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Chapter 3: Kinematics
1 Displacement (symbol 𝑠𝑠, base units m)
Shortest distance from the initial to the final position of a body along a specific
direction.
The area under a velocity – time graph gives the change in displacement.
2 Velocity (symbol 𝑣𝑣, base units ms−1 )
Rate of change of displacement with respect to time.
The gradient of a displacement – time graph gives the instantaneous velocity.
The area under an acceleration – time graph gives the change in velocity.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3 Acceleration (symbol 𝑎𝑎, base units ms−2 )
Rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
The gradient of a velocity – time graph gives the instantaneous accleration.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4 Free Fall
No air resistance: Downwards acceleration of 9.81 ms −2

5 Terminal Velocity in a Viscous Liquid

Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity obtained when an object is falling under
the influence of gravity.
Assume that a small sphere is dropped from a height ℎ above a viscous fluid. Since
the sphere is small and density of air is low, we can assume that 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑔𝑔 when sphere
is falling in air (see below for the case of air resistance).
When the sphere enters the fluid (e.g. water), the sphere will decelerate and its
velocity decreases.
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
When 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣 , the sphere has reached terminal velocity.
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6 Terminal Velocity in air

Air resistance present: Still accelerate downwards, but as velocity increases, air
resistance increases until acceleration reaches 0.
The maximum velocity attained is the terminal velocity.

1. When object starts from rest, initial v = 0 and only experiences weight = mg
a. 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 becomes 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑔𝑔 = 9.81 ms −2 )

2. As object gains speed in the downwards direction, it

experiences increasing air resistance against its
motion (in the upward direction)
a. Net force experienced is the resultant of weight
(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) and air resistance (𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )
b. Net force = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (which magnitude is
smaller than mg)
c. 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
∴ 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑔𝑔 − 𝑚𝑚

3. As speed of body increases, air resistance increases

until it is equal to the body’s weight
a. 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 0 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 𝑎𝑎 = 0
 Body falls at constant velocity (terminal
velocity at time 𝑡𝑡1 )
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6 Graphs of Motion
Note that
- Gradient of the s-t graph is the velocity at that time
- Gradient of the v-t graph is the acceleration at that time
- Area under the a-t graph is the change of velocity
- Area under the v-t graph is the change of displacement.

Relationship between displacement (𝑠𝑠), velocity (𝑣𝑣) and acceleration (𝑎𝑎)

displacement 𝑠𝑠
𝑡𝑡2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
differentiate �𝑣𝑣 = � ↓ ↑ integrate �∆s = � 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡1
velocity 𝑣𝑣
𝑡𝑡2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
differentiate �𝑎𝑎 = � ↓ ↑ integrate �∆𝑣𝑣 = � 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡1
acceleration 𝑎𝑎

EXTRA!
Jerk comes after acceleration and is the rate of change of acceleration.
Then comes snap, crackle, pop. These names are not standard, but they have been
used to refer to the 4th, 5th and 6th derivatives respectively.
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7 Equations of motion
1. Deriving 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=> acceleration is equal to the gradient.
From the graph of velocity against time for an object
undergoing constant acceleration, the gradient is equal to
the acceleration. Hence,
𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢
𝑎𝑎 =
𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

1
2. Deriving 𝑠𝑠 = 2 (𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣)𝑡𝑡
Undergoing constant 𝑎𝑎,
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣 =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣 × 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
 Velocity under constant 𝑎𝑎 will increase uniformly with 𝑡𝑡 , from initial value 𝑢𝑢 to
final value 𝑣𝑣, within 𝑡𝑡 seconds
𝑣𝑣+𝑢𝑢
 Average v (mean v) = 2
𝑣𝑣+𝑢𝑢 1
 ∴ 𝑠𝑠 = 2
𝑡𝑡 = 2 (𝑣𝑣 + 𝑢𝑢)𝑡𝑡

1
3. Deriving 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + 2 𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 2
The area of a velocity-time graph is the displacement. Hence,
1
𝑠𝑠 = (𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣)(𝑡𝑡)
2
1
(𝑢𝑢 + 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)(𝑡𝑡)
2
1
𝑠𝑠 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2
2

4. Deriving 𝑣𝑣 2 = 𝑢𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢
From (1), 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑎𝑎
Substituting (1) into (3)
𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢 1 𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢 2
 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑢𝑢 � 𝑎𝑎
� + 2 𝑎𝑎 � 𝑎𝑎
�
1
 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − 𝑢𝑢2 + 2 (𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢)2
1
 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − 𝑢𝑢2 + 2 (𝑣𝑣 2 + 𝑢𝑢2 − 2𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)
1 1
 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 2 𝑣𝑣 2 − 2 𝑢𝑢2
 ∴ 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑣𝑣 2 − 𝑢𝑢2
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8 Projectile Motion
An object thrown at angle will have its weight as the only force acting vertically
downwards.
The only acceleration the object experiences is due to gravity, 𝑔𝑔 = 9.81 ms −2 . Air
resistance is negligible.
There will be constant horizontal velocity.
Resolve the angle of motion to its horizontal and vertical components, then
equations of kinematics to solve the problem.

Horizontally (𝑥𝑥-direction) Vertically (𝑦𝑦-direction)

1
Displacement 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2
2
Velocity 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 − 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
Acceleration 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = −𝑔𝑔
Note: Assuming upwards and to the right as positive for sign convention.

- Path of projectile motion without air resistance is always symmetrical parabola

(if starting and ending position are on the same level.)
- At the highest point of motion, vertical velocity = 0 (turning point)

Note: 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 = −𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 and 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥

𝑢𝑢 and 𝑣𝑣 can also be calculated using the formulae:

𝑢𝑢 = �𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦2 𝑣𝑣 = �𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦2