Chapter 1

Chapter 1
Mathematical reasoning
I.1 Introduction
I.1.1 Statements and Conditional Statements
In mathematics, a statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false but not
both. A statement is sometimes called a proposition. So a sentence Example:
1. 2 × x + 5 = 10 ; this equation is not a statement since we do not know what x

represents. But if we give a specific value for x (such as x = 3), then the resulting
equation, 2 × x + 5 = 10 is a statement (which is a false statement).
2. There exists a real number x such that 2.x + 5 = 10 : This is a statement

because either such a real number exists or does not exist: This is a true statement
for a real number x = 2.5.
5

3. For each real number x, 2.x + 5 = 2.x + : this is a true statement.
2
4. Solve the equation: x2 − 7 × x + 10 = 0. This is a directive sentence, it does

not assert something true, so it is not a statement.
5. (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 : Since a and b are unknown, it is not a statement.
6. There exist real numbers a and b such that (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 is a statement.

In fact this is a true statement for example if a = 2 and b = 3.
Chapter 1 Mathematical reasoning
7. For all real numbers a and b, (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 : This is a false statement since
there are values for a and b for which (a + b)2 ̸= a2 + b2 (Ex: a = 2 and b = 3). In
mathematics, we establish that a statement is true by writing a mathematical proof
and to establish that a statement is false, we often find a so-called counterexample.
Conditional Statements: In mathematics, the conditional statement is one of the

most frequently used types of statements. This statement can be written in the form If
P then Q where P and Q are sentences: P is called the hypothesis and Q is called the
conclusion.
The conditional statement P =⇒ Q means that Q is true whenever P is true. The truth
table for the conditional statement P =⇒ Q is given below.
P Q P =⇒ Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Table I.1: Truth Table for P =⇒ Q
Quantifiers: The phrase for every (or its equivalents) is called a universal quantifier.
The phrase there exists (or its equivalents) is called an existential quantifier. The symbol
∀ is used to denote a universal quantifier, and the symbol ∃ is used to denote an existential
quantifier. The summarized results are given in the following table.
Symbolic form English form
Statement P (∃x ∈ Z)(∀y ∈ Z)(x + y = 0) There exists an integer x such that

for each integer y, x + y = 0.
Negation of P (∀x ∈ Z)(∃y ∈ Z)(x + y ̸= 0) For each integer x, there exists an

integer y such that, x + y ̸= 0.
Fahima Khaled 2
To demonstrate that a particular statement is true, we must write a proof in which

we may do the following:
• state an assumption which usually starts with: suppose, let assume.
• make a statement that we know to be true.
• apply principles of mathematical logic to make deductions and draw conclusions.
• remind what we need to show in longer proofs with many steps.
There are several methods for writing proofs.
I.2 Direct Proofs
To prove an if,then statement directly, we start the proof by assuming hypotheses (the
statements before if) and use definitions, logic and previously proved results to reach the
desired conclusion (the statement after then).
Example 1 If a and b are even integers, then a + b is even.
Proof: Suppose a and b are even integers.

This means a = 2k1 and b = 2k2 for k1 ∈ Z and k2 ∈ Z.
Then a + b = 2k1 + 2k2 = 2(k1 + k2 )
Let k = k1 + k2 , then k ∈ Z and a + b = 2k.
Thus a + b is even.
Example 2 Suppose a, b, and c are integers. If a | b and b | c, then a | c.
Proof: Suppose a, b, and c are integers and that a | b and b | c.
a | b =⇒ b = ak(k ∈ Z) (I.1)
b | c =⇒ c = bl(l ∈ Z) (I.2)
Equations (I.1) and (I.2) =⇒ c = akl(kl ∈ Z) =⇒ a | c
Fahima Khaled 3
I.3 Proof by contrapositive
To prove that the statement P =⇒ Q, we must prove its contrapositive (notP ) =⇒

(notQ). We suppose notQ as the hypothesis and show that under this assumption, notP
is TRUE.
So to prove the statement P =⇒ Q by contrapositive, we suppose (notQ) is true and
prove that (notP ) is true.
Example Suppose n is an integer. If n2 is even, then n is even.
I.4 Proof by contradiction
In this method, we use the fact that a statement and its negation have opposite truth
values. To prove that P is true, we suppose that not(P ) is true and by applying logic,
definitions, and previous results, we arrive at a conclusion we know to be false. Then we
may conclude that not(P ) must be FALSE and thus P must be TRUE.
So to prove the statement P =⇒ Q by contradiction, We suppose P =⇒ Q is false,
(that is, suppose P and not(Q) are both true) and arrive at a statement that we know is
false.
Example 1 Let a be an integer. If a2 is odd, then a is odd.

Give two proofs (by contrapositive and by contradiction) of this statement.
Example 2 Let a be an integer. Then a is odd if and only if a2 − 1 is even.
I.5 Proof by induction
The Principle of Mathematical Induction is that a statement P (n) is true for all n ∈ N if
both of the following are satisfied:
• P (1) is true;
• whenever P (k) is true, P (k + 1) is also true.
Fahima Khaled 4

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Chapter 1

I.1.1 Statements and Conditional Statements

1. 2 × x + 5 = 10 ; this equation is not a statement since we do not know what x

2. There exists a real number x such that 2.x + 5 = 10 : This is a statement

4. Solve the equation: x2 − 7 × x + 10 = 0. This is a directive sentence, it does

5. (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 : Since a and b are unknown, it is not a statement.

6. There exist real numbers a and b such that (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 is a statement.

Conditional Statements: In mathematics, the conditional statement is one of the

Symbolic form English form

Statement P (∃x ∈ Z)(∀y ∈ Z)(x + y = 0) There exists an integer x such that

Negation of P (∀x ∈ Z)(∃y ∈ Z)(x + y ̸= 0) For each integer x, there exists an

To demonstrate that a particular statement is true, we must write a proof in which

• state an assumption which usually starts with: suppose, let assume.

• make a statement that we know to be true.

• apply principles of mathematical logic to make deductions and draw conclusions.

• remind what we need to show in longer proofs with many steps.

There are several methods for writing proofs.

I.2 Direct Proofs

Example 1 If a and b are even integers, then a + b is even.

Proof: Suppose a and b are even integers.

Example 2 Suppose a, b, and c are integers. If a | b and b | c, then a | c.

Proof: Suppose a, b, and c are integers and that a | b and b | c.

Equations (I.1) and (I.2) =⇒ c = akl(kl ∈ Z) =⇒ a | c

I.3 Proof by contrapositive

To prove that the statement P =⇒ Q, we must prove its contrapositive (notP ) =⇒

Example Suppose n is an integer. If n2 is even, then n is even.

I.4 Proof by contradiction

Example 1 Let a be an integer. If a2 is odd, then a is odd.

Example 2 Let a be an integer. Then a is odd if and only if a2 − 1 is even.

I.5 Proof by induction

• whenever P (k) is true, P (k + 1) is also true.

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