BASIC PRINCIPLE OF

COMPUERIZED
TOMOGRAPHY
 INTRODUCTION:
CT Scan is a computer assisted tomography which scan an
object in cross sectional format in defined thickness that’s
free from superimposition of an overlying structures by using
computerized mathematical reconstruction process.
CT = Computed + Tomography
The word "tomography" is derived from the Greek ‘tomos’
(slice) & ‘graphia’ (describing).

Tomos = Slices
Graphia = Describing

2
 HISTORY
‫ ٭‬First approach done by
mathematician J. Radon uses
infinite sets of projection to
reconstruct the 2D and 3D image
of internal structure with the
use of complex mathematics in
1917. Godfrey N. Hounsfield
The work in this field is continued by: -
‫ ٭‬Brecewell, an radio astronomer who made solar map from multiple ray
projection in 1956.
‫ ٭‬Oldendorf in 1961 and Allen Comarck in 1963 made his computed assisted
tomographic laboratory model.
‫ ٭‬Kuhl & Edwards in 1968 made a type of scanner used in nuclear medicine.
‫ ٭‬But this technique of imaging was embedded in the diagnostic radiology by
G.N. Hounsfield {an senior scientist at EMI LTD }in 1972,made a EMI
scanner.

In 1979 Allan M. Comack & Housenfield Awarded By Nobel Prize

Combinley "For The Development Of Computer Assisted Tomography”
 PRINCIPLE:

The basic principle of CT is that “The internal

structure of an object can be reconstructed
from multiple projection of the object”.

Object Image

The Computed Tomographic image is a 2D cross sectional

image crossponds to a 3D section of the object. 4
 SYSTEM COMPONENTS OF CT:
A CT system comprises several components, these basically includes: -
A. Console Room: -
1. Operator Console: -
a. Graphic Monitor
b. Key Board & Mouse
c. Computer
B. Examination Room: -
2. A Scanning Unit: -
I ) Gantry: -
a. X-ray Tube
b. Generator.
c. Detector Array
d. Data Acquisition System (DAS)
e. Slip Rings.
ii) Patient Table/Couch
3. Control Room: -
a. AC Plant
b. UPS
 CONSOLE ROOM:

a. Graphic Monitor:-
‫ ٭‬Provides to view reconstructed image in 2D
(analog Image) & implement image
manipulation Techniques such as :
- Zoom/Panning
- Control contrast & Brightness
- Image Analysis Technique
b. Key Board & Mouse: -
‫ ٭‬Helps to enter Patients Data & quick reference
guide .
 COMPUTER:

‫ ٭‬Provides the link b/w the CT Technologist &

other components of the imaging systems.
‫ ٭‬Its helps to reconstruct a CT Image from the
millions of mathematical operations required
to digitalized & reconstruct the raw data.
‫ ٭‬The CT imaging system requires a large
computing capacity.
‫ ٭‬Is designed to control data acquisition,
processing, display, retrieve & storage.
‫ ٭‬Calculates the attenuation of the individual
voxels using algorithm.
‫ ٭‬The microprocessor and the primary memory are
used as the heart of the computer. These
determine the Reconstruction Time.
-influence the efficiency of the examination.
‫ ٭‬Array processor is used instead of the
Microprocessor:- do many calculation
simultaneously and fast.
 GENERATORS:

CT scanner use three phase power for efficient production

of X-rays: -
‫ ٭‬In the past generators were based on 50/60 Hz
voltage frequency, were bulky & located in a corner
of the x-ray room & a long HT cable connected the
generator to the X-ray tube in the gantry.
‫ ٭‬Modern CT scanners uses high frequency generators
which are small, compact & more efficient, located
inside the gantry.
‫ ٭‬In Generators of the CT scanners, low voltage low
frequency alternating current from the main power
supply is converted into high voltage, high
frequency (500- 25000 Hz), direct current of almost
constant potential is supplied to X-Ray tube.
‫ ٭‬the voltage ripples is less than 1% compared to 4%
from a three phase 12 pulse generator.
‫ ٭‬Current CT generators have maximum power rating
of about 40 – 80 KW that allows kV in the range of
80 – 140 kVp & tube current in the range of 100 –
800 mA.
‫ ٭‬Now a days, in all modern CT scanners posses
“Constant Potential Generator” which houses inside
the gantry & rotate along with the X-ray Tube.
Specifications: -
‫ ٭‬Power: - 40 – 80 KW.
‫ ٭‬kV Ranges: - 80, 100, 120, 130, 140.
‫ ٭‬mA Ranges: - up to 800 mA, mA modulation available.
‫ ٭‬Max. Coverage Acquisition Time: - 120 sec.
Note: - To maximize ‘Imaging Efficiency’, a ‘Constant Potential’
supply is required; the kV must be stable, since fluctuation tends to
cause ‘Image Artifacts’. 3 – Phase, 12 – Pulse, Middle or High
Frequency output satisfy this need. Typically an out range of 80 –
150 kV is required.
 X-RAY TUBE:

‫ ٭‬CT require longer exposure time at higher KV

than needed for general radiography.
‫ ٭‬Early generation CT Scanners were used Oil
Cooled, Stationary Anode relatively large (2 x
16 mm) Focal Spot operated at 120 kVp & 30
mA & heavily filtered X-ray tube.
‫ ٭‬Now a days CT tubes are heavy duty rotating
anode with higher thermal capacity & smaller
focal spot (0.6 to 1.2mm) which are air cooled
with current value up to 800mA.
‫“ ٭‬Borosilicate Glass Envelope” has been replaced with a
“Metallic Envelope (Alloy of Chromium & I)” &
“Ceramic Insulators (Al – Oxide)”.
‫ ٭‬Anode disk is made up of compound materials
consisting of Tungsten-Rhenium focal track brazed to
‘Graphite’ base with “Disk Diameter” up to 200 mm
compared to 75-160 mm.
‫“ ٭‬Anode Speed” is increased up to 12000 rpm by having
liquid bearing technology for smooth rotation of disk.
e.g.. Gallium Based Liquid Metal Alloy.
‫ ٭‬Air cooled , rotating anode having smaller focal
spot 0.6mm Heat loading capacity 3.5 MHU &
high heat dissipation efficiency.
‫ ٭‬Oil-water cooled tube were introduced having
high heat dissipation efficiency.
‫ ٭‬Some CT Tubes are ‘Grid Controlled’ for ‘Pulsed’
radiation to reduce patient radiation dose.
‫ ٭‬It Should supply ‘Monochromatic X-ray Beam’
for accurate ‘Image Reconstruction’.
‫ ٭‬Tube Housing: -
 Material: - Borosilicate & Metal Ceramic.
 Heat Storage Capacity: - 1.5 to 8.3 MHU.
 Oil: - Distilled Oil.
‫ ٭‬Anode: -
 Diameter: - 200 mm
 Weight: - 2000 gm
 Heat Dissipation Rate: - 1 MHU / Min.
 Angle: - 10 – 120.
 Focal Spot: - 0.6 to 1.6 mm
 Rotation: - 9,000 to 12,000 rpm
 Material: - Tungsten + Rhenium + Molybdenum +
Graphite.
‫ ٭‬Cathode: -
 Material: - Tungsten (W)
 Type: - Dual Focus
 DETECTORS:

‫ ٭‬CT detectors capture the

transmitted radiation beam from
the patient, 1st convert it into
light photons & then into the
amplified electrical signals,
which are subsequently
converted by analogue to digital
converter into binary coded
information for onward
transmission to computer
system for further processing &
image reconstruction. 16
Detector is a crystal or ionizing
gas that when struck by an x-
ray photon produces light or
electrical energy.
‫ ٭‬The term detector array is
used to describe the total
number of detectors that a CT
system utilizes for collecting
attenuated information.
‫ ٭‬3rd generation CT imaging
systems employ 800-1000
detectors while 4th generation
scanners include 4000-5000
individual detectors in a
detector array.
 IDEAL FEATURES:

Detector must be capable of responding with extreme speed to a signal,

without lag, must quickly discard the signal & prepare for the next.
It should have: -
‫ ٭‬High Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE).
‫ ٭‬High Quantum Absorption Efficiency (QAE): - It should be > 90 %
(Ideally 100%).
‫ ٭‬High Conversion Efficiency (CE).
‫ ٭‬Good Homogeneity: - Purity > 99.99 %.
‫ ٭‬Small After Glow: - It should be < 0.01 % 100 ms after end of
irradiation.
‫ ٭‬Fast Response Time: - Response time refers to length of time it takes
for a detector to review & discard signals which influences image
contrast. So, it should be < 0.1 % difference.
‫ ٭‬High Packing Density: - Which influences resolution.
‫ ٭‬Wide Dynamic Range: - Refers to the detector ability to
receive wide range of X-ray intensities, from low to high &
convert them into proportional output signals which is
dependent on the accuracy & precision of the ADC.
‫ ٭‬High Stability: - It is controlled by how often the detectors
must be recalibrated to meet quality control standards.
‫ ٭‬Cost as minimum as possible & easily available.
‫ ٭‬The efficiency of X-ray detector array reduces patient dose,
allows faster scanning tine & improves image quality by
increasing the SNR.
There mainly 2 types of detection systems are
available for CT: -
1. Gas Ionization Detectors: - A single multi
chamber ‘Inert Xenon Gas’ detectors is used.
2. ‘Scintillation’ Crystal Detectors: -
a) Multiple ‘Scintillation’ detectors with
‘Photo Multiplier Tubes’.
b) Multiple ‘Scintillation’ detectors with
‘Photodiodes’.
 GAS IONIZATION DETECTORS:
‫ ٭‬Gas – filled ionization detectors
consist of the ‘Inert Xenon Gas’
chambers which is individually
separated by Tungsten Plates, known
as ‘Metal Septa’ enclosed by a
relatively ‘Thick Ceramic Substrate
Material’.
‫ ٭‬The entire detector array is
‘Hermetically Sealed’ & filled With an
inert gas of a high atomic number, i.e.
Xenon or a Xenon – Krypton Mixture
under high pressure of around 25 -
30atm to increase the no. of gas
molecules available for ionization
which improves their X-ray detection
efficiency.
‫ ٭‬The complete detector array is subdivided,
using electrode plates, into a large number of
chambers up to 1000.
‫ ٭‬Each one shares the same gas volume
minimizing variation in sensitivity b/w the
chambers.
‫ ٭‬As x-rays interact with the xenon gas atoms,
ionization take place & then the electric field
(V/cm) b/w the plates causes the charge ions
to move towards the electrodes where the
electronic charge is collected as electric
current.
‫ ٭‬The electric signal is amplified & then
digitized which numerical value is directly
proportional to the x-ray intensity striking the
detectors.
‫ ٭‬Used mainly in ‘Rotate – Rotate’ systems
because of long linear structures
  Chamber Size: - Wide – 1 to 2 mm, High – 10 mm & Depth – 10 cm.
 Gas: - Inert Xenon (Z-54) or Xenon – Krypton Mixture.
 Anode Side Plate: - Made up of Copper (Cu).
 Cathode Side Plate: - Made up of Tantalum (Ta).
 Pressure: - Approximately – 25 atm.
 No Afterglow.
 Very Fast Response.

Schematic cut-out of two adjacent ionizing chambers of a xenon gas high-

pressure detector array. Since the chambers are communicating, all detector
elements have the same Xenon gas pressure & therefore the same sensitivity
Advantages: -
‫ ٭‬It is cheap & easily available.
‫ ٭‬It has constant ‘Sensitivity’ in both short & long terms; indifference
to change in ambient ‘Temperature & Humidity’; ‘Wide Dynamic
Range’ & ‘Rapid Response’ without ‘Afterglow’.
‫ ٭‬It is less dependant on stable high voltage supplies, is inherently
uniform & provides in – built collimation as an added bonus.
‫ ٭‬It show better thermal stability than scintillation detectors.

Disadvantages: -
‫ ٭‬Their ‘Quantum Detection Efficiency’ is only < 50 % which is about
50 % of the ‘Solid State Scintillation Crystal Detectors’.
‫ ٭‬The ‘Xenon Gas’ has to maintained at high pressure to increase
detection efficiency & heighten uniformity of response to exposure.
 SOLID STATE DETECTORS:

‫ ٭‬It is also known as ‘Scintillation Crystal Detectors’.

‫ ٭‬It is composed of a ‘Scintillator’ coupled tightly with
either a ‘PM – Tube’ or ‘Photodiodes’
‫ ٭‬The ‘Scintillator’ emits visible light when it is struck by
X-rays, just as in an X-ray Intensifying Screen.
‫ ٭‬The light emitted by the ‘Scintillator’ reaches either on
‘PM – Tube’ or ‘Photodiodes’ which is an electronic
device that converts light photons into an electrical
signal proportional to the light intensities.
 SCINTILLATION DETECTORS WITH PHOTO
MULTIPLIER TUBES:
‫ ٭‬In the past, early CT Scanner (i.e. in
1st & 2nd Generation) is used ‘Sodium
Iodide doped with Thallium’ (NaI:Tl)
crystals coupled with ‘PM – Tubes’ as
x-ray detectors.
‫ ٭‬The ‘PM – Tubes’ could not provide
the packing density that was
necessary with fan beam geometry &
required a power supply for each ‘PM
– Tube’ which make bulky detector
assembly.
‫ ٭‬So, because of poor ‘Packing
Density’, higher ‘After Glow’ &
limited ‘Dynamic Range’ problem, it
was quickly replaced by Silicon
Photodiodes.
SCINTILLATION DETECTORS WITH PHOTO-
DIODES:

‫ ٭‬Now a days commonly Scintillator Ceramic: - Gd2O2S:Pr,Ce,F

Dimensions: - 500 - 1000 GOS Elements
scintillation coupled with solid 1.4 x 1.0 x 19 mm3 Almost in Contact
state photodiode detectors are
used.
‫ ٭‬Scintillation material used with
‘Photodiodes’ are ‘Ceramic
Material’ made of high purity
‘Rare Earth Oxides’ based on
‘Doped rare Earth Compounds’
such as ‘Yttria’ & ‘Gadolinium
Photodiode
Oxysulphide (Gd2O2S)’
Light Photons
‘Ultrafast Ceramic (UFC)’
Detectors.
 ‫ ٭‬Detector element converts the absorbed X-rays into
visible light.
‫ ٭‬The light is then detected by a Si - Photodiode.
‫ ٭‬The resulting electrical current is amplified &
converted into a digital signal.

Schematic drawing & photograph of a detector unit. Single detection channels are
separated by thin anti-scatter lamella. The scintillator medium converts the X-ray
quanta to light, which subsequently is detected by a photodiode mounted on the
crystal.
Advantages: -
‫ ٭‬Photodiodes convert light photons into electrical signals, are
‘Smaller in size’, ‘Greater stability’ & ‘Cheaper’, do not require a
power supply & are equally efficient as other CT detectors.
‫ ٭‬The ‘Packing Density’, ‘DQE’, ‘QAE’, ‘CE’ & ‘Effective Atomic
Number’ of scintillators are substantially higher than those of
pressurized ‘Xenon Gas’ so that ‘Solid State Detectors’ typically
have better ‘X-ray Absorption Efficiency (QAE)’.
‫ ٭‬Their increased efficiency can result in less ‘X-ray Tube Loading’ ,
‘Reduced Image Noise’ & ‘Reduced Patient Dose’
‫ ٭‬The top surface of the ‘Solid State CT – Detectors’ is essentially flat
& therefore it is capable of x-ray detection over a wide range of
angles, unlike the ‘Xenon Detector’.
Disadvantages: -
‫ ٭‬Relatively long ‘Afterglow’ following the detection of an X-ray
Photon which deteriorates the ‘Spatial Resolution’.
‫ ٭‬Stable output signals depend on a very stable high – voltage
supply.
‫ ٭‬Multi – Detectors uniformity of response is difficult to
maintain.
‫ ٭‬It may be less stable in the long term, due to lack of uniformity
in the crystal's response, persistence of light emission after
irradiation has ceased (Afterglow) & ‘Ageing’.
‫ ٭‬Long term efficiency is less as they require time to time
calibration.
 SEQUENTIAL CT:
‫ ٭‬A cross-sectional image is
produced by scanning a transverse
slice of the body from different
angular positions while the tube &
detector rotate 360° around the
patient with the table being
stationary.
‫ ٭‬The image is reconstructed from
the resulting projection data.
 HELICAL/SPIRAL/VOLUME CT:

‫ ٭‬Spiral CT uses a different scanning principle. Unlike in

sequential CT, the patient on the table is moved continuously
through the scan field in the z direction while the tube
performs multiple 360° rotations in the same direction.
‫ ٭‬It is modification of 3rd generation CT that uses the Slip Ring
Technology & made possible of volumetric data acquisitions.
‫ ٭‬In this generation, several advancement are applied such as: -
- X-ray Tube with Massive thermal loading capacities.
- High precision table stepping motors.
- Faster acquisition & Reconstruction process.
‫ ٭‬The X-ray traces a spiral around the body & produces a data
volume. This volume is created from a multitude of 3D picture
elements, i.e. voxels.
‫ ٭‬The table movement in the z direction during the acquisition will
naturally generate inconsistent sets of data, causing every image
reconstructed directly from a volume data set.
‫ ٭‬Thus it is possible to reconstruct individual slices from a large
data volume by overlapping reconstructions as often as required.
 Advantage: -
‫ ٭‬Short scan times (resulting in fewer motion artifacts & a lower contrast
medium requirement)
‫ ٭‬Large anatomical area coverage in a single breath hold.
‫ ٭‬Improved lesion detection due capture of real time contrast uptake of the lesion.
‫ ٭‬Reducing the partial volume artifact.
‫ ٭‬Additional diagnostic information due to improved resolution (thinner slices) &
3D visualization in routine operation
‫ ٭‬Improved patient throughout & improved patient comfort.
‫ ٭‬Improved Z- axis resolution i.e. Temporal resolution
‫ ٭‬Capable to scan in both axial as well as helical mode.

Disadvantage: -
‫٭‬ Increased image noise.
‫٭‬ Reduced spatial resolution.
‫٭‬ Reconstruction time is longer due to more data accumulation in a shorter time.
‫٭‬ Increased higher patient dose.
 TOMOGRAPHIC ACQUSITION:
Ray: - A single transmission measurement through the patient made by single
detector at a given movement in a time is called ‘Ray’.
Projection: - A series of Rays that passes through the patient at same
orientation called a Projection or View.
‫ ٭‬Basically in CT image acquisition, Parallel Beam Geometry & Fan Beam
Geometry are used.

‫ ٭‬Now a days all modern CT

Scanners uses Fan Beam
Geometry in the Data
Acquisition &
Reconstruction process.

38
‫ ٭‬The CT image is made up of many ‘Projection or View’ which
consists of many scan lines or ‘Ray’ .
‫ ٭‬1st & 2nd generation scanners used 28,800 & 324,000 data
points, respectively.
‫ ٭‬State-of-the-art scanner may acquire about 800,000 data points
(1,000 views with 800 rays per view).
‫ ٭‬Modern 512 x 512 CT image contains about 2,05,000 image
pixels
 SINOGRAM:
‫ ٭‬The data acquired for one CT slice can be displayed before
reconstruction. This type of display is called a sinogram.
‫ ٭‬Rays are plotted horizontally and views are shown on the vertical
axis.
‫ ٭‬During the 360-degree CT acquisition of a particular object, the
position of the ray corresponding to that object varies sinusoidally
as a function of the view angle.

41
‫ ٭‬The number of rays used to reconstruct a CT image has a profound
influence on the radial component of spatial resolution, and the number
of views affects the circumferential component of the resolution
‫ ٭‬CT images of a object reconstructed with differing numbers of rays show
that reducing the ray sampling results in low-resolution, blurred images.
‫ ٭‬CT images of the object reconstructed with differing numbers of views
show the effect of using too few angular views (view aliasing) which
decreases circumferential resolution.
Reconstruction – Increasing # Rays Reconstruction – Increasing # Views
Increases spatial Resolution Increases circumferential Resolution

An image of a test object is shown,

Each of the three images was reconstructed
reconstructed with 960 views in each
using 512 rays but differing numbers of
image, but with the number of rays
views.
differing as indicated.
ACQUISITION & IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION
PROCESS:
An x-ray beam which is transmitted through an tissue element having Linear
Attenuation Coefficient ‘µ’ of Thickness ‘X’ is given by the relation: -

Where, N0 is the no. of initial X-ray photons & N is the no. of transmitted
photons, e is the natural log (2.718). The value of N0, N & X can be
measured but only a known is linear attenuation coefficient µ.
For ‘n’ tissue element (Voxel) the acquisition equations become: -

Where, µ1+µ2………µn are linear attenuation coefficient of 1,2, …..nth Voxel.

By solving this equations, the value of µ1+µ2………µn of individual Voxel
can be calculated.
 CT NUMBER:
‫ ٭‬The relative attenuation coefficient is normally expressed in
“Hounsfield Unit” which are also known as a “CT
Number”. Therefore each tissue element (Voxel) is assigned
by a ‘CT Number’.
‫ ٭‬The relation b/w linear attenuation coefficient & CT
Number is given by: -
CT Number (HU) = K x (µt - µw)/µw
Where, K = 1000 a constant factor which determines the
contrast scale, µt & µw are linear coefficient of Tissue
Element & Water.

‘Note’: - The CT Number (HU Value) generated by a CT

scanner are approximate & depend on the kVp & filtration.
 Correction-CT
A. For Heterochromatic nature of beam.

B. Weighting factor to compensate the difference

between the size & shape of the scanning beam
& the picture matrix.
A. For Heterochromatic nature of beam.

70 KeV
Monochromatic

0.19

70 KeV (mean)
µ cm-1

120 KVp 75 KeV (mean)

Heterochromatic

Thickness (cm of water)

B. Correction for weighting factor

WF=1 WF<1
PIPELINE PRINCIPLE
CT IMAGE OF IMAGE
RECONSTRUCTION:
RECONSTRUCTION:
Data Acquisition ADC Pre – Processing Reformatting
(Gantry)
(2D Fourier Analysis)

Convolution
1. Lak
Image Reconstruction: 2. Shepp – Logan.
3. Hamming
1. Back Projection.
2. Iterative Methods.
DAC
3. Analytical Method.

Image Display Post Processing Image Archiving

‫٭‬ Windowing i.e. W/W – W/L .
‫٭‬ ROI for QCT.
‫٭‬ Linear & Volume Measurement.
‫٭‬ SSD, MPR, MIP, VRT, CTA, CTF, CTC & CTE.
Recording
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM (DAS):

Definition: - The signal from each radiation

detector of a MSCT scanner is connect to a
computer controlled electronics amplifier &
switching device called a ‘Data Acquisition
System (DAS)’.
‫ ٭‬It connects the detector combinations for
signal summation.
DETECTOR ELECTRONICS:

From
Detector

Increases signal strength

Pre-Amplifier for later processing

Compresses dynamic range;

Logarithmic Amplifier Converts transmission intensity
into attenuation data

Analog to Digital
Converter

To
Computer
 PREPROCESSING:

‫ ٭‬Digitized Data from DAS transmitted to the image

processer. At this stage, the image are reconstructed
by means of pipeline principle, consisting of
preprocessing & convolution.

‫ ٭‬It includes all the correction taken to prepare the

measured data for recon. e.g., correction for current,
dose output, calibration, channel correction &beam
hardening error.
ALGORITHMS FOR IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION
PROCESS
‫ ٭‬An algorithm is a mathematical methods for
solving a problem.
‫ ٭‬There are 3 mathematical methods of image
reconstructions are as follows: -
ALGORITHM

BACK ANALYTICAL
ITERATIVE PROJECTION

FILTER BACK FOURIER

PROJECTION TRANSFORMATION
 ITERATIVE METHOD:

‫ ٭‬It was a original method for image reconstruction used

by “G.N. Hounsfield” in the 1st CT – Machine.
‫ ٭‬An iterative reconstruction starts with an assumption
(like all points i.e. ‘Pixel’ in the matrix have same
value) & compare this assumption with measured value
& then repeat the process in a series until the assume &
measure values are same or within acceptable limits.
‫ ٭‬This method also known as “Series Expansion” or
“Successive Approximations” or “Correction
Technique” & it is done by 3 ways: -
1. Simultaneous Reconstruction.
2. Ray By Ray Correction.
3. Point By Point Correction.
 Advantages: -
‫ ٭‬With incomplete data iterative method are better choice
of image reconstruction.
‫ ٭‬Better imaging in limited no. of projection.
‫ ٭‬better than filtered back projection in metal artifact.
Disadvantages: -
‫ ٭‬It is not used in commercial CT scanners because the
iteration cannot be started until all of the projection
data have been acquired before image reconstruction
can begin.
‫ ٭‬So, it causing a delay in image reconstruction process
which takes a considerable amount of computer time
that makes examination slow.
‫ ٭‬It also suffers from rounding errors (0.95 = 1.0, etc)
which give imprecise CT values.
 SIMPLE BACK PROJECTION:

‫ ٭‬It is also known as the “Summation Method” or the “Linear

Supposition Method”.
‫ ٭‬In this method, each x-ray transmission path through the body
is divided into equally spaced elements & each element is
assumed to contribute equally to the total attenuation along the
x-ray path.
‫ ٭‬By summing the attenuation for each element over all x-ray
paths that intersect the element at different angular
orientations, a final summed attenuation coefficient is
determined for each element.
‫ ٭‬When this coefficient is combined with the summed
coefficients for all other elements in the anatomic section
scanned by the x-ray beam, a composite image of attenuation
coefficients is obtained.
Simple Back Projection
Process
Projection Data Curvilinear integral of absorption coefficient regarding Y

y y

object x x

X-ray
tube
Data Acquisition field Reconstruction field
Blur
 Simple back projection method

Back projection allocates the measured total attenuation(ray sum)

equally to each pixel along the X ray path through the patient.
 Simple back projection method

Major drawback: Image produced are starred & blurred.

 Advantages: -
‫ ٭‬It is a process through which modern image reconstruction
techniques become possible.

Disadvantages: -
‫ ٭‬Although the simple back projection approach to
reconstruction algorithms is straightforward, it is not used
by any commercial CT Scanners due to high blurring effect
in images of sharp features in the object i.e. not Sharp &
Clear Image.
 ANALYTICAL METHOD:

Current Commercial scanner uses this method

A mathematical technique known as convolution
or filtering
Technique employs a spatial filter for remove
blurring artifacts.
2 types of method
1) Filtered back projection
2) Fourier filtering
 FILTER BACK PROJECTION:
‫ ٭‬Similar to back projection except the image is filtered or
modified to exactly counter balance the density which causes
blurring in simple back projection
‫ ٭‬The Mathematical filtering step involve convolving the
projection data with a convolution “KERNEL”
‫ ٭‬Faster as compare than iterative
‫ ٭‬Both are accurate if projection data is complete.
‫ ٭‬Convolution filter refers to a mathematical filtering of the data
designed to change the appearance of the image.
‫ ٭‬A high frequency convolution filter suppress high frequency
signals, causing the image to have a smooth appearance and
possible improvement in contrast resolution.
‫ ٭‬A low frequency convolution filter suppresses low frequency
signal , resulting in edge enhancement & improvement of spatial
resolution.
 STEPS IN FILTERED BACK PROJECTION

• All projection profiles are obtained

• The logarithm of data is obtained
• Logarithmic values are multiplied by digital
filter
• Filtered profiles are back projected
• The filtered projections are summed and the
negative and positive components are
cancelled
 Projection Data
x y

＊ Filtered Projection data

Reconstruction Filter
x
x
ω
or
Multidirectional
x Backprojection
 CONVOLUTION:

Definition: - It is a mathematical filtering process of projected

data by the mathematical filter (Kernel) to reduce the blurring effect
of the projections.

Shepp-
Lak Hamming
Logan
Filter Filter
Filter

It incorporates some roll

Ideal off at HF, reduction in It has even more Pronounced
Reconstruction amplification at HF has a High frequency roll-off, with
Filter in the absence profound influence in terms Better higher frequency noise
of Noise. of reducing HF noise in the suppression
final CT image
 FOURIER ANALYSIS:

‫ ٭‬The basis of Fourier analysis is

that any function of time or
space can be represented by sum
of various frequencies &
amplitudes of Sine & Cosine
waves.
‫ ٭‬The Fourier transform(FT) is
used to convert a function
expressed in the spatial domain
(millimeters)into the spatial
frequency domain (cycles per
millimeter; the inverse Fourier
transform (FT-I) is used to
convert back.
‫ ٭‬Also used in MRI
 IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION IN SPIRAL CT:

‫ ٭‬Reconstruction Of spiral CT image is the same as that for

conventional CT except for interpolation.
‫ ٭‬Interpolation is the computation of an unknown value using
known values on either side.
‫ ٭‬A transverse planar image can be reconstruction at any position
along the axis of the pt. i.e. z- axis.
‫ ٭‬Data interpolation is performed by a special computer programme
called an interpolation algorithm.

KNOWN INTERPOLATED KNOWN

DATA DATA DATA

Z-AXIS
 INTERPOLATION ALGORITHM:

‫ ٭‬During Spiral or Helical CT image data are received

continuously but when an image is reconstructed, the
plane of image does not contain enough data for image
reconstruction so the data needed for image
reconstruction estimated by a special computation
method known as ‘Interpolation Algorithm’ which
meant the estimation of value b/w two known value.
‫ ٭‬The ability to reconstruct an image at any Z- Axis
position is due to interpolation.
ALGORITHM FOR HELICAL/SPIRAL CT:

‫ ٭‬Reconstruction of an image at any Z – Axis position is possible

because of a mathematical process called ‘Interpolation’.

Interpolation
Algorithm

Interpolation Extrapolation

Estimation of the value b/w Estimation of the value beyond

two known values. Range of known values.
 z z
y
Interpolation Algorithm y

x
x

360º linear interpolation 180ºlinear interpolation

The plane of reconstructed

Interpolation of the value
Image interpolated from
separated by180º,half a
Data acquired in one
revolution of the x-ray tube
revolution apart

Results in improved Z-axis

Blurring in the reformatted resolution & greatly improved
image reformatted image
1800 LINEAR INTERPOLATION: 3600 LINEAR INTERPOLATION:
• Interpolation of the value • The plane of reconstructed image
separated by 180º, half a interpolated from data acquired in
revolution of the x-ray tube one revolution apart
Results in improved Z-axis
resolution and greatly improved Blurring in the reformatted image
reformatted image.
• It results thinner slice than 3600 • Thicker slice than 1800
interpolation interpolation.
It results more noiser image than Less noiser image than 1800
3600 interpolation. interpolation..
• 20% higher noise than • 20% less noise than conventional
conventional CT. CT.
Allows scanning at higher pitch. Allows scanning at lower pitch than
1800 interpolation.
• Less Broadens sensitivity profile. • Broadens sensitivity profile.
Quality 3600 1800

Z- Axis Resolution Low High

SSP Broaden Narrow

Spatial Resolution Low High

Noise High Low

Pitch Allow Allow

Scanning Scanning
Pitch> 1 Pitch ≤ 1
 RECONSTRUCTION TIME

Definition: - The time from end of imaging (end of data

collection) to image appearance is the reconstruction time.
‫ ٭‬Reconstruction time of 1 second & less are common in all the
clinical CT scanners used now-a-days.
‫ ٭‬Image reconstruction time is determined by:

 ADC Rate.
 CPU – RAM, ROM.
 Amount of data collected.
 Convolution Filters Chosen.
 References-

• THE ESSENTIAL PHYSICS OF MEDICAL IMAGING –

J.T.BUSHBERG
• Christensen’s Physics of Diagnostic Radiology – T.S.CURRY, III
• RADIOLOGIC SCIENCE for TECHNOLOGISTS – S.C. Bushong
• X-ray Equipment for Student Radiographers – D N and M O
Chesney
• Various Internet Sites.