide (lipid metabolism).

3
BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology

CENTROSOME concentration to an area of LOW solute

- Two centrioles at right angles to each concentration.
other (Composed of a set of triplets - Without gates, substances are
fibers) free to go in and out of the
- A specialized area of cytoplasm close to plasma membrane.
the nucleus where microtubule 2. Facilitated diffusion - Movement of
formation occurs. solute from an area of HIGH solute
★ Acts us poles during cell division. concentration to an area of LOW solute
concentration with a CARRIER.
CILIA - Must go through a gate (binding
- Project from the surface cells. site) to enter or exit the cell.
- Moves substances over the surface of specific cells can only enter the
the cell. gate (molecules move across
★ Shorter and numerous. the membrane).
3. Osmosis - Movement of fluid from an
FLAGELLA area of LOW solute concentration to an
- Much longer than cilia and propel sperm area of HIGH solute concentration.
cells. - Often involves movement of
- Hairlike structures that act primarily as water - into cell of cell.
an organelle of locomotion in the cells of
many living organisms. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Whip-like extensions found in sperm ● Movement of solute from an area of
cells. LOW solute concentration to an area of
- Flagellum - assists in locomotion. HIGH solute concentration.
- Molecular movement
CELL TRANSPORT ★ Requires energy; in the form of an
● Movement through cell membrane: energy-storing chemical called
passive or active. ATP(against gradient).
● Selectively permeable membrane. ★ Example is sodium-potassium pump
(ATP opens the pump (PISO -
★ Solute - substances being dissolved. potassium(2K) in, sodium(3Na) out.
★ Solvent - fluid or gas in which solute is
being dissolved. SOLUTIONS
★ Concentration - the amount of solute ● Isotonic - normal entrance and exit of
dissolved in a given volume of solvent. water.
★ Concentration Gradient - the ● Hypotonic - water continuously enters
difference in concentration of a the cell = swelling eventually (lower
substance between two areas. concentration).
★ lysis = bursting
PASSIVE TRANSPORT ● Hypertonic = when water moves out
- without the use of energy, molecules and barely enters the cell, the cell
move to equalize concentration. shrinks (higher concentration).
- GREATER concentration to LESSER
concentration.

TYPES
1. Simple diffusion - Movement of solute
from an area of HIGH solute

4
BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology

BULK TRANSPORT MECHANISMS CELL DIVISION

1. Endocytosis ● Mitosis - cell division of somatic cells
- Plasma membrane surrounds (body cells). 2 daughter cells (diploid).
molecules into the cell ● Meiosis - sex cells. 4 daughter cells
membrane. (haploid).
- Edges of the membrane meet.
- Membranes fuse to form ★ Chromosome - thread-like structures
vesicles. Entry of particles made of protein and a single molecule
towards the cell (solute). of DNA located in the nucleus. (passed
from parents to offspring).
a. Phagocytosis - cell eating (engulfs) ○ 23 pairs (46 chromosomes)
solid material (larger).
b. Pinocytosis - cell drinking (fluids). Cell Theory:
● All living organisms are made up of
cells.
● All cells came from preexisting cells.
● The cell is the basic unit of life.

CELL CYCLE
- Majority of cells go through the cell cycle
where they are created, carry out their
specific functions, grow, and then divide
to produce more cells (happens
constantly).
2. Exocytosis - Most body cells spend most of their time
- Releasing, exit, extrusion or in the interphase, carrying out their
expulsion of substance within specific functions. However, they also
the cell. prepare for mitosis (cell division) during
interphase.

PHASES
1. G1 (Gap Phase 1) -
a. The cell is quite active at the
biochemical level.
b. The cell increases in physical
size, copies organelles, and
makes the molecular building
blocks that make up the cell.
(undergo majority of growth).
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
● Utilizes energy from the primary active 2. S (Synthesis Phase) -
transport. a. A complete copy of DNA is
○ Cotransport - nakikisabay synthesized by the cell, to
pagpasok or paglabas. produce sister chromatids.
○ Countertransport - when one b. A cell must undergo this phase,
goes in, the other goes out. as it doubles its genetic material
prior to undergoing mitosis or
meiosis. As a result, the DNA is

5
BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology

sufficient enough to allow it to MITOSIS

be divided into daughter cells. - Two daughter cells with exactly the
3. G2 (Gap Phase 2) - same genetic material.
a. The cell replenishes its energy - Cellular division for growth
stores and synthesizes proteins maintenance, and repair.
necessary for chromosome
manipulation. PHASES
b. In preparation for mitosis, some - Prophase
cells multiply, duplicate proteins ● Chromosomes condense and
and organelles, and reorganize become visible (begins to pair).
their contents. ● Spindle fibers emerge from the
4. G0 Phase - chromosomes.
a. The cells exist in a resting or ● Nuclear envelope will begin to
inactive state. break down.
b. The cells are not actively ● Centrosomes move toward
participating in the division of opposite poles.
cells. - Prometaphase
c. Some cells enter this phase ● Chromosomes continue to
temporarily until an external condense.
signal triggers the onset of G1, ● Kinetochores appear at the
while other cells that rarely or centromeres.
never divide permanently ● Mitotic spindle microtubules
remain in the G0 phase. (fibers) attach to kinetochores.
d. Some cells that might enter this - Metaphase
phase are neurons and red ● Chromosomes are lined up at
blood cells. These cells are the midline or in the middle.
permanent cells and remain in ● Microtubules will attach to the
the G0 phase as they chromosomes.
regenerate from stem cells but ● Each sister chromatid is
cannot undergo division attached to a spindle fiber
themselves. originating from opposite poles
5. Mitotic (M) Phase & Cytokinesis - (chromosomes or centrioles).
a. During mitosis, the two sister - Anaphase
chromatids that comprise each ● Centromeres split in two
chromosome are divided into ● Sister chromatids (now called
two equal sets and move to chromosomes) are pulled
opposite poles of the cell. toward opposite poles.
b. During cytokinesis, a cell's ● Certain spindle fibers begin to
cytoplasm splits into two and the elongate the cell.
cell divides, resulting in the - Telophase
formation of two new cells. ● Chromosomes arrive at
opposite poles and begin to
decondense.
● Nuclear envelope material
surrounds each set of
chromosomes.
● The mitotic spindle breaks
down.

6
BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology

● Spindle fibers continue to push

poles apart.
★ Cleavage Furrow - indentation of the
cell’s surface that begins the
progression of cleavage, the final
splitting of the membrane
(chromosomes are at the piles, and are
becoming more diffuse, the nuclear
envelope is reforming, the cytoplasm
may be dividing).
- 2 Nuclei and nuclear envelope
starts to form a cleavage shape.

MEIOSIS
- Four daughter cells with half the genetic
material.
- Cellular division for reproduction.
- Ensures that all living organisms will
maintain both genetic diversity and
genetic integrity.
★ During Meiosis, gametes (sex cells)
undergo a “double division,” maintaining
the DNA, but reducing the chromosomal
count to 23 (spem(23) + egg(23) =
fertilized cell(46)).
★ Start with 46 double stranded
chromosomes.
★ After 1 division - 23 double stranded
chromosomes.
★ After 2nd division - 23 single stranded
chromosomes.
★ Occurs in our germ cells that produce
gametes.

PHASES
● Meiosis I
○ Prophase I
○ Metaphase I
○ Anaphase I
○ Telophase I
○ Cytokinesis I
● Meiosis II
○ Prophase II
○ Anaphase II
○ Metaphase II
○ Telophase II
○ Cytokinesis II