REVIEW NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS Camera-lucida - It serves to refute the contention that the notched edges or

By: microscopic serration on pen strokes identify a particular writer.

Prof. Richard T. Camara,RC,BSCrim.,MSCrim. Careless scribble - Signatures used to acknowledge delivery, purchase of goods and
Mobile Phone: 09264741277 mail.
E-Mail: richrdcamara@yahoo.com.sg Central Part of the Body- the part of a letter ordinary formed by a small circle that
usually lies on the line of writing.
Characteristics - Any property or marks which distinguished one from the other in a
DEFINITION OF TERMS document examination, refers to identifying detail.
Angular writing - A style of writing taught to a written in some women’s colleges. Chain of custody - This refers to the sequential steps of collecting documentary
Arch - any arcade form in the body of the letter. evidence, verifying its authentically and subsequent packaging and preserving
Arcaded and Garlanded type - two main groups on of which inclines its preference the document to secure the genuineness of the document.
in a varying degree towards “U” formation while the opposite group shows Checks – This refers to a written order addressed to a bank or persons carrying on
a predilection for “N” formations. the business of banking by a party having money in their hands requesting
Alignment – Is relation of the parts of the whole line of writing or line of individual them to pay on presentment to a person named therein or to his order, or to
letters in words or signature to the baseline. bearer, a named sum of money (De Leon, 1997).
Ambidextrous - A person who can write both left and right hand. Class characteristics - Characteristics which are common to a group of writings.
Aniline ink - An ink made out of coal tar dissolved in acids. Color of each denomination - The writing color tone gives a hold look to the picture
Baseline – rules of imaginary line where the writing rest. of the central bank notes that makes it stand out of the picture.
Beard – rudimentary curved initial strokes. Collected standard – This refers to a specimen handwriting which is executed from
Bibliotics- This refers to the science of handwriting analysis. day to day in course of business, special and personal affairs.
Buckle Knot – the horizontal and looped strokes that are often used to complete such Copy, enlarge and chart - A three purposes of the photograph in questioned
letters. document examination.
Blunt - The beginning and ending stokes of letters both small and capital, in which Copybook Form – design of letters, which is fundamental to a writing system.
the pen touched the paper without hesitation. Commercial document - A document or instrument executed in accordance with
Blunt Ending or Beginning – blunt ending and initial strokes are results of the code of commerce or mercantile law.
drawing process in forgery. Connecting Strokes – This refers to the strokes of links that connects a letter.
Buckle knot - The horizontal and looked stroked that are often used to complete such Contemporary handwriting standard- Five years prior to the date of questioned
letters as a A,P,F,H,T. document.
Cacography – It is characterized as bad writing. Counterfeiting - An imitation of something genuine w/ intention to depend usually in
Calligraphy - is the art of beautiful writing. the form of banknotes and coins.

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Cursive writing - Writing in which the letters are for the most part are joined Eye loop or Eyelet - the small loop formed by strokes that extend in divergent
together. direction.
Criminalistics – This was refered to the application of the physical sciences to the Evidence – This meant sanctioned by the Revised Rules of Court of ascertaining in a
investigation of crimes such as chemistry, physics, biology, physical judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact. (Sec.1, Rule 128,
anthropology, medicine, and evaluating physical evidence. Revised Rules of Court of the Philippines)
Date – This refers to legal time mark on document for bank transaction. Evidential Document – This was refered to all documents such as handwritings, type
Diacritic - Element necessary or added to complete a letter. writings, printings and marks intended to prove or capable of proving any
Dictated standard - Specimen of hand writing secured by dictating the text of a principal or collateral fact of investagative or legal interest. Encompasses all
questioned document or other writing materials to a subjects. documents, writings, type writings, printings, and marks intended to prove or
Disguised writing - A writer deliberately try to alter his usual writing habit which capable of proving, any principal or collateral fact of investigative or legal
hopes of hiding his identity. interest.
Disputed Document – It is, therefore, always a questioned document, while a Figures – This refers to amount or value given in the document.
questioned document is not always a disputed document. Disputed document Filar-Micrometer - This device is useful in many instances for making accurate
means that there is argument or controversy over the document. In this book, measurements and comparison and question documents.
however, “Disputed Document” may be used interchangeably for a questioned Flexors - The group of muscles that account for downward strokes.
document. Foot of the Letter or Oval – the lower portion of any down stroke which terminates
Divisions of writings - are refers to the following: slow and drawn, deliberate and on the baseline.
average and rapid. Forensic Science - This refers to the application of science to criminal and civil laws
Document - In its fullest meaning is any material, which contains marks, symbols or that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system.
signs that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or message to Forgery – This refers to a documents falsely making or altering, with intent to
someone. Any material which contain marks, symbol or sign which is visible, defraud, a negotiable and legally enforceable instruments, such as a check.
partially visible, or invisible which convey meaning or message to someone. Form – This refers to the shape or design of the individual letters.
Document Examination - This is specialized form of investigation of documents that Formation pen ink - The best writing inks, quick drying, water proof and durable.
applies the modern scientific technique such as forensic chemistry, Flying start & flying finish – This refers to the motion of pen precedes the
microscopy, and photography. beginning of the strokes and continuous beyond the end of vanishing point
Document Examiners – This refers to the person who studies scientifically in the and are found to be free and natural writing.
examination of documents such as bank tellers, signature verifier, examiner, Grapology - This refers to the study of handwriting, especially as a means of
and the like. analyzing the writer’s character, aptitude, and attitudes.The method aims to be
Elite - Twelve letters per inch in typewriting able to determine and know about person’s characteristic, traits, and
Extensors - The group of muscles that account for upward strokes. personality by the way he writes his letters and shapes his words shapes.

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Handwriting – It is an expression of established muscular habits reacting or resulting Lateral Spacing – is considered as common characteristics when it conforms to the
from a fixed patterened mental expression of ideas. ordinary copy-book form.
Haste - An element handwriting embracing skill, space freedom hesitation, rhythm, Line quality - The overall character of the written stroke from the initial to the
emphasis, tremor etc. terminal. Refers also to the visible record in the written stroke of the basic
Hesitation - Irregular thickening of an ink lines in which is found when the writing movement and manner of holding the writing instrument.
shows down or stop while penman take stock of his position. Lower left side of the check – is the location of magnetic ink character recognition
Hiatus – Is a gap between strokes due to speed in writing and defective writing in a check.
instruments. Lumbricals - The group of muscles that account for the lateral movements.
Hitch – the introductory backward stroke. Main Stroke or Shank Stem – downward strokes of any letters.
Holograph Documents – is a document which is completely written and signed by Metallic thread - Special thread placed vertically on the paper during manufacture of
one person. Central bank notes.
Hook or Trough – the bend, crook or curved on the inner side of the bottom loop or Micrometer caliper - This is an instrument very accurate thickness measurements
curve of small letter. can be made and it often is a sort papers that are actually different by the
Hump – the rounded outside of the bend, crook, or curve in small letters. thickness rest alone.
Indelible ink - These are used mostly when a penetrating marking is desired that will Microscope - The instrument which makes it possible to see physical evidence
not erased. directly that otherwise might be invisible but its application to the
Indentation process - A canal look outline of the genuine signature is produced on investigation of documents is not so well understood.
the fraudulent document which is placed at the bottom of the tracing with Natural variation - A normal or usual deviation found between a repeated specimen
considerable pressure the outline of genuine signature with a sharp pointed of individual handwriting and product of typewriting. Due to lack of machine
instruments. like precision of the human hand; is caused by external factors, such as the
Individual characteristics - Characteristics which is highly personal and peculiar writing instrument and the writing position; influences by physical and mental
and is likely to occur in some other instances. condition such as fatigue, intoxication, illness, nervousness and the age of the
Infrared film photography - A best way to bring out the writing on charred papers. writer; due to the quality of the writing prepared in the course of time,
Investigator - In relation to written documents is the person who collects variation in genuine signature appears in superficial parts and does not apply
documentary evidence and preserve this in its original form to present its to the whole process of writing.
damage and deterioration by proper packaging and correct technique of Official Document - This is an instrument issued by the head of Government Offices.
preservation. The officers must issue the document in the performance of their duties
Guided hand signature - Signatures actually produced by corporation of two hands Optical bleaches - Minutes colorless fluorescent materials incorporated in the paper
and two minds. manufactures during the post war period.
Knob – rounded appearance at the beginning or ending strokes. Payee ID – This refers to an identification card by a payee.

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Patching - The going over of a defective portion of writing stroke in a questioned Post litem motam examination - Standard hand writing execute after the indent.
document. Principal movement in writing - are the following: finger and hand movement,
Pencil writing – This refers to a writing is usually photographed by process whole arm movement, and forearm movement.
panchromatic film. Private document - A document or instrument executed upon the private person
Pen emphasis – it is the periodic increase in pressure of intermittently forcing the pen without the intervention of notary public.
against the paper surface with increased pressure. Public banks – This refers to the banks owned and controlled by the government of
Pen lift - Stroke interruption caused by moving the writing instrument from the the Philippines as used in this study.
paper. Pen-lift or disconnection between letters and letter combinations are Public document - A document or instrument executed by the notary public or
maybe due to lack of movement control. Public official with solemnities required by law.
Pen failure - An interruption in a stroke caused by the failure of the ink of the writing Print writing - It is otherwise known as “block lettering” or “roman capital”.
instrument to register on the surface of the paper. Private banks – This refers to the banks owned and managed by private
Pen pressure - The average force with which the pen contrasts the paper. It is also corporations.
the average force in which the pen makes contact with the paper or the usual Proof – This refers to the amount of evidence which will estabish the fact to the
force involved in writing. satisfaction of the tribunal.
Pica - Ten letters per inch in typewriting. Proof in Civil Cases – This refers to the proof produced by a preponderance or
Plagiarism – This refers to taking and using as one’s own the ideas, writing, etc. of strength of evidence.
another. Proof in Criminal Cases - This refers to the proof produced by evidence beyond a
Photographs - It is very necessary and useful in nearly every questioned document reasonable doubt.
investigation and in many cases it is impossible without them to present the Proportion – Individual characteristics in relative proportion of letters or proportion
facts to a court and jury in an effective convincing manner. of a part of a letter or relative height of one letter can be found in different
Photography - This is scientific technique of identifying the substance used in writings. Proportion in letters is one of the hidden features of writing. It is
document. unknown even to the writer.
Photomacrography - This is the process of obtaining magnified photo of a small Redial letters - Letters between the initial and terminal letters.
object without the use of a microscope by using short focus lens and a long Retouching - A partial over writing of a signature.
below extension. Retouching Patching – stroke that goes back to repair a defective portion of writing.
Photomicrography - This is the science of obtaining photographic magnification of Retrace or Retracing – a stroke that goes back over another writing stroke.
above by using a camera attached to compound microscope. The process of Requested standard - A specimen of a person’s writing of handwriting executed
obtaining a magnified photograph of a small object without the use of a upon request.
microscope by using a short focus lens of a long bellows extension. Ratio – The relation between the tall and short letters is referred to as the ration of the
Photostat - Reproduction of a document thru a sensitive paper in lines of film. writing.
Post litem motam standard – refers to a requested standard.

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Rhythm - It is the harmonious recurrence of stress or impulse or motion of the hand. Significant parts of signatures – Refers to the last stroke of words, separate capital
It is the balanced quality of movements of the harmonious recurrence of stress letters and flying start.
or impulse. Signature verifier – This refers to a person who specialized in the verification of
Rubric or Embellishment – This refers to additional unnecessary strokes not signature to determine the validity and originality of document.
necessary to legibility of letterforms or writings but incorporated in writing Simulated forgery - This type refers to the act of simulation, copying or imitation of
for decorative or ornamental purposes. a genuine signature of writing.
Questioned Document – This refers to the origin of its contents on the Size – Size as writing characteristics is somewhat divergent under varying condition
circumstances of the story regarding its production that could arouse serious and may have but little significance when applied to only one example, or to
suspicion as to its genuiness. A document upon which some issued has been as small quality of writing like a signature unless the divergence is very
raises under security. pronounced.
Safety paper - A paper which has been treated in such a way to minimize the chance Space- Filler or Terminal spur – an upward horizontal or downward final stroke
of forgery by ensure, mechanical or chemical. usually seen in small letters.
Sequence of cross lines - The determination of what line has been write first between Specimen of writing - is said to be written by a particular person if all its identifying
two intersecting lines. elements are a part of his handwriting.
Shading – It is the widening of the ink strokes with increase pressure on the paper Spur – short , horizontal beginning strokes.
surface. Spurious Signature – This was refered to an evidential document described as
Shadowgraph - A writing instrument that makes detection of pen-lefts, hesitate and fraudulent signature.
patching. Spurious or simple forgery - Fraudulent signature in which no apparent attempt to
Shading - The widening of the ink stroke w/c may be due to added pressure on a stimulate or imitate a genuine signature.
flexible pen point or to the use of other written instrument. Sympathetic ink - It is also called as invisible ink.
Skills - Proficiencies in the art of writing, usually described to manual dexterity and Terminal Strokes and Initial Strokes – When a letter, word or name (signature) is
legibility in hand writing. completed in a free, natural writing, the pen is usually raised from the paper
Slant - The angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to the baseline. while in motion with a “flying finish” (or what is also referred to as
Staff – backspace of a letter. “vanishing”, “tapering” or “flourishing” terminal strokes) and with may
Standard - A condensed & impact set of authentic specimen which if proven and writers, the motion of the pen also slightly precedes the putting of the pen on
adequate would contain a true cross section of material from known source. the paper at the beginning with a “flying start” so that the strokes at the
Steel rule - The instrument that which useful for certain other classes of document beginning and end of words gradually diminish or taper to a “vanishing
measurement especially for general testing purposes. point”.
Stereoscopic microscope - is best suited for questioned document examination Toner - A chemical which produces the image in photocopies will react chemically
because it gives a three dimensional image. with the plastic envelope used in preserving evidentiary documents.
Signature – This refers to customary signatures of a person.

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Traced forgery - Fraudulent signature which was executed by actually following the 6. Hans Scheickert (1876-1944)- a Doctor of Law and Director of the identification
outline of a genuine signature with the writing instrument. Bureau of the Police Department of Berlin until 1928. He was a Criminology
Tremor - A writing weakness portrayed by irregular and shaky strokes. It means Professor at the University of Berlin in 1920 and a well-known handwriting expert.
“deviations from uniform strokes due to lack of smoothness perfectly apparent 7. Dr. Wilson R. Harrison was the Director of the British Government’s Office
even without magnification”. Home Office Forensic Science Society of Questioned Document Examiners. He
Ultra-violet photography - The utilized of ultra-violet rays indoor photography to authored the book “Suspect Document Examiners Their Scientific Examination,” first
restore writings which have been erased chemically or mechanically or in the published in London in 1958.
detection of substitution over writing secret writings.
Variation - These are normal or usual deviations formed in repeated specimen of any World’s Cases on Disputed Document
individuals’ handwriting. 1. John Magnuson case: Date 1922; Location: Marshfield, Misconsin; Significance:
Whirl – the upward strokes usually on letters that have long loops. From just a few scraps of bomb-damaged paper, investigator gleaned enough
Writing – is the result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole a evidence to capture the Yule Bomb Killer.
combination of certain forms, which are the very visible result of mental and 2. Arthur Perry case: Date: 1937; Location: New York City; Significance: So many
muscular habits, acquired by long, continued, painstaking effort. factors were combined in this case that it has come to be regarded as an American
Writing skill – it is the relative degree of ability of a writer’s proficiency. detection classic.
3. Hitler Diaries case: Date: 1981; Location: Hamburg, West Germany;
Pioneers in Questioned Documents Examination Significance: History’s greatest publishing fraud was first legitimized and then
1. Albert Sherman Osborn - father of scientific examination of Questioned exposed by scientific analysis.
Document 4. Graham Backhouse case: Date 1984; Location: Horton, England; Significance:
2. Albert D. Osborn - third President of the American Society of Questioned This case provides an example of the interdependence of forensic discipline that helps
Document Examiners. to solve so many cases.
3. B.J. Vreeland Haring and J. Howard Haring - the father and son Haring of New
York were the word famous handwriting experts who testified on Charles A. Empirical characterization
Lindberg Jr. Kidnapping case. 1. Prototypical Documents: Letters, memos, legal forms, Instruction manual
4. J. Newton Baker- a Consultative Expert in Disputed document, and in 1955 he 2. Documents of Record: Newspapers and magazines
authored the book, “Law of Disputed and forged documents.” 3. Books: Text book, Novels, Recipe books, Encyclopedia, Comic books
5. James V. P. Conway was an Examiner of Questioned Documents of San 4. Canonical Documents: The Bible,Iliad and Odyssey,Vedas, Ramayana,
Francisco, California Postal Inspector in charge San Francisco Identification Mahabharata, Quran, Code of Hammurabi,Tao Te Ching
Laboratory U.S. Postal Inspection Service and authored “Evidential Documents” 5. Transactional Documents: Cheque, Contracts, Prescription, Receipt, Form
which was published in Springfield, Illinois, USA in 1959. (document), Postage Stamp
6. Functional Documents: PDF files, PostScript files, XML files, Email

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 7. Non-Prototypical Documents: Post-it notes, Fortune cookie strips, Maps, Classical Roles and Workflows in Document Production
Paintings, milk cartons, cereal boxes 1. An author selects the content to be communicated and performs the initial
8. Non-Classical Digital Documents: Web Page, Weblog, Wiki organization and recording of the content. A document in this state is often
9. Boundary Examples: The plaque on the Pioneer 11 spacecraft, designed by called a manuscript.
astronomer Carl Sagan, and using information assumed to be universal is an 2. A reviewer reads the content and evaluates it with respect to the intended
extreme example of a document that is intended to communicate with aliens. audience. Reviewers often recommend only the best documents to be
Conversely, the recorded and printed signals of the SETI project would published. Documented reviews are frequently published as guidelines for
constitute documents if they were discovered to contain alien communication. document consumers as well.
3. An editor helps to organize and express the content so that the meaning is
Social Aspects of Documents clear and understandable, and follows the conventions of the symbolic
1. Social Value representation such as spelling and grammar.
2. Manifestation of authority 4. A publisher orchestrates the process of producing a document, often decides
3. Conventional whether a document is worth the effort of publishing (usually an economic
4. Manifestation of economic labor decision), and collects and disseminates the profits from sales of a produced
5. Manifestation of business processes document.
6. Instruments of Governance and Law 5. A printer formats the document into a comfortable form such as a bound
7. Analytical philosophical character book. Printing can be a very complex and elaborate process, including
8. Role in Religion 1) pagination - function performed by an individual who takes on the
9. Cultural Significance tasks of organizing text, fonts, images, headings, footnotes, chapters
10. Metaphoric Significance and sections to accommodate the physical constraints of a printed page
aesthetically.
Functional Characteristics 2) pre-press -- function performed by print shops in preparing paper
1. Manifest nature documents for production.
2. Contextuality and Situatedness 3) imposition - organizing desired pages on a larger media such that
3. Evolvability when folded and trimmed the pages will be upright and in order.
4. Renderability 4) printing - marking paper with ink or toner
5. Affordances 5) folding pages into sections
6) binding pages together and covering
7) trimming
8) packaging

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 6. A distributor manages inventory and physical distribution of printed Future of Documents
documents to retailers. 1. Blurring of the notion of document boundary
7. A retailer manages a local inventory and sales to consumers, and often is 2. Increasing structure and openness
familiar with the content and can make appropriate recommendations. 3. Dynamic nature
8. A librarian organizes, tracks borrowing of, and archives documents. 4. Paper and electronic are reconciling
5. Hybrid automated/human authorship
Document Life Cycle Management Technology 6. Prosumer workflows
1. Physical preservation 7. Customizability
2. Storage 8. Long Tail Economics
3. Cultural Preservation 9. Blurring of Documents and Interfaces
4. Bibliometrics 10. Fluidity and Dynamic Microstructure
5. Digital Content Management
6. Digital-Physical Interaction Management Rules of Universally Accepted Principles of Handwriting
7. Destruction 1. Like things must be compared.
8. Security 2. Determine whether the standards are sufficient or adequate. As a rule, seven
9. Transportation (7) or more standards being used in comparison can sustain the examination.
3. Determine whether the dates of standards are proximate within the dates of the
The Document Economy questioned signature.
1. Document Authoring Technology 4. Consider the conditions under which the questioned signature was executed.
2. Education 5. Determine the writing instruments and paper used.
3. Electronic Document Management
4. Physical Document Management Scope of document examination
5. Media 1. Handwriting (cursive / printing) and Signatures
6. Print equipment 2. Typewriters, Photocopiers, Laser printers, Fax machines
7. Document Services 3. Chequewriters, Rubber stamps, Price markers, Label makers
8. Retail Production 4. Printing Processes
9. Publishing 5. Ink, Pencil, Paper
10. Document Transportation 6. Alterations, additions, erasures, obliterations
7. Indentations
8. Sequence of Strokes
9. Physical Matching

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Candidacy There are three stages in the process of examination. In brief, they are:
A person who desires to enter a career of forensic document examination must 1. The questioned and the known items are analyzed and broken down to directly
possess certain traits and abilities: perceptible characteristics.
1) First and foremost, excellent eyesight is required in order to see fine details 2. The characteristics of the questioned item are then compared against the
that are otherwise inconspicuous. known standard.
2) The aspirant must also pass a form blindness test in order to ensure that the 3. Evaluation of the similarities and differences of the compared properties
aspirant does not suffer from the condition of being unable to tell apart two determines which ones are valuable for a conclusion. This depends on the
similarly-appearing, yet different, items. uniqueness and frequency of occurrence in the items.
3) A bachelor of science degree is also typically required, for it gives the aspirant
a scientific background with which to approach the work in an objective Common tools of the trade
manner, as well as bestowing necessary biological, physical, and chemical 1. Excellent Eyesight
knowledge sometimes called upon. 2. Handlens/Loupe
4) Additional desirable skills would include knowledge of paper, ink, printing 3. Stereomicroscope
processes, or handwriting. 4. Electrostatic Detection Apparatus (ESDA)
5. Video Spectral Comparator (VSC)
Training  Ibn al-Haytham (also known as Alhacen or Alhazen), the "father of optics",
There are three possible methods of instruction for an aspiring document examiner: was the first to reconcile both schools of thought in his influential Book of
1. Self-education is the way in which the pioneers of the field began, as there Optics (1021).
was no other method of instruction. Unfortunately, there is a very real danger  Leonardo DaVinci,1452-1519, was the first to recognize the special optical
that the student will follow a stray path, with no direction to steer him or her qualities of the eye.
back on course. That is why this method is generally frowned upon nowadays  Roger Bacon described the properties of magnifying glass in 13th-century
in favour of the following methods. England, followed by the development of eyeglasses in 13th-century Italy.
2. Apprenticeship has become the widespread manner in which almost all  Hans Janssen and his son Zacharias Janssen are often said to have invented
examiners are now taught. In fact, this is the method that is required for proper the first compound microscope in 1590, but this was a declaration made by
certification and membership to an established organization. Zacharias Janssen himself during the mid 1600s.
3. College and/or university programs are very limited at this time. In part, this  The date is unlikely, as it has been shown that Zacharias Janssen actually was
is due to the relatively limited demand for forensic document examiners. It born around 1590. Another favorite for the title of 'inventor of the microscope'
also relates to the need for extensive practical experience; particularly with was Galileo Galilei.
respect to handwriting examination. It would be very difficult to include this  Christiaan Huygens, another Dutchman, developed a simple 2-lens ocular
degree of practical experience in a normal academic program. system in the late 1600s that was achromatically corrected, and therefore a

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 huge step forward in microscope development. The Huygens ocular is still 1. they must be of good moral character, high integrity and good repute; and
being produced to this day, but suffers from a small field size, and other minor possess high ethical and professional standing
problems. 2. the program is limited to permanent residents of the USA, Canada and Mexico
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) is credited with bringing the 3. must possess a bachelor degree (or higher) from an accredited academic
microscope to the attention of biologists, even though simple magnifying institution, or equivalent
lenses were already being produced in the 1500s. 4. must successfully have completed a full-time training program of at least 2
years duration in a forensic laboratory recognized by the Board
Professional Organizations 5. must provide three references from forensic document examiners certified or
1. American Society of Questioned Document Examiners (ASQDE) - USA recognized by the Board
2. American Academy of Forensic Science (AAFS) - USA 6. must be actively engaged in the practice of forensic document examination
3. Australasian Society of Forensic Document Examiners (ASFDE) - must demonstrate a record of appropriate professional activity in forensic
Australia/Asia document examination
4. Canadian Society of Forensic Science (CSFS) - Canada
5. Southwestern Association of Forensic Document Examiners (SWAFDE) - Related Areas of Questioned Document Examination
Sourthwest USA Historically, QDE has been somewhat of an inclusive profession, even to the
6. Southeastern Association of Forensic Document Examiners (SAFDE) - point where so-called pseudo-experts (in palmistry and fortune-telling) were
Southeast USA sometimes welcome, and even today, it suffers from a bit of identity crisis in that at
7. Forensic Science Society (FSS) - United Kingdom least eight (8) different, or related, areas can be identified:
8. International Association for Identification (IAI) 1. Questioned Document Examiners -- A document examiner analyzes any
9. Gesellschaft für Forensische Schriftuntersuchung (GFS) - Frankfurt questioned document and is capable of more than just questions of authorship
(Germany) limited only by their access to laboratory equipment.
2. Historical Dating -- These is work involving the verification of age and
ABFDE ~ Certification worth of a document or object, sometimes done by a document examiner, and
A document examiner may be certified by the American Board of Forensic can get as complicated as Carbon-14 dating.
Document Examiners, Inc. (ABFDE), which was formed in 1977 with a grant from 3. Fraud Investigators -- This is work that often overlaps with that of the
the U.S. Department of Justice. The ABFDE is the body that carries out certification document examiner and focuses on the money trail and criminal intent
of document examiners – there is no federal licensing involved. The court recognized 4. Paper & Ink Specialists -- These are public or private experts who date, type,
the Board as reputable in the case of U.S. v. Buck, 1987, in denying a motion that source, and/or catalogue various types of paper, watermarks, ink,
claimed that handwriting comparisons were unreliable. printing/copy/fax machines, computer cartridges, etc., using chemical
methods
An applicant for certification must meet the following requirements:

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 5.Forgery Specialists -- These are public or private experts who analyze Classification of Questioned Documents
altered, obliterated, changed, or doctored documents and photos using infrared Documents are questioned, disputed, and attached on many grounds and for
lighting, expensive spectrography equipment, or digital enhancement various reasons but the great majority of questioned papers are included in the
techniques handwriting classes:
6. Handwriting Analysts -- These are usually psychology experts who assess 1. Document with questioned signature.
personality traits from handwriting samples, also called graphologists or 2. Document containing alleged fraudulent alteration.
graphoanalysts; Forensic stylistics refers to the same purpose but by looking This refers to alterations of words, part of a word, figure or part of
at semantics, spelling, word choice, syntax, and phraseology. figure either by mechanical or chemical erasures.
7. Typewriting Analysts -- These are experts on the origin, make, and model 3. Holographic document questioned or disputed.
used in typewritten material Holographic document is a document completely written, prepared and
8. Computer Crime Investigators -- This is an emerging group that relates to signed by the person himself without the assistance of any person himself
QDE through some common investigative and testimonial procedures. without the assistance of any person even a lawyer.
It's probably a futile effort to rigidly demarcate and delimit the various areas 4. Document questioned as to its date or age.
of QDE as there will always be overlap, evolution, and, perhaps, controversy. Refers to date of the document was executed, date of the ink…. The
specific date of the ink cannot be determine thru chemical analysis.
Kinds of Documents 5. Document attacked on the questioned as to the material used in their
Under the Philippine law, the following are the four (4) kinds of document: production.
1. Commercial Document - This refers to any instrument executed in accordance Refers to the kind or types of writing material, paper, ink and pencil or
with the Code of Commerce or any Mercantile Law, containing disposition of graphic.
commercial rights or obligations. 6. Document questioned on the question typewriting.
2. Official Document - This refers to any instrument issued by the Government or its a) With a view of ascertaining their source.
agents or its officers having the authority to do so and the officers, which in b) With a view to determining their date.
accordance with their creation, they are authorized to issue. The officers must issue c) With a view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent
the document in the performance of their duties. alterations or substituted pages.
3. Public Document - This refers to any instrument notarized by notary public or A typewriter characteristic refers to the following:
competent public official with solemnities required by law. (Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. a. PICA. Characterized by 10 letters per inch.
742). b. ELITE. Characterized by 12 letters per inch.
4. Private Document - This refers to every deed or instrument executed by a private c. TELETYPE. Characterized by 6 letters per inch.
person without the intervention of notary public or of any other person legally d. SPECIAL TYPEWRITER. Characterized by 14 to 16 letters per inch.
authorized, by which documents, some disposition or agreement is proved evidenced
or set forth. (US vs. Orera, 11 Phil. 596).

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 11 of 36

 7. Document or writing investigated because it is alleged that may identify 3. Steel rule – It is useful for certain other classes of document measurement
some person through handwriting. especially for general testing purposes.
a) Anonymous letter and disputed letters 4. Micrometer caliper - It is useful for paper comparisons. With this instrument
b) Superscriptions, registrations, and miscellaneous writings. very accurate thickness measurement can be made and it often is possible to
8. Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently attacked. assort papers that are actually different by the thickness rest alone.
5. Special micrometer caliper – This was made by brown and sharp from a
Types of instrument used in questioned documents designed by the author, which carries two parallel knife-edge jaws neither of
1. Filar-Micrometer – This device is used in many instances for making accurate which rotates. The instrument measures within it field with great accuracy and
measurements and comparisons. A filar micrometer is a device used in astronomical especially in certain critical comparison of typewriting as well as the
telescopes for precision measurements. The word filar derives from Latin filum, a impression.
thread. It refers to the fine threads or wires used in the device. 6. Typewriting Testing Plate – This is useful instruments cover all
2. Stereoscopic Microscope – This style of instrument permits the middle or any part measurements a typewriting expert line spacing and by their use alone the
of a large surface to be examined which otherwise might be impossible or the small typewriting of various machine can be accurately identified or differentiated
stage of the ordinary microscope. as well as for the measurements of pen strokes, printed letters, or typewritten
3. Camera- Lucida – This is sometimes useful but not often. It serves to refute the characters.
contention that the notched edges, or microscopic serrations, on pen strokes identity a 7. Metric Questioned Document Measure - This is useful in which the
particular writer. metrical system of measurement. It must always be interpreted as a certain
 The camera lucida was patented in 1807 by William Hyde Wollaston. part of an inch or it gives no clear idea of length.
4. Comparison Microscope – This instrument was originally designed by the author 8. Handwriting Test Plate – This is useful especially in small size and in larger
for the utilization of the Lovibond Tintometer Glasses in recording ink colors. Osborn form treating of slant in writing a special ruled protractor designed for the
had designed a comparison microscope which was later manufactured by Bausch & easy and accurate measuring of the slant of writing.
Lomb. 9. Typewriting Protractor – This is useful protractor of a different form is
illustrated here in small size and in larger size in the chapter on typewriting
Special Types of Instruments Used in Questioned Document Examination and is designed to show the exact abnormal slant of certain letters in
1. Ordinary hand magnifies or simple microscope – This is used alone or as typewriting.
adjusts of the compound microscope are often of great assistance and should 10. Uniform Ruled Square on Glass – It is lettered and numbers on glass can be
always be provided in a court in query regarding a document. When delicate placed over an alleged forgery and a model from which it was traced or over
color value are under examination it is desirable to use glasses in which the two alleged tracing from the same original, to show suspicious identities that
chromatic observation has been corrected. may exist or in the small size, may be used to compare two enlarged
2. Finely graduated measures – It is especially useful in typewriter inquiries typewritten letters.
where it is necessary to prove certain identities and differences.

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 12 of 36

 11. Typewriting Test Plate on Glass for alignment and line and line spacing 4. To use the prudent cure in the collection, handling, shipping, and
Test – A useful instrument for typewriting examinations, consist of a glass preservation of such documents and their chain of custody
carrying accurately graduated fine line squares, ten to the inch, the spacing of
ordinary type writing. This glass can be placed over the typewriting to CRITERIA FOR OBTAINING AND HANDLING DOCUMENTS
disclose and illustrate abnormal horizontal or vertical alignment, which is The following criteria should be kept in mind when obtaining, handling, and
another of the significant individual peculiarities of typewriting. shipping questioned documents to the document examiner. All documentary evidence
12. Curvemeter – This instrument on glass was devised for the measurements of should be:
curves and turns and connections in handwriting and typewriting. 1. Legally obtained
13. Proportion Test Plate – This instrument on glass for measuring and 2. Completely described, identified, and dated in the investigator’s notes
recording in photographic form variations in proportions of long and short 3. Carefully labeled, initialed, and dated for future identification
letters in handwriting. 4. Handled properly according to due care procedures (see below)
14. Angle measure – This instrument was devised for the purpose of measuring 5. Cautiously wrapped with the adequate protection for shipment
angles in handwriting and typewriting. 6. Accounted for at all stages by maintaining the chain of custody
15. Transmitted Light Table – This appliance frequently useful in questioned 7. Submitted to the examiner with the specific instructions and sufficient
document inquiries is the glass topped table, with light under neath, designed standards of comparison
for all kinds of transmitted light examinations.
GUIDELINES FOR DETERMINING THE NEED FOR A DOCUMENT
THE INVESTIGATORS RESPONSIBILITIES IN COLLECTING AND EXAMINER
SUBMITTING QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS An investigator or his agency often has to exercise judgment as to the need for
The responsibilities of the investigator in the collection, protection, handling, an expert’s examination of a document in question in order to detect signs of
submission for examination, and chain of custody of questioned documents are as tampering, alteration, or forgery.
follows: The following signs indicate reasons a document should be submitted to a
1. To collect, protect, identify, and preserve the questioned document, or if forensic laboratory:
the original best evidence document is not available, a certified, 1. Abrasions or chemical pen or pencil erasures
professionally photographed copy thereof 2. Alterations or substitutions
2. To collect and to e able to prove the origin of adequate comparison 3. Disguised or unnatural writings with change in letter formation
standards (specimen writings or exemplars) to be used by the document 4. Use of different colored inks
examiner as standards of comparisons in determining authorship of the 5. Charred, mutilated, or torn pages
document 6. Pencil or carbon marks along the writing lines of the signature, indicating
3. To submit both the questioned document(s) and the comparison specimens possible transfer or tracing
or exemplars of the document examiner at the selected forensic laboratory

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 13 of 36

 7. Questions raised by client, claimant, or other person relative to the copies record only black and white and tend to mess delicate features of
document’s authenticity pen or pencil strokes. They should be used only as a last resort when no
8. Question as to the genuineness of the signature better instrument of visualization is available.
9. Suspicious signs of inconsistency or disruption of continuity of content. If 3. Known writings or documents can be used as standards of comparison.
it is the multipaged document, do all the connected pages of the document The examiner must have definitive information relative to genuine
show continuous language without any break in the content theme? Are all signatures and writings. All relevant information pertaining to them should
dates, events, names, streets, or any other precise data referred to within e supplied.
the document consistent with each other and with known facts? 4. All pertinent investigative information regarding the questioned document
10. Suspicious appearance or unusual form. Is there any identification of an and the condition of the alleged writer.
attempted change of contents? If it is a typewritten document, does it
appear that the same ribbon and same typewriter was used throughout its Letter of transmittal
creation? If it is a handwritten document, is there more than one style of The transmittal letter should contain precise information for the document
handwriting in evidence, or were different colored inks or different types examiner:
of writing instrument used? Does the total writing show uniformity, or are 1. Identification of the document. It may be wise to list all documentary
there definite composition differences? Are there any indentations on the evidence obtained if there are other documents pertinent to the case beside
document created by handwritten or typewritten comment on some paper the one submitted for examination. The letter should clearly distinguish
that was placed over the paper of the document? between questioned and known documents.
2. Exact nature of the examination to be performed. The type of document,
Transmitting document its condition, and the reasons for it being questioned will indicate specific
The objective of transmittal is to see that the document reaches its destination problems with which the examiner will be expected to deal. It may be
without damage. The investigator should be aware that the examiner may be suspected forgery, possible alterations, obliterations, need for handwriting
receiving many documents from a number of different agencies, and that what he identification, or any of many related examinations.
sends must be clearly identified so that the examiner will have no question as to 3. Whether or not the examiner is to examine the document for latent
where it should be returned and to whom. Clear identification and safe transit are the fingerprints. Fingerprints may not be an issue; however, they often are if
prime requirements ineffective transmittal. determination of the document issue is a primary issue.
The following should be submitted to the examiner: 4. How sample writings were obtained for standards of comparison, the
1. The original document in dispute or questioned, if it at all possible. name and address of the person from who obtained, and a copy of the
2. Complete photographs of the document taken by qualified and competent writer’s signed acknowledgement.
photographer if it is not possible to obtain the original document. The 5. Other information pertinent to the examination the investigator may have
photograph must show (a) all delicate features and characteristics of the obtain relative to the questioned document that might prove helpful to the
writing, and (b) all details of the condition of the document. Photostat examiner should be enclosed. This should be confined to factual data and

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 14 of 36

 not express the investigator’s opinions. If samples of the suspect’s writing Two Groups of Characteristics
are also being supplied by law enforcement that should be known. If it is a 1. Common Class or style Characteristics - They are those which conform to the
matter of forged checks or other documents and there is physical general type acquired when learning to write time and place. It is the style taught to
description of the suspect, it should be included. Instructions relative to the child in school or by the parents. Not all characteristics encountered in document
the use of chemical that may leave their mark on the document should be examination are peculiar to a single person or thing, but rather common to all group.
specified.
2. Individual or Personal Characteristics - Are those introduced into the
Eight (8) Principles of Identification handwriting consciously or unconsciously by the writer? They are highly personal or
The following principles involved in handwriting identification: peculiar and are unlikely to occur in other instances.
1. No two writers write exactly alike.
2. The Physical writing condition and position of the person including his Two Kinds of Standard Documents
writing instrument may affect the handwriting characteristics but they do not A. Collected or Procured - Those which are obtained from files of document
confine all its identity elements. executed in the persons day to day business, official, social or personal activities.
3. A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill without serious Collected standards are known (genuine) handwritings of an individual, such as
effort and training over a period of time. signature and endorsements on cancelled checks, legal papers letters, commercial,
4. The combination of handwriting characteristics including those derived from official, public and private documents, and other handwriting such as letters,
form and writing movements are essential elements of identification. memoranda, etc. written in the course of daily life, both business and socials.
5. Individuality in handwriting can only be determined through comparison B. Requested or Prepared - Those which are given or made upon the request of an
examination with the standard written or prepared under comparable investigator for purpose of making comparative examination with the request writing.
conditions. Request standards are signature or other handwritings (or hand printings) written by
6. Similarity does not mean identity. an individual upon request for the purpose of comparison with other handwriting, or
7. Complete identity means forgery. for specimen purposes. In most instances, collected standards are preferable to
8. a) A writing was written by one person when there is a sufficient number of request standards, though both types should be submitted if available. Standards
identical writing habits and identical primary controlling characteristics and in should be collected from a period dated within a year of the date questioned
addition, the absence of divergent characteristics. document, with some written within weeks or days of the questioned writing.
b) A writing was not written by one person when there is a sufficient number
of divergent writing characteristics and the absence of identical primary Disputed Document
controlling characteristics. Suggests that there is an argument or controversy over the document and
strictly speaking this is its true meaning. In this text, as well as through prior usage,
disputed document and questioned document are employed interchangeably to signify
a document under special scrutiny

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 15 of 36

1. Basic Points that should be Considered in Obtaining Standards 5. Dictation must be interrupted at interval so that the suspect will feel relax
a. Collected Standards and write his own natural writing.
1. Amount of Writing Standards 6. Normal writing condition should be arranged so that the writer feels to
There is no hard rule as to the fixed number of standards which may be write the dictation.
considered sufficient or adequate, although experience shows that at least seven (7) c. Typewriting Standard
standards usually constitute sufficient amount of standards but still, 10 is better than 1. If the typewriting ribbon is obviously new, remove it to the laboratory
7, 15 is better than 10, In short the more the better. with the typewriting exemplars prepared from another ribbon. (the text of
2. Similarity of the subject Matter the material in question may still be discernible on the ribbon).
As a rule only like things are to be compared meaning standards should 2. Use of about the same size as the questioned materials, type out a full
always be congruent to the nature of the questioned or disputed materials. word copy of the message in question, typographical errors, using as
3. Relative dates of the standards with the questioned matter nearly as possible the same degree of touch as that used in typing the
Standards for comparison should relatively contemporary in dates. Those questioned materials.
documents executed two years before or after the date of the questioned document are 3. After placing the typewriter in a stencil position or each character on the
best. Contemporary as used in questioned document refers to documents that are keyboard by typing through carbon paper which has been inserted carbon
executed within five (5) years prior to the questioned document. side down over a piece of white bond paper.
4. Kinds of writing instrument and paper used 4. Make certain that each specimen contain the make, model and serial
Writing instrument and paper might influence the quality of writing. number of the typewriter from which it was produced as well as the date
Therefore as much as possible utilize or look for standards those are prepared using and initials of the offices.
the same instrument and paper as the questioned. 5. Typewriter specimen should be taken from suspect typewriter(s). It is
5. Writing Conditions usually not necessary to forward the typewriter to the laboratory it
Conditions both of the writer and the relative position under which questioned complete known exemplars are obtained.
writing was executed should be taken into consideration although this is somewhat a 6. If possible, after a typewritten exemplars is obtained from a suspect
difficult task for it is seldom or worst is so available standards written under similar typewriter, the investigator insure that the typewritten documents the
condition as in questioned. laboratory experts is in position to find valuable assistance to the solution
b. Requested Standards and subsequent prosecution of many cases.
1. Dictate to the writer and never allow a suspect to see the questioned
document. Handwriting Characteristics of Illiterates:
2. Text must be carefully selected – do not dictate the questioned document 1. They seldom follow any rule or baseline although at the beginning a position
exactly all its contents. above the baseline is taken which continues in an ascending or descending
3. Dictation must be at least 3. course. Baseline is the ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rests.
4. Writing instrument and paper should be similar.

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 16 of 36

 2. The tendency of the writing is to be raised involuntary in the last letters of the 3. The concluding parts are often made with a nervous haste and carelessness
word made by the extension of the fingers while the hand is being held in a and they may be much distorted.
fixed position. 4. Even with much tremor, the handwriting will usually show free connecting
3. The loop letters are often slanted too much because the upstrokes are made and terminal strokes made by the momentum of the hand.
too long or nearly straight. 5. Often shows very uneven alignment and may disregard entirely a line near
4. Very unlikely to produce facsimile signatures in size, arrangement and which they are written.
proportion of parts. 6. Usually shows an unusual and erratic departure from its intended movement,
5. The writing is not rhythmic, but made up of disconnected unskilled movement particularly in the downward strokes.
impulses which are not likely to be related in an exactly identified way. 7. There is a loss of individual departure from its intended movement,
6. Tremor or involuntary trembling is seen due to inability to control the pen in particularly in the downward strokes.
motion because of not being familiar with and self-conscious to the process of 8. There is a loss of individual rhythm as indicated by malformation and
writing. irregularity of speed in the writing of small letters.
7. Formation and angle of letters are irregular and definitely show lack of
knowledge of size and proportion. Disguised Writing
8. Same speed is utilized from beginning to end and seldom is the pen raised to Disguised writing is the deliberate attempt on the part of the writer to alter his
get a new adjustment. writing habit by endeavoring to invent a new writing style or by imitating the writing
9. Illiterate pencil-writing is usually produced with much pressure and may show of another person.
the habit of wetting the pencil lead frequently.
10. In anonymous writing, illiteracy is indicated by faulty arrangement of words, Physical Methods of Disguising Handwriting:
lines, paragraphs and pages. a.By changing the direction of the slant. The forger may employ a backhand slant,
11. Combination of script forms and Roman capitals, or pen or pencil printing, instead of the usual forehead slant.
containing freak forms, abbreviations or punctuation marks are individual b. By increasing or decreasing the speed in writing.
creations. c.By deliberate carelessness that will produce inferior style of writing.
d. By making the letters unusually large or small.
Handwriting Characteristics of Old Aged Persons: e.The forger may use the left hand instead of the right hand.
1. Due to lack of muscular control, the handwriting will not usually show fine f. Hand printing may be substituted for script.
lines continuously but the strokes are mostly rough and made with Characteristics of Disguised Writing:
considerable pressure. a. Inconsistent slant
2. With the presence of tremor, the changes of direction are numerous and b. Inconsistent letter formation
omission of parts of letters or strokes are common. c. Change of capital letters
d. Lack of free-flowing movement

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 17 of 36

 e. Lack of rhythm Identification of Handwriting
f. Unnatural starts and stops Every handwriting can be identified with its author provided it contains the
g. Irregular spacing writing habits, the individualities and characteristics of its author inadequate kind and
h. Writing with unaccustomed hand number, and provided further that such writing is subjected to adequate evaluation
and comparison with adequate exemplars of the handwriting of its author. No
Protection of Documents Integrity handwriting susceptible of the identification if it is not truly representatives of its
Serious curtailment of certain technical examinations are caused by improper author. Neither can it be identified of its individualities remain unrecognized.
or careless handling of disputed documents. This condition most frequently is brought As man is identified by his date of birth, height, weight, eyes, hair,
about ignorance of the consequence of mishandling. The simple act of repeatedly complexion, walk, talk, scars, mannerism, intelligence, occupation, skills, parents,
removing and replacing the letter in its envelope can cause a noticeable deterioration. associates, and other personal characteristics, so is his handwriting identified
The following DO’s and DON’T’s in the CARE, HANDLING AND positively, partially, or not all proportion to such recognizable characteristics
PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS: rendering it distinct from other handwriting.

DO’s Scientific Process in the Examination of Handwriting

1. Keep the documents unfolded in protected envelope. 1. Analysis (or Recognition) of characteristics - This process involves the
2. Take disputed papers to Document Examiners Laboratory at the First observation, measurement and/ or determination or properties or characteristics.
Opportunity. 2. Comparison of Characteristics - This process entails the actual comparison of the
3. If storage is necessary, keep in dry away from excessive heat and string light. properties or characteristics of an unknown item determined through analysis with
familiar or recorded characteristics of known items.
DON’T’s 3. Evaluation of characteristics - This refers to the process of correct interpretation of
1. Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry them in a pocket for a long characteristics will each have a certain value of identification determined by their like
time. hood of occurrence. The weight or significance of each characteristics. Examination,
2. Do not mark disputed documents (by pointing/ writing/ with any writing therefore, involves the recognition, comparison and correct interpretation of all the
instrument or dividers.) characteristics of the handwriting.
3. Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing, cutting, tearing or Handwriting Formation
punching for filing purposes. 1. Arcaded
4. Do not allow any one except qualified specialist to make chemical or other 2. Garlanded
tests, do not treat or dusty for latent fingerprints before consulting a document 3. Angular
examiner. Recognition of Handwriting Characteristics
Writing Characteristics Commonly Involved in the Examination of

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 18 of 36

Handwriting: 11. Shading – It is the widening of the ink strokes with increase pressure on the
1. Form – This refers to the shape or design of the individual letters. paper surface.
2. Slope or Slant – It is an angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to 12. Line Quality – Refers to the visible record in the written stroke of the basic
the baseline. movement and manner of holding the writing instrument.
3. Size – Size as writing characteristics is somewhat divergent under varying 13. Alignment – Is relation of the parts of the whole line of writing or line of
condition and may have but little significance when applied to only one individual letters in words or signature to the baseline.
example, or to as small quality of writing like a signature unless the 14. Rhythm – It is the balanced quality of movements of the harmonious
divergence is very pronounced. recurrence of stress or impulse.
4. Proportion – Individual characteristics in relative proportion of letters or 15. Writing skill – it is the relative degree of ability of a writer’s proficiency.
proportion of a part of a letter or relative height of one letter can be found in 16. Pen Pressure – It is the average force in which the pen makes contact with
different writings. Proportion in letters is one of the hidden features of the paper or the usual force involved in writing.
writing. It is unknown even to the writer. 17. Tremor – means “deviations from uniform strokes due to lack of
5. Ratio – The relation between the tall and short letters is referred to as the smoothness perfectly apparent even without magnification”.
ration of the writing. 18. Natural Variation – Due to lack of machine-like precision of the human
6. Connecting Strokes – This refers to the strokes of links that connects a hand; is caused by external factors, such as the writing instrument and the
letter. writing position; influences by physical and mental condition such as fatigue,
7. Terminal Strokes and Initial Strokes – When a letter, word or name intoxication, illness, nervousness and the age of the writer; due to the quality
(signature) is completed in a free, natural writing, the pen is usually raised of the writing prepared in the course of time, variation in genuine signature
from the paper while in motion with a “flying finish” (or what is also appears in superficial parts and does not apply to the whole process of
referred to as “vanishing”, “tapering” or “flourishing” terminal strokes) and writing.
with many writers, the motion of the pen also slightly precedes the putting 19. Rubric or Embellishment – This refers to additional unnecessary strokes
of the pen on the paper at the beginning with a “flying start” so that the not necessary to legibility of letterforms or writings but incorporated in
strokes at the beginning and end of words gradually diminish or taper to a writing for decorative or ornamental purposes.
“vanishing point”.
8. Pen – Lift – It is an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the pen STANDARD AND EXAMPLARS
from the paper. Pen-lift or disconnection between letters and letter Useful Suggestions Regarding Handwriting Standards of Comparisons
combinations are maybe due to lack of movement control. 1. Types of Handwriting “Standard”
9. Hiatus – Is a gap between strokes due to speed in writing and defective A. Collected
writing instruments. Collected standards are known (genuine) handwritings of an individual, such
10. Lateral Spacing – is considered as common characteristics when it as signature and endorsements on cancelled checks, legal papers letters, commercial,
conforms to the ordinary copy-book form.

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 19 of 36

official, public and private documents, and other handwriting such as letters, D. Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned material is
memoranda, etc. written in the course of daily life, both business and socials. hand printed): give no assistance in spelling or arrangement of page.
B. Requested Dictate at rate of speed, which will produce the subject natural writing
Request standards are signature or other handwritings (or hand printings) habits. Too slow dictation will enable the subject to attempt disguise
written by an individual upon request for the purpose of comparison with other and rapid dictation will not produce normal writing.
handwriting, or for specimen purposes. E. Remove each specimen upon completion by subject number in
In most instances, collected standards are preferable to request standards, consequence, date, time and identify by initiating each, and request
though both types should be submitted if available. Standards should be collected subject to sign each specimen.
from a period dated within a year of the date questioned document, with some written F. Observe all writing done by subject and indicate any attempt at
within weeks or days of the questioned writing. disguise, as well as whether subject appears to be normally right or left
handed, etc.
Types of Standards desirable for comparison use in the two most common types
of Questioned Documents problems: Special procedure for taking request handwriting standards where check
A. When a signature on check note, will, letter, etc. is in question: forgery is Charge or Suspected
1. Submit collected and requested standard signatures from both victim and A. Furnish subject with blank checks similar to the questioned checks.
suspect five to twenty signatures, depending upon individual case. B. Dictate the entries to be made on specimen checks as follows:
B. When anonymous or writings other than signatures are in question: a. Date same as shown on questioned check
1. Submit collected standard writings of general nature from both victim and b. Payee -do-
suspect as much standard writings as possible to obtain within reason. c. Amount -do-
2. Submit requested standard of the questioned text written (or printed) at least d. Signature -do-
three writing by the suspect and, in some instances, by the victim. e. Endorsement -do-
f. Any other handwriting shown on questioned check
Suggested procedure for taking request handwriting standard in all types of C. Give subject help or suggestions in completing specimen checks.
questioned document problems: Miscellaneous
A. Have the subject seated in a natural position at table or desk having A. The laboratory should be informed of the ages apparent health and
smooth writing surface. physical conditions of the subject at the time standards are written.
B. Furnish the subject with paper and writing instrument similar to those B. Do not fold, staple, or pin documents, handle questioned documents
used in questioned writing, like; paper should be of the same size, and with care.
ruled or unruled as questioned document; if questioned document is C. Indicate in the sample handwriting the time, place, date, signature of
ink written furnish subject with pen and ink, etc. writer as well as witness of the handwriting.
C. Never permit subject to see any writing on questioned document.

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 20 of 36

Sources of Signatures Written in the Course of Daily Affairs 24. Application for clearance from the CFI, the Municipal & City Courts, City
1. Cancelled checks Fiscal Office, Police stations, Phil. Constabulary and the NBI, and other
2. Signature cards for saving, checking, and charge accounts and safe-deposit governmental and private offices.
boxes. 25. Applications for firearms permits or licenses.
3. Signed receipts for telegrams, special delivery or registered letters, express 26. Applications for commission and enlistment in the AFP and foreign Armed
and store packages, etc. Forces Offices.
4. Business and personal letters 27. Applications for export and import and dollar allocations.
5. Credit applications and cards 28. ID cards.
6. Signature on sales slips, on job order slips, requisition slips and purchase 29. Applications for right like water rights copyright, patents franchises, etc.
slips. 30. Applications for Civil Service Examination, Board and Bar Examinations.
7. Leases, mortgages, agreements, bills of sale, contracts, deeds, notes stock 31. Applications for scholarship.
certificates and transfers, and other legal or business documents. 32. Residence Certificates, Class A &B Reservist Data Sheet.
8. Court records and affidavits, such as naturalization papers, bankruptcy
proceeding, divorce papers, probated wills and estate files, powers of attorney, PROCEDURE FOR OBTAINING COLLECTED STANDARD: Specimen
etc. Written in the Course of Daily Affairs
9. Passport, marriage application, license and affidavits. A. Signature Investigations
10. Driver automobile chauffeur, and other types of license applications. 1. Obtain at least 15 to 20 genuine signatures.
11. Application for gas, electricity, water and telephone services. 2. Procedure ink signature for comparison with questioned ink specimens pencil
12. Loan applications and receipts. standards for comparison with questioned pencil specimens.
13. Tax returns or affidavit. 3. Secure when available, genuine signatures used for different purpose as the
14. Insurance and employment application. questioned (i.e., if a check signature is questioned, best standards are given
15. Records from currency exchanges, checks-cashing agencies and pawnshops. signatures on correspondence important legal documents receipts, etc.)
16. Time sheets, payrolls, pay receipts, and personal forms. 4. Supplement standards with signatures used for different purpose. (i.e.: in
17. Barangay registration, petitions. check investigations supplement standard check signatures with signatures on
18. Relief, unemployment, and old-age compensation records. correspondence important legal documents receipts, etc.)
19. Signatures for certain drug purchases hotel registration. 5. Produce standard signatures of approximately the same date as the disputed
20. Church, club and professional society record. (preferably within the years of the questioned).
21. Veteran records. 6. Secure, whenever possible, some signature written on forms or papers of the
22. Fingerprints records. same size as questioned document.
23. School or University class records.

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 21 of 36

 DON’TS
DON’TS 1. Do not depend on but a few lines of writing.
1. Do not rely on only one or two standard signatures. 2. Do not rely on only signature standards.
2. Do not depend entirely upon other types of writing specimens. 3. Do not submit only pencil standards for comparison with questioned ink
3. Do not rely exclusively upon signatures used for every different purpose than writing or vice versa.
the questioned. 4. Do not depend entirely on writing which is known to have been executed
4. Do not submit pencil signatures for comparison with questioned ink writing or under abnormal conditions for purposes of comparison with questioned
only ink signatures for comparison with questioned pencil specimens. writing executed under normal conditions. (Consider, e.g.: effects of illness,
5. Do not use signatures written during extreme illness or intoxication, except for intoxications, haste, and carelessness.)
comparison with specimens executed under similar conditions. 5. Do not use present day/ writing exclusively for comparison with questioned
6. Do not depend or recently written signatures for comparison with specimens specimens written a number of years ago.
written 20 or 30 years ago. 6. Do not submit only a minimum amount of writing if additional specimen is
7. Do not collect only the recommended minimum number of signatures if more available.
specimens are available.
PROCEDURE FOR OBTAINING REQUEST STANDARDS: Specimens
B. INVESTIGATION OF OTHER SPECIMENS OF HANDWRITING AND Written for Comparison Purposes at the Request of the Investigating Officer
HANDPRITING, E. G., ANONYMOUS LETTERS A. Signature Investigations
DO’S DO’S
1. Produce at least 4 or 5 pages of handwriting or hand printing. 1. Obtain at least 25 to 30 specimen signatures.
2. If questioned writing is in ink, secure ink standards; if in pencil, submit pencil 2. Have writer make out specimen checks or receipts in performance to furnishing
standards. signatures alone.
3. Produce some specimens written prior to the date of the questioned writing, 3. If questioned signatures are in ink, have suspect write with pen; if in pencil,
and all within a few years thereof. with pencil.
4. Whenever possible, obtain specimens on paper of similar size, shape, and 4. Require suspect to write each signature on separate sheet of paper.
ruling as that on which the questioned writing appears. 5. Provide paper or forms of the same size, shape, composition, and ruling as the
5. Conditions permitting, secure writing with phrasing, wording subject matter, questioned documents.
etc. 6. Whenever possible, take a portion of the standards on different ways; always
6. When questioned writing has been executed under unusual writing conditions interrupt preparation of standards once or twice for rest periods.
secure, if possible, some specimens which were executed under similar 7. Provide normal writing conditions. (i.e. writer seated at desk or table).
conditions.

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 If questioned writing is known to have been executed under unusual be signed by the plaintiff's attorney, it usually must be signed by the clerk of the court
conditions obtain some standards under similar conditions. (i.e.: writing produced in which the action is brought. The following form is an example of a summons.
while standing with paper resting in the palm of the land) Treaty- in international law, written agreement concluded by two or more sovereign
nations or by a nation and an international organization, such as the European Union.
What is Signature?
Signature, a person's name, usually in his or her own handwriting. In law, 2. Stage of life where signature is binding
signatures are put at the end of a legal instrument to show that it is valid. The most Age of Consent - in law, the age when persons are considered to be fully bound by
common and readily accepted form is the person's own handwriting, but a signature their words and deeds.
may be printed, stamped, or typewritten. Illiterate persons often draw an “X” or other
symbol, attested by the signature of a witness. 3. Transfer by endorsement
Bill of Exchange - unconditional order in writing, signed and addressed by one
Signature Information person (the drawer) to another (the drawee), requiring the drawee to pay on demand,
1. Signature as legal attestation or at a determinable or fixed future date, a specified sum of money to a third person
Acknowledgment - in U.S. law, the act of avowing before a proper officer or a court (the payee).
that one has executed a legal instrument, and of obtaining a certificate that admits the Negotiable Instruments - in law, contracts in writing that are transferable by
instrument as evidence in a legal proceeding without further proof of its genuineness. endorsement or by delivery and to which the holder takes title free from any defenses
Affidavit - in law, voluntary written statement sworn before an officer qualified to or objections to their validity that might have been good against the transferor.
administer an oath. Promissory Note - in the law of negotiable instruments, written instrument
Will (law), in law, disposition by an individual of his or her property, intended to take containing an unconditional promise by a party, called the maker, who signs the
effect after death. instrument, to pay to another, called the payee, a definite sum of money either on
A written will - must be signed at the end; a testator unable to write may make an X, demand or at a specified or ascertainable future date.
and such a mark is considered a valid signature
Witnesses - are also necessary to ensure the legal validity of certain documents and 4. Attestation by a notary and notarized documents
ceremonies. Acknowledgment - in U.S. law, the act of avowing before a proper officer or a court
Deed - in law, written instrument that transfers an interest in real estate. that one has executed a legal instrument, and of obtaining a certificate that admits the
Statute - written law enacted by a legislature, which may take the form of either an instrument as evidence in a legal proceeding without further proof of its genuineness.
act or a resolution, as opposed to unwritten, or common, law, which is usually Affidavit - in law, voluntary written statement sworn before an officer qualified to
determined by custom or court decisions. administer an oath. Both the person making the affidavit (that is, swearing to the truth
Summons - in law, a formal document stating that a person (defendant) is notified to of the facts contained in the document) and the witnessing officer (a judge, a
appear in court and answer a complaint or charge brought against him or her by commissioner of deeds, or a notary public) are usually required to sign the document.
another party (plaintiff). Unless a specific statutory provision permits a summons to

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 23 of 36

Deposition - the testimony of a witness or of a party taken outside of court and Origin of Signature
reduced to writing. A signature (from Latin signare, "sign") is a handwritten (and sometimes
Power of Attorney - in law, written document, certified by a notary public, stylized) depiction of someone's name (or some other identifying mark) that a person
designating a person or party as an agent empowered to act for another person writes on documents as a proof of identity and will. It acts as a seal. The writer of a
(principal) in a legal capacity. signature is a signatory. Like a handwritten signature, a signature work describes the
work as readily identifying its creator.
5. Forging of signatures
Art Forgery - the intent to deceive, usually for financial gain, by proffering an art Function and types of signatures
object as representing something other than what it is. The traditional function of a signature is evidential: it is to give evidence of:
Detecting Forgeries - By use of special illumination such as ultraviolet black light, 1. the provenance of the document (identity)
infrared photography, and X-ray radiographs, inconsistencies and changes in 2. the intention (will) of an individual with regard to that document
paintings may be detected.
Forgery- in criminal law, fraudulent altering of a written document or seal, with the Two Significant Parts of Signature
intent of injuring the interests of another person or of fraudulently obtaining 1. Last stokes of words
governmental revenue. 2. Separate Capital letters
6. Study and analysis of handwriting
Graphology - study and analysis of handwriting to assess the writer's traits or FORGERY is committed by any person who, with intent to defraud signs the
personality. name of another person, or of a fictitious person, knowing that he has no authority to
do so; or falsely, alters, forges or counterfeits any check, draft, due-bill for the
7. Signatures required to place names or issues on an election ballot payment of money or property, or counterfeits of forges the seal or handwriting of
Ballot - in modern usage, a sheet of paper used in voting, usually in an electoral another knowing defraud any person.
system that allows the voter to make choices secretly.
Forgery of Signature
8. Substitutes for signatures A forge signature is the signature of another person or of a fictitious person
Printing - name used for several processes by which words, pictures, or designs are written by another who has no authority to do so, with intent to defraud. Forgery may
reproduced on paper, fabrics, metal, or other suitable materials. be produced under many processes ranging from the mere writing of the name
Ancient Techniques- The application of signet stones is possibly the earliest known without any attempt to resemble the genuine model, signature, to the more
form of printing. Used in ancient times in Babylonia and elsewhere, apparently both complicated process of tracing or simulation to produce a close resemblance or
as substitutes for signatures and as facsimile if the genuine signature.

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 24 of 36

Categories of Forgery: Kinds of Traced Forgery
1. Simple Forgery 1. Carbon process (Carbon Outline) as the name denotes is that type whereby the
2. Simulated Forgery forgery interleaves a carbon paper between the genuine signature (top sheet) and the
3. Traced Forgery document intended to be forged (bottom sheet). The outline of the model or genuine
signature is traced with a dry pen or any sharp pointed instrument with considerable
Simple Forgery (Spurious Signature) pressure to make a carbon outline signature by the forger. Others will improve on the
In this type of forgery, the forger who is confronted with the absence of a same by tracing the carbon outline with suitable ink strokes before passing it as
model signature will not attempt to produce a facsimile of the genuine signature but genuine.
instead signs the name in his own handwriting or in modified or disguised 2. Indentation Process is that type indentation or canal like outlines of the genuine
handwriting, and then devises ways and means of passing the document for profit signature is produced on the fraudulent document (bottom sheet be tracing the outline
before the obvious fraud is detected. This is commonly used in “fictitious persons” of the genuine signature (top sheet) with considerable pressure with any sharp pointed
cases and invariability by the check forms, completes and endorses the same with instrument. The indented outline on the fraudulent document is then directly inked in
fictitious signature in order to make them as genuine. and in some instances, first retracted with pencil very lightly before it is finally.
An indentation can mean two things:
Simulated Forgery (Copied Signature) 1. To make notches in something or form deep recesses in a coastline for
It is the act of simulation, or copying in imitation of a genuine signature or instance.
writing as to resemble the model. The forger avails himself of a model signature 2. To place text farther to the right to separate it from surrounding text.
which he places before him in order to copy the same. Often the forger under takes The first meaning is also applied in hardness measurement as in indentation
some practices before proceeding to do his work of simulation or imitation. hardness.
In some instances, where the forger could not avail of a genuine signature as a For an example of the second meaning, this is an indentation of one space:
model, he merely relies from memory his recollections of the pattern of the signature Indented block 1 and this is an indentation of two spaces: Indented block 2. In
which he may have virtue of long association with the signature. the written form of many American and European languages, an indentation is often
used at the beginning of a line to signal the start of a new paragraph.
Traced Forgery Outdentation is a neologism used in computer circles to describe placing text
This is the result of an attempt to transfer to a fraudulent document an exact back to the left again.
facsimile of a genuine signature or writing by some tracing process. It is any
fraudulent signature which was executed by actually following the outline of a 3. Transmitting light or projection process is that kind whereby the fraudulent
genuine signature with any sharp pointed instrument. document is placed immediately above the genuine document (signature) and with
strong light directed through the two superimpose sheet of paper from under, with
transparent glass used as writing surface, the outline which is seen thru the upper
sheet is then traced with any suitable writing instrument.

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 25 of 36

Indications of Forgery 4. Mutilation of coins, importation and uttering of mutilated coins (164)
1. Hesitations and pen stops at unusual places 5. Selling of false or mutilated coins (165)
2. Abrupt changes of directions of lines or strokes, showing uncertainty of 6. Forging treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to the bearer,
movement importing and uttering such false or forged notes and documents (166)
3. Concealed joining 7. Counterfeiting, importing and uttering instruments not payable to the bearer
4. Blunt initial and terminal strokes (167)
5. Misplaced shadings 8. Illegal possession and use of forged treasury or bank notes and other
6. Lack of variation in pen pressure (similar pressure throughout) instruments of credit (168)
7. Defective line quality 9. Falsification of legislative documents (170)
8. Careful patching or retouching 10. Falsification by public officer, employee or notary (171)
9. Tremors (fraudulent) 11. Falsification by private individuals and use of falsified documents (172)
10. Presence of carbon, pencil or indentations along the lines of strokes 12. Falsification of wireless, cable, telegraph and telephone messages and use of
11. Unnatural pen-lifts said falsified messages (173)
13. False medical certificates, certificates of merit or service (174)
Indications of Genuineness 14. Using false certificates (175)
1. Free flowing movement indicating freedom of writing 15. Manufacturing and possession of instruments or implements for falsification
2. Intermediate strokes where pen comes off the paper but not stopped showing (176)
continuity of motion 16. Usurpation of authority and official functions (177)
3. Ink failure 17. Using fictitious name and concealing true name (178)
4. Flying starts and vanishing finishes 18. Illegal use of uniform or insignia (179)
5. Abbreviated, distorted, illegible forms 19. False testimony against a defendant (180)
6. Genuine retouching 20. False testimony favorable to the defendant (181)
7. Skillful shading 21. False testimony in civil cases (182)
8. Natural variations 22. Perjury (183)
9. Good line quality 23. Offering false testimony in evidence (184)

TITLE FOUR (RPC): CRIMES AGAINST PUBLIC INTERES THE HISTORY OF WRITING INSTRUMENTS
1. Counterfeiting seal of the government, forging signature or stamp of the Chief A. PENS
Executive (161) Bryan Donkin - The English engineer who was the first patented steel pen point in
2. Using forged signature or counterfeit seal or stamp (162) 1803.
3. Making and importing and uttering false coins (163)

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 26 of 36

Juan de Yciar - The 16th-century Spanish calligrapher mentions brass pens for very Hymen Lipman (1858) – Patented the first attaching an eraser to the end of a pencil.
large writing in his 1548 writing manual, but the use of metal pens did not become
widespread until the early part of the 19th century. C. INKS
William Joseph Gillot, William Mitchell, and James Stephen Perry - The leading Tien-Lcheu (2697 B.C.) –A Chinese philosopher who invented ink
19th-century English pen manufacturers.
Lewis Waterman - a New York insurance agent, patented the first practical fountain D. TYPEWRITER
pen containing its own ink reservoir in 1884. Henry Mill - British inventor who made first recorded attempt to produce a writing
Georg and Ladislao Biro - Hungarian brothers who invented a practical ballpoint machine in 1714.
pen. William Austin Burt - American inventor, the next patent issued for a typewriter in
Yukio Horie (1962) – Invented the first practical fiber-tip pen in Japan. 1829.
John J. Loud- Granted the first patent for a ball point pen No. 392,046, October 30, Charles Grover Thurber (1843) – American inventor who made first machine to use
1888 the method of spacing.
Van Vechten Riesburg – He patented another ball point pen device in 1916. Xavier Progin - French inventor for a machine that embodied for the first time one of
Milton Reynolds - He introduced the first ball point pen to replace the then common the principles employed in modern typewriters: the use for each letter or symbol of
"fountain pen" in 1945. separate typebars, actuated by separate lever keys in 1833.
Father Francisco João de Azevedo - a Brazilian priest, made his own typewriter in
B. PENCILS 1861 with poor materials, such as wood and knives.
Nicholas Jacques Conté - In 1795, French chemist received a patent for the modern Austrian Peter Mitterhofer - created a typewriter in 1864, but it was never produced
process for making pencil leads by mixing powdered graphite and clay, forming commercially. Mitterhofer continued to improve his original model and created five
sticks, and hardening them in a furnace. different enhanced typewriters until 1868.
William H. Maurice - He advertised the "India rubber," evidently intended for use as Rev. Rasmus Malling-Hansen of Denmark (1865) - invented the Hansen Writing
a pencil eraser a Philadelphia, PA, stationer, in 1847. Ball, which went into commercial production in 1870 and was the first commercially
Samuel Kraus – Awarded the Patent No. 316,374 on April 21, 1895, describes a sold typewriter.
method of making slate pencils using ground talc or soapstone mixed with ground Christopher Sholes, Carlos Glidden, and Samuel W. Soule (1867) - invented
potter's clay. another typewriter. The patent (US 79,265) was sold for $12,000 to Densmore and
William Monroe - a Massachusetts cabinetmaker, invented a machine that cut and Yost, who made an agreement with E. Remington and Sons (then famous as a
grooved wood slats precisely enough to make pencils. manufacturer of sewing machines) to commercialize what was known as the Sholes
Joseph Dixon - the American inventor developed the method of cuffing single cedar and Glidden Type-Writer. Remington started production of their first typewriter on
cylinders in half to receive the core and then gluing them back together. March 1, 1873, in Ilion, New York. Another early typewriter manufacturer was
Eberhard Faber (1861), An American manufacturer , the first pencil-making factory Underwood.
in the United States was built in New York City.

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 27 of 36

Thomas Edison (1870) – invented the electric typewriters, the basic groundwork for Techniques in the Examination of Questioned Documents
the electric typewriter. 1. Microscopic Examination - Stereoscopic examination with flow and high
Barbara Blackburn (2005) - is the fastest English language typist in the world, power objectives is used to detect retouching, patching and unnatural pen-lift
in signature analysis. With proper angle and intensity or illumination, it aids in
The Principal Typewriting Questioned the decipherment of erasures, some minute manipulations not perfectly
1. Whether an evidential typewriting was accomplished on a suspected pictured to the unaided eye and sequence of entries done by different writing
typewriter. instruments.
2. Whether an evidential typewriting, prepared a known typewriter was actually 2. Transmitted light Examination – Documents are subjected to this type of
typewritten on its purported date. examination to determine the presence of erasures, matching of serration and
some other types alterations.
Type face detects in typewriter 3. Oblique or Side Light Examination – Decipherment of faded handwriting
1. Permanent defects – actual breaks on worn-off series, cut on shanks. “determination of outline in traced forgery embossed impression, etc. are
2. Transitory defects – dirty impression from “clogged or dirty: type faces, subjected to this type examination.
and incomplete impressions to poor condition or worn-out ribbon. 4. Photographic Examination – This type of examination is very essential in
every document examination. Actual observations recorded in the
How to get/obtain Exemplars of Typewriting photographs.
1. If the ribbon is new, remove it from the typewriter an send the typewriter with 5. Ultra Violet Examination – This type of examination done in darkened room
the ribbon to the laboratory for examination. after the lamp has been warmed up in order to give a maximum output of the
2. Use paper of the same size as the questioned materials and type out a full ultra violet light exposures to the ultra violet light should be to the minimum
word-for-word copy of the message in questioned. duration in order to avoid fading of some writing ink and typewriter ribbon.
3. After placing the typewriter in a stencil position, obtain sample of each The exposure of a document to ultra violet light is useful when it consists of
character by typing through carbon paper. several pages and substitution is being suspected.
4. Make certain that each specimen contain and makes model and serial number
of the typewriter including the dates, initial of the examiners, and who get the MONEY COUNTERFIETING EXAMINATION
said specimen. What is Money?
5. If possible, after a typewritten exemplar is obtained from a suspected Money, any medium of exchange that is widely accepted in payment for
typewriter, the investigator should ensure that the typewriter is kept on its goods and services and in settlement of debts. Money also serves as a standard of
current conditioned. value for measuring the relative worth of different goods and services. The number of
units of money required to buy a commodity is the price of the commodity. The
monetary unit chosen as a measure of value need not, however, be used widely, or
even at all, as a medium of exchange. During the colonial period in America, for

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 28 of 36

example, Spanish currency was an important medium of exchange, while the British II. PORTRAIT
pound served as the standard of value. GENUINE – Appears life-like. The eyes “sparkle”. The tiny dots and lines forming
the details on the face, hair, etc. are clear, sharp and well-defined. Each portrait stands
The Central Bank Notes and Coins out noticeable along the shoulders. The eyes hair is multi-colored fine pattern of lines
Study the workmanship of each denomination of known genuine Central Bank in varying lifeless. Tones and shades interlacing are intricately printed in such a way
notes and coins. Take note of and FAMILIARIZE yourself with the various that the contrast or shifting of colors creates the impression of life and vividness to
characteristics of the following features: the notes.
NOTES: COUNTERFIET – Appears “dead”. The face and / or fore head are often unnaturally
1. Distinctive feel 6. Lacework design white or pale due to absence of most of the tails. It appears blurred, Dull, smudges
2. Portrait 7. Serial Number and poorly printed. The eyes do not sparkle. The concentric line depicting the often
3. Watermarks 8. Vignette merged into solid printed areas. The background often blend with the portrait and are
4. Metallic threads 9. Clearness of print usually “scratchy” .The lines are think with one genuine notes are extremely difficult
5. Colored fibers 10. Coins to duplicate and as a result counterfeit notes are usually off-colors and not of the right
11. Color of each Denomination shade or tone.
COINS:
1. Even flow of metallic grains III. WATERMARKS
2. High relief of letters and numeral; GENUINE – The watermarks underneath the security lacework on the right hand side
3. Regularity of readings and beadings of the note is the same as the colored portrait. This design is placed by means of a
EXAMINE each note being received and closely observe the following: dandy roll during the manufacture of the paper. Consequently, sharp details of the
outline or the light and shadow effect are discernible when viewed with the aid of a
I. DISTINCTIVE FEEL transmitted light. The relief of the feature can be felt by running the finger on the
GENUINE – The finger will readily feel the main prints on the front and black on design.
fairly new notes. This is due to the measurable thickness of the in deposited on the COUNTERFIET – This is imitated by printing white ink of dry block on the finishing
paper which gives an embossed effects. paper. Sometimes was or other only medium is stamped to give transparency to the
COUNTERFIET – Generally smooth. The fingers will hardly feel the prints of the portioned where the design appears or a printed outline is placed on the merely a
front and black even on new notes. This is brought about by offset printing the most paper cutout is placed inside. As a result, course or harsh and occasional irregular
common process employed by counterfeiters. Photo-counterfeits (reduced by a lines and sometimes opaque areas are very obvious.
straight photographic copying) generally fell “Slimy”. The “Prints are more stains on
the coating of the sensitized paper, which is glossy.

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 29 of 36

IV. METALLIC THREAD VIII. VIGNETTE
GENUINE – This is a special threat placed vertically on the paper during GENUINE – The line and dots composing the vignette are fine, distinct and sharp.
manufacture. On the surface of the paper where this thread located are patterns on The varying color tone gives a “bold look” to the picture that makes it stand out” of
short vertical lines. the paper.
COUNTERFIET – Faked by means of printing on the back of the note, on the inner COUNTERFIET – Usually dull and poorly printed. It appears dirty. The lines are
side of the paper, insertion of twine thread or by simply folding the note vertically comparatively thicker with rough edges. There is no variation in color tone so that
where the thread appears on the genuine bill. picture appears flat.

V. COLORED FIBERS IX. CLEARNESS OF PRINTS

GENUINE – The fibers are scattered at random on both surface and can be ready GENUINE – The registry of the different printed features is perfect. The lines are
picked off by means of any pointed instrument. very clean and sharp. There are no “burns” clinging to the sides.
COUNTERFIET – Simulated by printed line cannot be picked off, but can be easily COUNTERFIET – In general, a spurious note exhibits a “second hand” logo. It is
erased with ordinary rubber or by agitating with wet fingers. dirty due to the sputtering of ink on the interior area. Over inked areas are visible
instantly. The shading and ornamentations of the letters and finger are thick and
VI. LACEWORK DESIGN usually merged.
GENUINE – The geometric pattern which looks like a delicate lacework along the
boarder on both surface, emblazing the portrait, value panel and vignette and under X. COINS
the legend ANG BAGONG LIPUNAN, are multi-colored and composed of sharp GENUINE – Genuine coins show an even flow of metallic grains. The details of the
lines which are continuous and traceable even at the joins. profile, the seal of the Republic of the Philippines, lettering and numerals are of high
COUNTERFIET – These geometric patterns are often blurred, blurred, rough on the relief, so that it can be readily felt distinctly by running the fingers on these features.
edges and blotched on the joint. Its continuity could not be traced. The color appears The beading are regular and the readings are deep and even.
fade. COUNTERFIET – Most counterfeit coins feel greasy and appear surrounding the
genuine coin appear irregular and elongated depressions, and are not sharp and
VII. SERIAL NUMBER prominent as in the genuine. The letters rings and numeral are low and worn out due
GENUINE – The prefix letter (s) and numbers (six of them except on replacement to lack of sharpness of details. The reading are uneven and show signs of filling. Most
note) are clearly printed. They have peculiar style and are uniform in size and counterfeit coins feel greasy and appear slim. The beading composed of tiny round
thickness. Spacing of the numbers is uniform and alignment is even. dots surrounding the genuine coin appear irregular and elongated depression and are
COUNTERFIET – The letter (s) and numbers are poorly printed. They are of usually not sharp and prominent as in the genuine. The letters rings and numerals are low and
different style. Most often, they are not evenly spaced and are poorly aligned, either worn out due to reading are uneven and show signs of filing.
too big or to small thin, and in certain cares shaded on the curves.

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XI COLOR OF EACH DENOMINATION
Genuine notes have polychrome background with one predominant color for each Higher denominations
denomination. You should know the portrait on each bill. The Central Bank of the Philippines issued only 300,000 pieces of this
P 1, 000.00 Blue Jose Abad Santos, Josefa Escoda, Vicente Lim 216mmx133mm 2,000 Philippine piso centennial commemorative legal tender
P 500.00 Yellow Benigno Aguino banknote. The obverse side features President Joseph Estrada taking his oath of office
P 200.00 Green Diosdado Macapagal on June 30, 1998 in the historic Barasoain Church, the seat of the first democratic
P 100.00 Mauve Manuel Roxas republic in Asia shown in the background as well as the scroll of the Malolos
P 50.00 Red Sergio Osmenia Constitution and the seal of the BSP (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas). The reverse side
P 20.00 Orange Manuel Quezon depicts the re-enactment of the declaration of Philippine Independence at the
P 10.00 Brown Apolinario Mabini Aguinaldo Shrine in Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1998 by President Fidel V. Ramos and
also features the Philippine Centennial Commission logo. The security features of the
Coins note include a 3-dimensional cylinder mold-made portrait watermark of the two
Genuine coins show an even flow of metallic grains. The details of the profile, presidents and the years 1898-1998, iridescent band, color-shift windowed security
the seal of the Republic of the Philippines, lettering and numerals are of high relief, thread, latent image and perfect see-through register. The 100,000-piso centennial
so that it can be readily felt distinctly by running the fingers on these features. The note, measuring 8.5"x14", is accredited by the Guinness Book of World Records as
heading is regular and the readings are deep and even. the world's largest legal tender note in terms of size. It was issued in very limited
quantity during the celebration of the centennial of Philippine independence in 1998
LETTER P - is the symbol for PESO with two horizontal strikethrough lines. It is
sometimes shown as a P with just one strikethrough line or just a P with no If you Suspect a Counterfeit Note
strikethrough lines at all since there are problems with font support. 1. Do not return it to the passer.
The ISO 4217 - code for the Philippine peso is PHP. 2. Delay the passer by some excuse, if possible, without risking harm.
The Philippine Peso - commonly called piso (Filipino) or peso (English and 3. Observe and record the passer’s appearance and that of his/her companion/s.
Spanish) is the currency of the Philippines. It is subdivided into 100 sentimo (English 4. Note the license plate number and make of the passer’s car.
and Spanish: centavos). 5. Place the note in a protective envelope.
Republic Act No. 265 - created the Central Bank of the Philippines (CBP, now the
Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas) on January 3, 1949, in which was vested the power of Pertinent Laws and Regulations to Protect and maintain the Integrity of the
administering the banking & credit system of the country. Currency
1. Article 163, Revised Penal Code (RPC). Making and importing and uttering
On May 1, 1852, the first commercial bank of the Philippines, El Banco Español (issuing or circulating) false coins.
Filipino de Isabel 2A issuing the following denominations initially 10, 25, 50 and
200 pesos fuertes (strong pesos). They were used until 1896.

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 31 of 36

2. Article 166, Revised Penal Code (RPC). Forging treasury or bank notes or other Cleveland D 4
documents payable to bearer; importing, and uttering (issuing or circulating) such Richmond E 5
false or forged notes and documents. Atlanta F 6
3. Article 168, Revised Penal Code (RPC). Illegal possession and use of false Chicago G 7
treasury or bank notes and other instruments of credit. St. Louis H 8
4. Article 176, Revised Penal Code (RPC). Manufacturing and possession of Minneapolis I 9
instruments or implements for falsification. Kansas City, MO J 10
5. PD 247 – Defacement, mutilation, tearing, burning or destruction of Central Bank Dallas K 11
(BSP) notes and coins. San Francisco L 12
6. Chapter II, Circular 61, Series of 1995. Reproduction and/or use of facsimiles of
legal tender Philippine currency notes. It's the Law
7. Chapter III, Circular 61, Series of 1995. Reproduction and/or use of facsimiles Manufacturing counterfeit United States currency or altering genuine currency
of legal tender Philippine currency coins. to increase its value is a violation of Title 18, Section 471 of the United States Code
and is punishable by a fine or imprisonment for up to 15 years, or both. Possession of
Paul Revere - made the first plates for this "Continental Currency." counterfeit United States obligations with fraudulent intent is a violation of Title 18,
Section 472 of the United States Code and is punishable by a fine or imprisonment
Federal Reserve Seal for up to 15 years, or both. Anyone who manufactures a counterfeit U.S. coin in any
Prior to Series 1996, each Federal Reserve Note bears a regional seal at the denomination above five cents is subject to the same penalties as all other
left of the portrait. This seal, printed in black, bears the name of the issuing Federal counterfeiters. Anyone who alters a genuine coin to increase its numismatic value is
Reserve Bank and the letter designating the Federal Reserve district in which that in violation of Title 18, Section 331 of the United States Code, which is punishable
bank is located. by a fine or imprisonment for up to five years, or both. Forging, altering, or
On notes of the 1950 series and later, the black Federal Reserve regional seal is trafficking in United States Government checks, bonds or other obligations is a
smaller than earlier designs and is surrounded by sharp points. Starting with the 1996 violation of Title 18, Section 510 of the United States Code and is punishable by a
series Federal Reserve notes, a new universal seal represents the entire Federal fine or imprisonment for up to 10 years, or both. Printed reproductions, including
Reserve system. A letter and number below the upper left serial number identifies the photographs of paper currency, checks, bonds, postage stamps, revenue stamps, and
issuing Federal Reserve Bank. securities of the United States and foreign governments (except under the conditions
previously listed) are violations of Title 18, Section 474 of the United States Code.
Federal Reserve Bank Letter Number Violations are punishable by a fine or imprisonment for up to 15 years, or both.
Boston A 1
New York City B 2
Philadelphia C 3

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 32 of 36

What is Photography? 6. Supplemental equipment’s which will increase efficiency such as tripod,
Photography is the art or process of producing image of objects by the action camera stand, filters, extension tubes, cable release, lens hood, flood light,
of light on sensitive surface with the aid of images forming device known as camera level, etc.
process involve therein.
General Guide in the Correct Lighting for Erasures:
What is the origin of word photography? The correct lighting for deciphering erasures is determined by experiment. As
Photography, method of picture making developed in the early 19th century, a general guide these steps should be tried:
based on principles of light, optics, and chemistry. The word photography comes 1. Ordinary Lighting. Obviously, the first step is to look at the document by
from Greek word PHOTO which means LIGHT and GRAPHY which means – to ordinary reflected light.
DRAW. 2. Side Lighting. Try lighting from various angles. An extremely oblique angle
will often be found useful. If some particular light and viewing angle make the
General Classes in the Photography of Questioned Documents erasure visible, duplicate setup for the camera.
Sansone stated that the Photography of questioned documents can be divided 3. Transmitted Light. Look at the document with the light coming through it.
into two general classes: Turn the document over and repeat.
1. Documents where it is obvious that an erasure or visible alteration has taken 4. Magnification. Examine the paper with a magnifier, such as a hand glass or a
place, and low-power binocular microscope. Magnifications up to about 10x are most
2. Document which appear satisfactory, but where forgery by alteration is useful.
suspected. 5. Polarized Light. Light the document with polarized light, using a Kodak
Generally, photographing of document is the vital importance in the Pola-Light, for example, Examine it through a Kodak Pola-Screen.
establishment of proofs in questioned document cases. A permanent record of it can 6. Filters. Look at the document through various filters-either separate filters or
be considered indispensable to a successful examination and presentation of the case the viewing filters in the Kodak Master Photoguide.
in court. To meet this requirement the document photographer should have a wide
photographic knowledge, training and experience. He should be aware of the Chemical Methods
fundamental operational capabilities and limitation in the areas of: An erasure can be brought up with iodine fuming. Iodine fuming is a general
1. Films procedure includes:
2. Lighting 1. Reveals the presence and extent of an erasure;
3. Lighting Equipments 2. Restores some of the writing, and
4. Type of Cameras Available for the specific purpose 3. Delineates any area that had previously been wet.
5. Types of Lenses suited for the given cases

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 33 of 36

Different Methods in Document Photography c. Ultraviolet Fluorescence Photography – basically, fluorescence
1. Transmitted Light Photography – used in the examination of watermarks photography is almost as simply as many other kinds of visible light
and furnishes a method of determining the identity or the difference in paper photography. All black and white films and all color films can be used, and
by showing arrangement of the fibers and the markings of the wire gauze and generally speaking color is better than black and white for fluorescence
dandy-roll. Photograph by transmitted light will also clearly the uneven photography. High speed Ektachrome is good Panchromatic film in black and
distribution of ink in interrupted strokes and the presence of the added ink in white. The filter most often used is the Wratten 2B in color and K2 (yellow)
retouched strokes. OR g (orange) filters in black and white works.
2. Photomicrography – the process of obtaining photographs of magnified 4. Infra-Red Photography – define as taking a picture with infrared rays by
images of small subject is known as photomicrography. It has a wide means of a camera loaded with film sensitive to infrared radiations. However,
application in many fields where the minutes scrutiny of an object is necessary infrared pictures often, are produced without a camera and they are also taken
and a court exhibit of a magnified image is needed. sometimes with films that are not sensitive to infrared radiations.
a. Low-Power Photomicrography – also called macrophotography or a. Straight Infra-red Photography – “straight” to mean exhibiting no deviation
photomicrography, normally carried on by simply using a short focal length from what is accepted as usual or normal photograph undertaken using
lens on a camera with a long extension tube or below. infrared film in an ordinary camera with an infrared filter over the camera lens
b. High-Power Photomicrography – ordinary requires the use of a lensless or any light source. (Wratten 87 or A & F Filters)
camera attached to a compound microscope. The image produced by the lens b. Indirect Infrared Photography – it is possible to take infrared pictures
system of the microscope simply is projected upon the film in the camera. indirectly that are very similar to those obtained by the straight techniques
3. Ultra-Violet Photography – in the radiant energy spectrum between the x- using infrared film. One method uses a device called an image converter. The
ray band and the visible light band and adjoining the latter at its violet end is a image is transformed into a visible light image on the fluorescent screen of the
band of rays known as ultraviolet. Photographs made by using ultraviolet rays converter can be observed visually and photographed with any camera loaded
as the light source sometimes reveal physical or chemical differences in with fast Panchromatic film; it is not necessary to use infrared film.
subjects that are undetectable by any type of photography. 5. Infrared Luminescence Photography – luminescence is the process of
a. Straight Ultraviolet Photography – is a method of taking a picture in which taking picture of a subject that is emitting or giving out invisible radiations in
a camera is used to record the difference in a subject reflection, transmission the long wavelength extending into infrared region.
or absorption of ultraviolet rays in much the same manner as in light 6. Digital Photography – digital photography is defined by storing images on
photography. computer memory or floppy disc instead of film, digital cameras bypass film
b. Ultraviolet Luminescence Photography – is the process of taking a picture processing by displaying images immediately when connected to computer.
of a subject that is emitting or giving out invisible radiations in the long wave As digital photography phenomenon gains momentum, the number of digital
ultraviolet region (3500A to 4000) while it is being irradiated by external camera manufactures has increased. This category of digital camera would
short wave ultraviolet rays (2500 to 3500A) include the Apple, Quicktake, Casio, Chinon and Kodak.

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 34 of 36

 Digital Camera – contain computed chips that store visual images. By 3. The classification, or group comparison, of words, or parts of extended
marrying the camera and computer, images can be viewed, edited, or added to writing or portions of signatures or other writing.
documents. Transferring the images frees up the camera’s memory allowing 4. The disability of transmitted light photograph of disputed documents or
an endless supply of digital film. writing with similar photograph of a standard writing similar in kind.
5. In traced forgery cases the photographing of disputed signature with the
CCD Camera – Charged Coupling Device (CCD) chips capture an image in an array model from which it was traced if model is found, and the printing of
of a fixed number of pixels. The chip is charged with electricity, light strikes the photograph of forged signature and model signature or separate transparent
array, and the brightness of each pixel is recorded by software. films, or oiled, paper and also photographing those signature under ruled
squares slightly enlarged to show suspicious identity by this method as well as
Difference between Conventional and Digital Photography by the use of the transparent films or print.
EXPOSURE ----------------- CAPTURE 6. Possible use of stereoscopic illustrations showing retouching, overwriting
PROCESS ------------------- MANAGE mark of nib points, line crossing, erasures, overwriting, over folds in paper, or
PRINT ------------------------ OUTPUT any third dimension characteristic.
7. The size of photographs to be used, whether 8x12, or 11 x 14 and also
Advantage of Digital Computer Photography whether they are to be arranged in loose-leaf album form or separately in
1. Immediately Available Images fortfolio.
2. No Darkroom and Chemical Needed 8. The use of large bromide enlargements.
3. Quality, Good Enough to Very Good
4. Images Can Be Transmitted Importance of Photography for Court Presentation
5. Option Depend On Your Camera 1. The writing in questioned can be accurately enlarged so that every quality and
6. Color Balances, Saturation, Contrast Easily Changed characteristics of it can be clearly and properly interpreted whether the facts
7. Limited Options so shown point to genuineness or to forgery.
8. Costly, Needs Computer and Printer 2. To provide any number of accurate reproductions of writing in questioned,
9. Requires Computer Expertise thus affording unlimited opportunity for study, comparison and investigation
by any number of examiners, which would not be possible by using the
Requirements in the Preparation of Photographic Illustration original document in questioned.
1. The number and dates of standards signatures to be photographed in 3. Photographic duplicate, and especially enlargements, also enable court and
connection with disputed document or the disputed signature. jury to understand and weight the technical testimony given by an expert
2. The degree of greatest enlargement of the disputed, document or of the regarding their finding.
disputed signature, and of the accompanying standard writings that are to be 4. Photographs can be cut apart as may be desirable and the various parts
enlarged. classified for comparison.

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 35 of 36

 5. Photographs are also useful in showing delicate discoloration’s due to
chemical erasures or other fraudulent changes otherwise might be overlook,
denied or misinterpreted.

Steps in the Preparation for Trial

1. Original notes obtained from client interviews.
2. Investigation reports.
3. Written discovery.
4. Depositions.
5. Medical records.
6. Information from experts

Review Notes in Questioned Documents prepared Prof. Richard T. Camara Page 36 of 36