PSYC312

Study Unit 3.3 & 3.4: Quantitative Sampling and Data

Collection
Leereenheid 3.3 & 3.4: Kwantitatiewe Steekproef en
Data-insameling
Lecturer/Dosent: Dr Ingrid Opperman
Office/Kantoor: Potchefstroom Campus, E8, G16
Consulting Hours/Spreekure: By Appointment/Per afspraak
Learning Outcomes: Sections 3.3. and 3.4.
Leeruitkomste Afdelings 3.3. en 3.4.
• Identify and describe the • Identifiseer en beskryf die eienskappe
characteristics of quantitative van kwantitatiewe steekproef-
sampling techniques and justify the tegnieke en verdedig die keuse van ʼn
choice of a specific sampling bepaalde steekproeftegniek
technique
• Beskryf en identifiseer die kernterme
• Describe and identify the key terms en beginsels verbandhoudend met
and principles related to quantitative kwantitatiewe vraelyste en
questionnaires and psychometric psigometriese toetse
tests
• Beskryf en identifiseer die
• Describe and identify the different verskillende skale van meting,
scales of measurement, concepts of konsepte van betroubaarheid en
reliability and validity, and types of geldigheid, en tipes norme
norms (stanine, sten, and percentile) (standaard nege (stanine), standaard
in psychometric tests tien (sten), en persentiele) in
psigometriese toetse
• Describe the differences between
different methods of quantitative • Beskryf die verskille tussen
data collection verskillende metodes van
kwantitatiewe data-insameling
• Describe the different phases of • Beskryf die verskillende fases van
psychometric test development psigometriese toetsontwikkeling
Study Materials
Studiemateriaal
• Please refer to the readers sections • Verwys asseblief na die leesbundels-
available on eFundi for further afdelings wat op eFundi beskikbaar is
prescribed materials, primarily vir verdere voorgeskrewe materiaal,
focusing on quantitative sampling wat primêr fokus op kwantitatiewe
and data collection. This information steekproef en data-insameling.
is examinable. Hierdie inligting kan in die eksamen
voorkom.
• Chapter 10, sections 10.2.1 and 10.3
on probability sampling methods and • Hoofstuk 10, afdelings 10.2.1 en 10.3
sample size considerations oor waarskynlikheidsteekproef-
metodes en oorwegings vir grootte
• Additional: The sections of Foxcroft van steekproewe
and Roodt on tests, testing, and
assessment, the levels of • Addisioneel: Die afdelings van
measurement, reliability and validity, Foxcroft en Roodt oor toetse,
norm groups, the interpretation of toetsing, en assessering, die vlakke
norm-referenced tests, and van meting, betroubaarheid en
psychometric test development as geldigheid, normgroepe, die
indicated in the study guide and on interpretasie van norm-verwysde
eFundi toetse, en psigometriese
toetsontwikkeling
Sampling and Population in Psychological
Research / Steekproef en Populasie in
Psigologiese Navorsing
Sampling and Generalization in Quantitative
Research / Steekproef en Veralgemening in
Kwantitatiewe Navorsing

• Qualitative research: In- • Kwalitatiewe navorsing:

depth information from a In-diepte inligting vanaf ʼn
small group of people klein groep mense
• Quantitative research: • Kwantitatiewe navorsing:
Broad scale, specific breedskaalse, bepaalde
information which can be inligting wat
generalized veralgemeen kan word
• Quantitative research • Kwantitatiewe navorsing
uses probability gebruik waarskynlikheid-
sampling to ensure that steekproef om te
the sample reflects the verseker dat die
characteristics of the steekproef die eienskappe
population van die populasie
weerspieël
Generalization: Probability Sampling
Veralgemening:
Waarskynlikheidsteekproef

Sample / Steekproef: Probability sampling / Population / Populasie:

•Group of people which Waarskynlikheidsteekproef •Large group of people with
represents the population /
•For the sample to accurately similar characteristics / Groot
Groep mense wat populasie
reflect the population, it must be groep mense met soortgelyke
verteenwoordig
diverse / Om die populasie eienskappe
•Same characteristics as
akkuraat te weerspieël, moet •Group from which the sample is
population / Dieselfde
steekproef divers wees taken (drawn) / Groep waaruit
eienskappe as populasie
•The researcher should not steekproef geneem is (getrek is)
•Representative: What is true for
influence who is in the sample / •People about whom the
the sample is true for the
Navorser behoort nie te researcher draws conclusions /
population / Verteenwoordigend:
beïnvloed wie in die steekproef is Mense waaroor die navorser
wat waar is vir die steekproef, is
nie gevolgtrekkings maak
waar vir die populasie
Simple Random Sampling /
Eenvoudige Lukraak Steekproef
• Any person in the population has • Enige persoon in die populasie
an equal chance of being het ʼn gelyke kans om vir die
selected to be in the sample steekproef gekies te word
• The sample must be large • Die steekproef moet groot
enough to be generalizable genoeg wees om veralgemeen te
(allow for statistical inference) kan word (maak voorsiening vir
statistiese afleiding)
• If 200 random people are
selected from a population of • Indien 200 lukraak mense gekies
1,000 then it is likely (probable) is uit ʼn populasie van 1,000, is dit
that they will represent the waarskynlik dat hulle die omvang
scope of characteristics van eienskappe sal
• Important: Define the verteenwoordig
parameters (requirements / • Belangrik: Definieer die
characteristics) of the population parameters (vereistes /
clearly to avoid too much eienskappe) van die populasie
diversity being required duidelik om te verhoed dat te
veel diversiteit vereis word
Conducting Simple Random Sampling
/ Doen Eenvoudige Lukraak Steekproef
• Define the population: The • Definieer die populasie:
population must have clear Populasie moet duidelike
characteristics eienskappe hê
• Determine the required • Bepaal die vereiste
sample size based on the steekproefgrootte op grond
population and intended van die populasie en beoogde
analysis analise
• Conduct a random process of • Voer lukraak proses van
selecting potential selektering van moontlike
participants deelnemers uit
• Lotteries of known contacts • Loting van bekende kontakte
• Random number generator of
some identifier • Lukraak aantal generator van een of
ander identifiseerder
• Approach participants and • Nader deelnemers en samel
gather data data in
Simple Random Sampling in Practice: Challenges /
Eenvoudige Lukraak Steekproef in Praktyk:
Uitdagings
• A researcher wants to measure the • ʼn Navorser wil die emosionele
emotional intelligence of isiXhosa intelligensie van isiXhosa-vroue in ʼn
females in a specific rural village bepaalde landelike dorpie meet
• 8,000 females live in the village and • 8,000 vroue woon in die dorpie en 800 vroue
800 females (10%) should take the (10%) behoort die toets vir emosionele
emotional intelligence test intelligensie af te lê
• How can a simple random sample be • Hoe kan ʼn eenvoudige lukraak
obtained? steekproef verkry word?
• Is it random if the researcher just • Is dit lukraak indien die navorser net 800 vroue
approaches 800 females or is this nader, of is hierdie gerieflikheidsteekproef?
convenience sampling?
• If the researcher used the village • Indien die navorser die dorpie se sensusopname
census to contact 800 females, but gebruik het om 800 vroue te kontak, maar hulle
they have to agree to take the moet instem om die assessering te neem, sal
assessment would them choosing not hulle keuse om dit nie te neem nie, iets anders
to take it say something else about sê oor hulle emosionele intelligensie?
their emotional intelligence? • Soortgelyke uitdagings is van
• Similar challenges apply to all forms toepassing op alle vorms van lukraak
of random sampling steekproef
Stratified Sampling /
Gelaagde/meerlagige Steekproef
• Random sampling which ensures • Lukraak steekproef wat verseker dat
that “groups” are correctly or equally “groepe” korrek of gelykwaardig
represented verteenwoordig word
• Example: Select a random sample of • Voorbeeld: Kies ʼn lukraak steekproef
100 males and 100 females instead van 100 mans en 100 vroue in plaas
of 200 random people van 200 lukraak mense
• Larger populations often have • Groter populasie het dikwels
specific proportions (e.g., 75% of bepaalde proporsies/verhoudings
engineering students are male or (bv., 75% van ingenieurswese-
60% of psychology students are studente is manlik of 60% van
female) psigologiestudente is vroulik)
• Reflect the proportions in the • Weerspieël die verhoudings in die
population (proportionate stratified populasie (proporsionele gelaagde
sampling) steekproef)
• Ensure that groups in the population • Verseker dat groepe in die populasie
are equally represented gelykwaardig verteenwoordig is
Example of Stratified Sampling /
Voorbeeld van Gelaagde
Steekproef
• A sample of 500 psychology • ʼn Steekproef van 500
students is required and 60% psigologiestudente word
of psychology students are vereis en 60% van
female psigologiestudente is vroulik
• Stratified: A random sample of • Gelaag: ʼn Lukraak steekproef
300 females (60% of 500) and van 300 vroue (60% van 500)
200 males (40% of 500) en 200 mans (40% van 500)
• The sample is accurately • Die steekproef is akkuraat
representative of verteenwoordigend van
characteristics (random) and eienskappe (lukraak) en
proportions proporsies/verhoudings
• The researcher could also • Die navorser kon ook verseker
ensure that 250 males and dat 250 mans en 250 vroue
250 females are selected to gekies word om te verseker
ensure that they are equally dat hulle gelykwaardig
represented verteenwoordig is
Conducting Stratified Sampling /
Uitvoering van Gelaagde
Steekproef
• The stratified sampling • Die gelaagde
process is similar to steekproefproses is
simple random soortgelyk aan
sampling: Define the eenvoudige lukraak
population, determine steekproef: Definieer
the sample size, die populasie, bepaal
approach participants die steekproefgrootte,
• Deliberately (randomly) nader deelnemers
select the required • Kies die vereiste aantal
number or proportions of
proporsies/verhoudings
doelbewus (lukraak)
Systematic Sampling /
Sistematiese steekproef
• Every nth person in the population is • Elke negende persoon in die
included in the sample populasie is ingesluit in die
steekproef
• If a large enough sample is drawn,
then the population should be fully • Indien ʼn groot genoeg steekproef
represented getrek word, behoort die populasie
ten volle verteenwoordig te wees
• Simpler to conduct than simple
random sampling which uses random • Eenvoudiger om uit te voer as
numbers and/or random number eenvoudige lukraak steekproef wat
generators lukraak nommers en/of lukraak
nommer generators gebruik
• Allows for ordering of participants
(e.g., by age) to provide a full scope • Maak voorsiening vir ordening van
of the population with random deelnemers (bv. per ouderdom) om ʼn
selection volledige spektrum van die populasie
• Not the same as stratified sampling te verskaf met lukraak keuse
where there is equal representation! • Nie dieselfde as gelaagde steekproef nie, waar
daar gelykwaardige verteenwoordiging is!
Conducting Systematic Sampling /
Uitvoer van Sistematiese
Steekproef
• Suppose the researcher is • Veronderstel die navorser
using telephonic surveys and gebruik telefoniese
has a list of 1,000 numbers ondersoeke en het ʼn lys van
• Take every 10th number on the 1,000 nommers
list • Neem elke tiende nommer op
• Challenge: Is the list of 1,000 die lys
numbers not actually a • Uitdaging: Is die lys van 1,000
random sample of the nommers nie in werklikheid ʼn
population? lukraak steekproef van die
• Note: Sometime potential populasie nie?
participants are put into a • Neem kennis: Soms word
specific order (e.g., increasing moontlike deelnemers in ʼn
age) to ensure a broad range bepaalde volgorde geplaas
of representation (bv. toenemende ouderdom)
om ʼn breë spektrum van
verteenwoordiging te verseker
Cluster Sampling /
Groep/tros/kluster Steekproef
• The population is divided into groups based • Die populasie word in groepe verdeel op
on characteristics (e.g., geographical area) grond van eienskappe (bv. geografiese
gebied)
• A random sample is drawn (taken) from each
of the clusters • ʼn Lukraak steekproef word getrek (geneem)
uit elk van die groepe
• Each cluster is equally represented
• Elke groep word gelykwaardig
• Population size is reduced by randomly verteenwoordig
selecting a certain number of clusters then a
certain number of participants from those • Populasiegrootte word verminder deur ʼn
clusters sekere aantal groepe, dan ʼn sekere aantal
getalle van deelnemers uit daardie groepe
• Representation of the general area is
maintained • Verteenwoordiging van die algemene gebied
word behou
• More specific characteristics than stratified
sampling • Meer bepaalde eienskappe as gelaagde
steekproef
• Useful for very large, diverse populations
• Nuttig vir baie groot, diverse populasie
• Note: The sample is analyzed as a single
entity, not per cluster • Let wel: Die steekproef word ontleed as ʼn
enkele entiteit, nie per groep nie
Conducting Cluster Sampling /
Uitvoering van Groepsteekproef
• Define the population • Definieer die populasie
• Identify the characteristics • Identifiseer die kenmerke
of interest per group van belang per groep
• Divide the population into • Verdeel die populasie in
definable groups (clusters) definieerbare groepe
• Obtain a random sample of (klusters)
clusters • Verkry ʼn lukraak steekproef
• Obtain a random sample of van groepe
participants from each of • Verkry ʼn lukraak steekproef
the randomly chosen van deelnemers uit elk van
clusters die lukraak gekose groepe
• Collect data from the • Samel data van die
participants deelnemers af in
Example of Cluster Sampling /
Voorbeeld van Groepsteekproef
• Suppose a researcher wants to investigate • Veronderstel ʼn navorser wil ondersoek of
whether children the North-West province kinders in die Noordwesprovinsie in landelike
in rural areas attend school less consistently gebiede skool minder gereeld bywoon as
than children in urban areas kinders in stedelike gebiede
• There are vast differences in resources (e.g., • Daar is groot verskille in hulpbronne (bv.
transport) and school characteristics (e.g., vervoer) en skoolkenmerke (bv. fasiliteite) in
facilities) in different regions of the North- verskillende streke van die
West province, both rural and urban Noordwesprovinsie, landelik asook stedelik
• The researcher divides the province’s • Die navorser verdeel die provinsie se skole in
schools into clusters based on the resources groepe op grond van die hulpbronne en
and facilities available fasiliteite wat beskikbaar is
• The researcher randomly selects 8 of the 20 • Die navorser kies lukraak 8 van die 20
clusters the schools were divided into (e.g., 8 groepe waarin die skole verdeel is (d.i. 8
schools if 20 were available) skole indien 20 beskikbaar was)
• The researcher takes a random sample from • Die navorser neem ʼn lukraak steekproef uit
each of the clusters elk van die groepe
• This differs from stratified sampling because • Dit verskil van gelaagde steekproef omdat
the population is divided into groups or die populasie in groepe of gebiede verdeel
areas rather than ensuring it is is, eerder as om te verseker dat dit
proportionate proporsioneel is
Quantitative Data
Collection Methods /
Kwantitatiewe Data-
insamelingsmetodes
The use of different quantitative data collection methods and
their interpretation / Die gebruik van verskillende
kwantitatiewe data-insamelingsmetodes en die
interpretasie/vertolking daarvan
Quantitative Data Collection: Important Points /
Kwantitatiewe Data-insameling: Belangrike
Punte
• Quantitative data collection is • Kwantitatiewe data-insameling is
always numerical: Counting or altyd numeries: getel of gemeet
measuring • Die metode hou direk verband
• The method relates directly to met die navorsingsvraag (bv.
the research question (e.g., how watter aantal [getel], watter
many [counting], how much hoeveelheid [meting])
[measuring])
• Vergelykings en korrelasies vereis
• Comparisons and correlations gemiddeldes en tellings: meting
require averages and scores: • Metode van meting: hoe
Measuring numeries inligting verkry is
• Method of measurement: How • Vermoë tot veralgemening:
numerical information is Kwantitatiewe telling of meting
obtained moet dieselfde wees vir elke
• Generalizability: Quantitative deelnemer
counting or measuring must be
the same for every participant
Surveys and Psychometric Tests /
Ondersoeke en Psigometriese
Toetse
• Surveys include any numerical data • Ondersoeke sluit enige numeriese
collection data-insameling in
• Psychometric tests (psychological • Psigometriese toetse (psigologiese
assessments) are specific tests of assesserings) is bepaalde toetse van
psychological characteristics (e.g., psigologiese eienskappe (bv.
intelligence) intelligensie)
• Psychological characteristics are • Psigologiese eienskappe word
made up of constructs gevorm deur konstrukte
• To interpret a psychometric test, the • Om ʼn psigometriese toets te
test-taker needs to be compared to interpreteer, moet die toetsafnemer
the “normal” person vergelyk word met die “normale”
persoon
• To ensure comparisons are accurate,
the psychometric test must be • Om te verseker dat vergelykings
reliable and valid akkuraat is, moet die psigometriese
toets betroubaar en geldig wees
• Psychometric tests have various
purposes apart from research or in • Psigometriese toetse het verskeie
combination with research oogmerke benewens navorsing of in
kombinasie met navorsing
Characteristics of Surveys and Psychometric
Tests / Kenmerke van Ondersoeke en
Psigometriese Toetse

• Standardization: The same • Standaardisering: Dieselfde

for all participants vir alle deelnemers
• Same survey or test • Dieselfde ondersoek of toets
• Same method of • Dieselfde metode van
administration (including administrasie/bestuur (insluitend
instructions) instruksies)
• Required to generalize
• Vereis om te veralgemeen
• Validity: Measure what it is • Geldigheid: Meet wat
supposed to measure gemeet behoort te word
• Reliability: Measure what it • Betroubaarheid: Meet
is supposed to measure
consistently konsekwent wat gemeet
behoort te word
Specific Purposes of Psychometric Tests
Spesifieke Doelwitte van Psigometriese
Toetse
• Decision-making (e.g., careers, • Besluitneming (bv. loopbane,
recruitment, well-being, werwing, welstand,
interventions) intervensies)
• Identifying strengths and • Identifisering van sterk- en
weaknesses swak punte
• Understanding human • Begrip van menslike gedrag
behavior • Identifisering van terapeutiese
• Identifying therapeutic needs behoeftes
• Advancing research • Bevordering van navorsing
• Policy-making • Beleidskepping
• Understanding characteristics • Verstaan van eienskappe van
of people in the context of mense in die konteks van
research navorsing
Cautions in the Use of Psychometric Tests
Waarskuwings met die Gebruik van
Psigometriese Toetse
• Tests are only one source of • Toetse is slegs een bron van
information in a process inligting in ‘n proses
• E.g., job selection requires • Bv. werkskeuring vereis
assessment, a CV, and an assessering, ‘n CV en ‘n
interview onderhoud
• Tests have a specific purpose and • Toetse het ‘n spesifieke doel en is
are only useful for that purpose net nuttig vir daardie spesifieke
• Correct interpretation is required doel
• Appropriate norm group • Korrekte interpretasie word
comparisons vereis
• In context • Gepaste normgroepsvergelykings
• Test results are approximate due • In konteks
to standard error of • Toetsuitslae is benaderd/geskat
measurement (uncertainty) and as gevolg van die standaard fout
imperfect reliability and validity van meting (onsekerheid) en
onvolmaakte betroubaarheid en
geldigheid
Ways of Administering Questionnaires and Surveys
Wyses om Vraelyste en Opnames te
Bestuur/Administreer

• Written individual or group • Geskrewe individu of groep

• Face-to-face (verbal) • Aangesig-tot-aangesig
individual or group (verbaal) individu of groep
• Telephone • Telefoon
• Postal (…) • Pos
• E-mail • E-pos
• Note: Psychometric tests • Let wel: Psigometriese
are standardized and toetse is gestandaardiseerd
administered in person or en word persoonlik of via
via controlled software beheerde sagteware
bestuur
 Write a purpose statement which includes the research aim,
research design, sampling technique, and data collection
method (4) / Skryf ʼn doelstelling, wat insluit die
navorsingsdoel, navorsingsontwerp, steekproeftegniek, en
data-insameling

A researcher is investigating how frequently individuals

living in the Potchefstroom area use the bus (“never,”
“not often,” “often”). The researcher identifies a
population of 500 people and needs a sample of 100
people.

‘n Navorser stel ondersoek in na hoe dikwels individue

wat in die Potchefstroom-area woon die bus gebruik
(”nooit”, “nie dikwels nie”, “dikwels”). Die navorser
identifiseer ‘n populasie van 500 mense en benodig ‘n
steekproef van 100 mense.
This quantitative, descriptive study (1)…

…will use a random sample of 100 people

from the Potchefstroom area. (1)

The study will use a survey (1)…

… to collect categorical data (never, not

often, and often) to investigate how
frequently the participants use the bus (1)
Hierdie kwantitatiewe, beskrywende studie
(1)…

… sal lukraak steekproef van 100 mense uit

die Potchefstroomarea gebruik . (1)

Die studie sal ʼn opname gebruik (1)…

… om kategoriese data in te samel (nooit,

nie dikwels nie, en dikwels) om te
ondersoek hoe dikwels die deelnemers die
bus gebruik (1)
Think of and discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of in-person (verbal) or written (not in-person, e.g., e-
mail) surveys / Dink aan, en bespreek die voordele en
nadele van persoonlike (verbale) of geskrewe (nie
persoonlik nie, bv. e-pos) opnames/ondersoeke

A researcher is investigating how frequently individuals

living in the Potchefstroom area use the bus (“never,”
“not often,” “often”). The researcher identifies a
population of 500 people and needs a sample of 100
people.

‘n Navorser stel ondersoek in na hoe dikwels individue

wat in die Potchefstroom-area woon, die bus gebruik
(”nooit”, “nie dikwels nie”, “dikwels”). Die navorser
identifiseer ‘n populasie van 500 mense en benodig ‘n
steekproef van 100 mense.
In-person (verbal) questionnaires usually have
higher response rates because the interviewer
can find people in Potchefstroom themselves
and ask the question (1)…

…but they are also time consuming and

expensive because interviewers need to be
trained and take the time to collect responses
(1).

On the other hand, written (e.g., e-mail)

questionnaires (not in-person) are cheaper than
in-person (verbal) questionnaires and can be
sent to many more people (1)…

…but have a lower response rate and it might

not be possible to figure out whether the person
is living in Potchefstroom or know who
completed the survey (2).
Persoonlike (verbale) vraelyste het gewoonlik
hoër reaksiekoerse omdat die
onderhoudvoerder mense self in Potchefstroom
kan vind en die vrae vra (1)…

…maar hulle is ook tydrowend en duur omdat

onderhoudvoerders opgelei moet wees en dit
neem tyd om reaksies in te samel (1).

Andersyds, is geskrewe (bv., e-pos) vraelyste (nie

persoonlik nie) goedkper as persoonlike
(verbale) vraelyste en kan aan baie meer mense
gestuur word (1)…

…maar het ʼn laer reaksiekoers en dit kan dalk nie

moontlik wees om af te lei of die persoon in
Potchefstroom woon nie, of weet wie die
opname voltooi het nie2).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different
Data Collection Methods / Voordele en
Nadele van Verskillende Data-
insamelingsmetodes • Persoonlik, individueel:
• In-person, individual: • Tydrowend, duur
• Time consuming, expensive
• Beter reaksiekoers
• Better response rate
• Can be conducted verbally if participants are • Kan verbaal uitgevoer word indien deelnemers
illiterate ongeletterd is
• In-person, group: • Persoonlik, groep:
• Less time consuming and expensive • Minder tydrowend en duur
• Good response rate
• Participants may feel uncomfortable
• Goeie reaksiekoers
• Not suitable for sensitive topics • Deelnemers mag ongemaklik voel
• Researcher can be available • Nie gepas vir sensitiewe onderwerpe
• Remote • Navorser kan beskikbaar wees
• Less time consuming and expensive
• Poor response rate, but can access large • Afstand
numbers of participants • Minder tydrowend en duur
• Participants cannot ask questions
• Participants must be literate • Swak reaksiekoers, maar kan toegang verkry tot
groot aantal deelnemers
• Not always suitable for sensitive topics
• Deelnemers kan nie vrae vra nie
• Deelnemers moet geletterd wees
• Nie altyd gepas vir sensitiewe onderwerpe nie
Fundamentals of Measurement: Making
numerical survey or test responses usable /
Fundamenteel van meting: Maak numeriese
opname of toetsreaksies bruikbaar
• Measurement: The assignment of • Meting: Die toekenning van
numbers to characteristics or nommers aan kenmerke of
transformation of attributes into transformasie van eienskappe na
numbers nommers
• Level of measurement: Classification • Metingsvlak: Klassifikasie van
of values (what is measured) waardes (wat gemeet word)
• Accuracy: The precision with which • Akkuraatheid: Die presisie waarmee
an attribute can be measured – ‘n eienskap gemeet kan word –
different levels of measurement have verskillende metingsvlakke se
different accuracy akkuraatheid verskil
• Magnitude: Property of having a • Grootte: Eienskap van kwantiteit wat
quantity which can increase or kan verminder of vermeerder
decrease
• Gelyke intervalle: Verskil tussen die
• Equal intervals: Difference between nommers is altyd dieselfde
numbers is always the same
• Absolute nul: Absoluut niks van
• Absolute zero: Absolutely nothing of
Ways of measuring: Levels of Measurement /
Wyses van meting: Vlakke van Meting
• Quantitative measurement is always • Kwantitatiewe meting is altyd numeries
numerical
• Counting / frequency • Telling / frekwensie
• Interval / continuous (numbers, • Interval / deurlopend (getalle, meting van
measurement of quantity) hoeveelheid)
• Statistical analysis requires knowing the type • Statistiese analise vereis kennis van tipe
of measurement meting
• Levels of measurement are specific to what • Vlakke van meting is spesifiek tot watter
data is gathered data ingesamel is
• Measurement ranges from: • Meting strek vanaf:
• Frequencies / counting
• Counting in increasing order
• Frekwensies / telling
• Measuring in increasing order where • Telling in toenemende volgorde
mathematical operations can be conducted
• Measuring with mathematical operations • Meting in toenemende volgorde waar
where the construct (thing) could have wiskundige berekeninge gedoen kan word
absolutely nothing of it (rare in psychology)
• Meting met wiskundige bewerkings waar die
konstruk (ding) absoluut niks daarvan kan hê
nie (skaars in psigologie)
Categorical / Nominal and Ordinal
Measurement
Kategories / Nominale en Ordinale Meting
• Categorical/nominal • Kategories/ nominale meting
measurement (level 1) uses (vlak 1) maak gebruik van
discrete categories diskrete kategorieë
• Assigned to one category only • Toegeken alleenlik aan een
(e.g., Male/Female) kategorie (bv. Manlik/Vroulik)
• Gives some attribute an • Verleen ‘n eienskap aan ‘n
assigned value (e.g., blue = 1, toegekende waarde (bv. blou =
red = 2) 1, rooi = 2)
• Nominal – nominate a • Nominaal – nomineer ‘n
category kategorie
• Ordinal measurement (level 2) • Ordinale meting (vlak 2) maak
uses classification which gebruik van klassifikasie wat
increases in magnitude in grootte vermeerder
• Numbering is sequential • Nommering is opeenvolgend
• 1 = strongly dislike to 5 = • 1 = sterk afkeur tot 5 = sterk
strongly like voorkeur
Continuous Scale Measurement
Deurlopende Skaal Meting
• Interval measurement (level • Interval-meting (vlak 3)
3) • Numeriese meting waar
• Numerical measurement with grootte vermeerder
increasing magnitude • Gelyke intervalle
• Equal intervals • Bv. IK-tellings wat strek van 80
• E.g.,: IQ scores ranging from tot 140 waar ‘n verskil met 1
80 to 140 where a difference punt oral dieselfde is, maar
in 1 point is the same geen 0 moontlik is nie
anywhere but no 0 is possible • Ratio/Verhoudingsmeting
• Ratio measurement (level 4) (vlak 4)
• Numerical measurement with • Numeriese meting met
increasing magnitude and toenemende grootte en
absolute zero absolute nul
• Absolute zero: Absolutely • Absolute nul: Absoluut niks
nothing of the property van die eienskap nie (amper
(almost never in nooit in psigometrie nie)
psychometrics)
Which levels of measurement are the following?
Watter metingsvlakke is die volgende?
1. A researcher asks participants to mark how much they
like doing group work on a scale from 1 (dislike very
much) to 5 (like very much) / ‘n Navorser vra deelnemers
om te merk hoe baie hulle van groepwerk hou op ‘n skaal
van 1 (hou niks daarvan nie) tot 5 (hou baie daarvan)
2. A researcher measures aptitude for mathematics and
academic grades in a sample of accounting students / ‘n
Navorser meet aanleg vir wiskunde en akademiese
punte in ‘n steekproef wat bestaan uit rekeningkunde-
studente
3. A researcher observes participants as to whether they do
(“yes”) or do not (“no”) obey a sign telling them to use a
particular doorway / ‘n Navorser neem deelnemers waar
om te sien of hulle ‘n teken gehoorsaam (“ja”) of nie
(“nee”) wat hulle opdrag gee om ‘n spesifieke deur te
gebruik
 Developing A Psychometric
Test / Ontwikkeling van ʼn
Psigometriese Toets
Psychometric tests are the most common form of data collection in
psychological research. New tests are developed according to a specific set of
phases to ensure that they are of a good quality. /
Psigometriese toetse is die algemeenste vorm van data-insameling in
psigologiese navorsing. Nuwe toetse word ontwikkel volgens ʼn bepaalde stel
fases om te verseker dat hulle van goeie gehalte is.
The 7 Phases of the Development of a Psychological Measure
Die 7 Fases in die Ontwikkeling van ‘n Sielkundige Meting

Item Assembling Technical Final

Statistical Revising and
Planning (question) and pre- evaluation Measure:
item analysis standardizing
writing testing and norming Publishing

Tegniese
Skryf van Item Samestelling en Statistiese Hersiening en Finale Meting:
Beplanning evaluering en
(vraag) Voortoetsing Itemontleding Standaardisering Publisering
normering
Phase 1: Planning Steps
Fase 1 : Stappe van Beplanning
1. Specify the aim / purpose: 1. Spesifiseer die doel /
What the test will measure, doelwit: Wat die toets gaan
who will be tested, what meet, wie getoets gaan
norms will be used word, watter norme gebruik
2. Define the content of the gaan word
measure: What content 2. Definieer die inhoud van die
reflects the theory and meting: Watter inhoud
purpose (e.g., what is reflekteer die teorie en doel
“personality”) (bv. wat is “persoonlikheid”)
3. Develop the testing plan: 3. Ontwikkel die toetsplan:
What format will be used Watter formaat gaan
(how will the items look), gebruik word (hoe gaan die
the length, the time limit (if items lyk), die lengte, die
applicable) tydsbeperking (waar van
toepassing)
Phase 2: Item Writing
Fase 2: Itemskrywing
• Items reflect the operationalized • Items weerspieël die geoperasionali-
construct emanating from the seerde konstruk voortspruitend uit
planning phase die beplanningsfase
• Guidelines for effective wording: • Riglyne vir effektiewe bewoording:
• Clear and concise with no negative • Duidelik en bondig met geen
expressions (not always the case) negatiewe uitdrukkings nie (nie altyd
• Sufficient response options to die geval nie)
accurately measure the construct • Voldoende reaksie opsies om die
• Appropriate vocabulary konstruk akkuraat te meet
• One construct / topic per item (no • Gepaste woordeskat
double-barreled items) • Een konstruk / onderwerp per item
(geen dubbelsinnige items)
• Content: Relevant to the construct
(thing / content) measured and • Inhoud: Relevant tot die konstruk
appropriate (ding / inhoud) wat gemeet word en
van pas
• Content validity: Questions should
cover the entire construct (e.g., • Inhoud geldigheid: Vrae behoort die
everything about personality) hele konstruk te dek (d.i., alles oor
persoonlikheid)
• Culturally applicable
• Kultureel toepaslik
Phase 3: Assembling
Fase 3: Samestelling

Stage 3:
Assembling
Items
Fase 3:
Samestelling
van Items

Answer protocols
Antwoord
protokolle

Arranging and
Instructions and
Finalizing Length
Pre-testing
Rangskikking en
Instruksies en
Finalisering van
Voortoetsing
Lengte
Phase 4: Item Analysis
Fase 4: Itemanalise
• Content: • Inhoud:
• Serve the purpose of the test • Dien die oogmerk van die
• Contribute to measurement of toets
constructs • Dra by tot meting van
konstrukte
• Statistics:
• Difficulty • Statistiek:
• Discriminate between high • Moeilikheid
and low performers or high • Diskrimineer tussen hoë en lae
and low levels of construct presteerders of hoë en lae
(e.g., very extraverted versus vlakke van konstruk (bv., baie
very introverted [not ekstroverties versus baie
extraverted]) introverties [nie ekstroverties
• Bias between cultural groups nie])
(e.g., females tend to perform • Vooroordeel tussen kulturele
worse) groepe (bv., vroue is geneig
om swakker te presteer)
• Remove incorrect or poor
items • Verwyder onjuiste of swak
items
What problems exist with the following items?

1. An item measuring intelligence in children aged

6-8 years: If you are inclined to measure the
results of an athletics event based on the highest
three results, what percentage of results gives a
representative value?
2. An item to measure depression in any age
group: How often are you sad and wishing that
your life was different?
3. 95% of respondents in the pilot sample
answered the item in a graduate psychology
applications test correctly: What make a prime
number unique?
Watter probleme bestaan met die volgende items?

1. ‘n Item wat intelligensie in kinders wat 6-8 jaar

oud is, meet : As jy geneig is om die uitslae van
‘n atletiese item te meet gebaseer op die drie
hoogste uitslae, watter persentasie van uitslae
voorsien ‘n verteenwoordigende waarde?
2. ‘n Item om depressie in enige ouderdomsgroep
te meet: Hoe gereeld is jy hartseer en wens jy
jou lewe was anders?
3. 95% van respondente in die loods-steekproef het
die item in ‘n sielkunde-graad aansoek reg
beantwoord: Wat maak ‘n priemgetal uniek?
Phase 5: Revising and Standardizing
Fase 5: Hersiening en Standaardisering
• Select the final items • Kies die finale items
• Only effective items • Net effektiewe items
• Bias free • Sonder vooroordeel
• Problem items reworked or • Probleemitems oorgedoen of
removed verwyder
• Administration instructions • Bestuursinstruksies
standardized or set gestandaardiseer of vasgestel
• Test examples • Toetsvoorbeelde
• Instructions to administrators • Instruksies aan bestuurders
• Instructions to test takers • Instruksies aan hulle wat die toets
neem/voltooi
• Finalize materials required
• Paper / pencil, computer, etc. • Finaliseer vereiste materiaal
• Papier / potlood, rekenaar, ens.
• Permitted test settings
• e.g., group, supervised, etc. • Toegelate toetsstellings
• bv., groep, toesighoudend, ens.
Phase 6: Technical Evaluation
Fase 6: Tegniese Evaluasie
• Psychometric properties are evaluated • Psigometriese eienskappe word evalueer
(sien LE9)
• Reliability: is the test consistent?
• Cronbach’s alpha (internal consistency; • Betroubaarheid: is die toets konsekwent?
items measure the same thing) • Cronbach se alpha (interne konsekwentheid;
• Split-half reliability (internal consistency; items meet dieselfde ding)
items measure the same thing) • Gesplete-helfte betroubaarheid (interne
• Test-retest reliability (temporal consistency; konsekwentheid; items meet dieselfde ding)
over time) • Toets-hertoets betroubaarheid (temporale
konsekwentheid; met die verloop van tyd)
• Validity: does the test measure what it
should? • Geldigheid: meet die toets wat dit
• Content validity (the content is relevant and veronderstel is om te meet?
representative) • Inhoudsgeldigheid (die inhoud is relevant en
• Face validity (looks right) verteenwoordigend)
• Construct validity (the way the items group • Siggeldigheid (dit lyk reg)
into constructs and the constructs link to the • Konstrukgeldigheid (die manier waarop die
domain) items in konstrukte gegroepeer word en die
• Criterion validity (predictive of an outcome konstrukte koppel aan die domein)
or concurrent with an outcome) • Kriteriumgeldigheid (Voorspellend van ‘n
uitkoms of samelopend met ‘n uitkoms)
• Norming on a large group: Provide scores to
make comparisons and give meaning • Normering met ‘n groot groep: Voorsien
tellings om vergelykings te maak en
betekenis te voorsien
Phase 7: Publication and Marketing
Fase 7: Publikasie en Bemarking
• Toetshandleiding
• Test manual • Teoretiese inhoud
• Theoretical content • Teikenpopulasie
• Target population • Toediening: Praktiese inligting en instruksies
• Administration: Practical information and instructions • Psigometriese eienskappe en norm-tabelle of afsnywaardes
• Psychometric properties and norm tables or cut-off scores • Kulturele gepastheid en vooroordeel
• Cultural appropriateness and bias
• Klassifikasie / Kwalifikasies (LE11)
• Classification / Qualifications (SU11) • Vereistes om die toets te mag gebruik (bv., registrasie by die
• Requirements to be permitted to use the test (e.g., HPCSA)
registration with the HPCSA)
• Klassifikasie van die toets as “sielkundig”
• Classification of the test as “psychological”
• Toedieningskoste
• Administration costs
• Ongoing costs to administer the test • Deurlopende koste om toets te doen
• Initial costs to purchase the test • Aanvanklike koste om toets aan te koop

• Training costs • Opleidingskoste

• Training may be compulsory for some tests • Opleiding mag verplig wees vir sommige toetse

• Marketing • Bemarking
• Relevant practitioners become aware of the test • Relevante praktisyns word bewus van die toets
• Clear indication of intended use and population • Duidelike aanduiding van bedoelde gebruik en populasie
• Information regarding the test’s benefit to the • Inligting rakende die toets se voordeel tot die sielkundige
psychological community gemeenskap
• Frequent reworking of norms and items (if necessary) to • Gereelde herwerking van norme en items (as nodig) om deurlopende
ensure ongoing relevance of content, purpose, and
population relevansie van inhoud, doel en populasie te verseker
• Remove items with outdated terms (e.g., “fax machine”) • Verwyder items met verouderde terminologie (bv.,
“faksmasjien”)
• Ongoing research as the test is used
• Deurlopende navorsing soos die toets gebruik word
Phases of Development: Summary
Fases van Ontwikkeling: Opsomming
1. Planning: Aim, theory, content, 1. Beplanning: Doel, teorie, inhoud,
constructs konstrukte
2. Item writing and reviewing 2. Itemskrywing en –hersiening
3. Assembling the items 3. Samestelling van die items
(arrangement, length, response (rangskikking, lengte, respons-
mechanisms) and pre-testing meganismes) en voortoetsing
4. Item analysis: Difficulty, 4. Item-analise: Moeilikheidsgraad,
discrimination, bias, content diskriminasie, vooroordeel, inhoud
5. Revising / Standardizing: Revised 5. Hersiening / Standaardisering:
items and content, selecting the Hersiene items en inhoud, seleksie
final items, scoring procedures, van finale items,
finalizing intended norms bepuntingsprosedures, finalisering
van bedoelde norme
6. Technical evaluation: Reliability,
validity, norming 6. Tegniese evaluasie:
Betroubaarheid, geldigheid,
7. Publishing, marketing, and normering
classification
7. Publikasie, bemarking en
klassifikasie
Assessing the Quality of a
Psychometric Test /
Assessering van die Gehalte
van ʼn Psigometriese Toets
The quality of psychometric tests should be assessed before using it for research or any
other purpose. This is to ensure accurate, reliable, standardized, and useful
measurement. Although surveys do not have psychometric properties, they should still
be valid and reliable. /
Die gehalte van psigometriese toetse behoort geassesseer te word voordat dit vir
navorsing of enige ander doel gebruik word. Dit is om akkurate, betroubare,
gestandaardiseerde, en nuttige meting te verseker. Hoewel opnames nie psigometriese
kenmerke het nie, behoort hulle steeds geldig en betroubaar te wees.
Reliability & Validity of Psychometric Tests
Betroubaarheid & Geldigheid van
Psigometriese Toetse
• Validity: Measures what it is supposed to • Geldigheid: Meet wat veronderstel is om
measure (accuracy) gemeet te word (akkuraatheid)
• Content: The “subject matter” reflects the • Inhoud: Die “vakinhoud” weerspieël die
purpose oogmerk
• Face: The test looks right • Voorkoms: Die toets lyk reg
• Construct / Factorial: The structure of the • Konstruk / Fakulteit: Die struktuur van die
test reflects the theory behind it toets weerspieël die teorie onderliggend
• Convergent and divergent validity: Relates daaraan
(convergent) or does not relate (divergent) • Konvergente/saamlopende en
to similar or different tests divergente/uiteenlopende geldigheid:
Verbandhoudend (konvergent) of nie
• Reliability: Measures consistently verbandhoudend (divergent) tot soortgelyke
• Internal consistency: Each item (question) in of verskillende toetse
the test relates to the total score • Betroubaarheid: Meet konsekwent
• Test-retest: The test score at time 1 is • Interne konsekwentheid: Elke item (vraag)
strongly related to the test score at time 2 in die toets hou verband met die totale
(see correlations) telling
• Split-half: Even numbered questions are • Toets-hertoets: Die toetstelling op tydstip 1
strongly related to the odd numbered is terk verwant aan die toetstelling op tydstip
questions (half the test is related to the 2 (sien korrelasies)
other half; see correlations)
• Deel-in-helfte: Gelyk genommerde vrae is
sterk verwant aan die ongelyk genommerde
vrae (helfte van die toets is verwant aan die
ander helfte; sien korrelasies)
Validity: Accuracy / Geldigheid: Akkuraatheid

The “subject matter” reflects the purpose / Die “vakgebied”

Content / Inhoud: weerspieël die oogmerk

Face / Voorkoms: The test looks right / Die toets lyk reg

The structure of the test reflects the theory behind it / Die

Construct / Factorial / Konstruk / Fakulteit: struktuur van die toets weerspieël die onderliggende teorie

Convergent and divergent validity / Konvergente Relates (convergent) or does not relate (divergent) to similar or
(saamlopende) en divergente (uiteenlopende) different tests / Verwant (konvergent) of is nie verwant
(uiteenlopend) m.b.t. soortgelyke of verskillende toetse nie
geldigheid :

Relates to some outcome (criterion) which reflects the construct

Criterion (Outcome) Concurrent and Predictive / (thing) being measured / Verbandhoudend met een of ander
Kriterion (Uitkoms) Konkurrent (gelyktydig) en uitkoms (kriterion) wat die konstruk (ding) wat gemeet word,
voorspelbaar weerspieël
Content Validity / Geldigheid van Inhoud
Face Validity / Geldigheid van Voorkoms
Construct / Factorial / Structural Validity /
Konstruk / Fakulteits / Strukturele Geldigheid
Constructs / Konstrukte
Correlation coefficients –
there should be a relationship
between the domain and all
the constructs it is made up of
/ Korrelasie koëffisiënt – daar
behoort verwantskap te wees
tussen die domein en al die
konstrukte waaruit dit
saamgestel is

Domain
 Convergent and Discriminant Validity /
Konvergente (saamlopende) en Diskriminante
(onderskeidende) Geldigheid
 Concurrent Criterion Validity /
Gelyktydige/gelyklopende Kriterion Geldigheid

Criterion Your Test

 Predictive Criterion Validity / Voorspellende
Kriterion Geldigheid

Your Test Criterion

Identify the correct types of validity for [1], [2], [3],
and [4]
Identifiseer die korrekte tipes geldigheid vir [1], [2], [3]
en [4]
Psychologists develop a test to Sielkundiges ontwikkel ‘n toets om
measure intelligence. The test is intelligensie te meet. Die toets is
based on theories of intelligence gebaseer op teorieë van intelligensie
and therefore has [1] validity. They en besit dus [1] geldigheid. Hulle
find that the test is closely bevind dat die toets nou korreleer
correlated to another test of met ‘n ander toets van intelligensie,
intelligence, and so it has [2] dus besit dit [2] geldigheid. Wanneer
validity. When they try to correlate
the test to a measurement of hulle die toets probeer korreleer met
personality, they find that the ‘n meting van persoonlikheid, vind
correlation coefficient is very small, hulle dat die korrelasie koëffisiënt
showing that the test also has [3] baie klein is, dit toon dat die toets
validity. Lastly, they find that ook [3] geldigheid besit. Laastens
statistics show that there are vind hulle dat statistiek toon dat daar
clearly three components in the duidelik drie komponente in die toets
test (sub-scales) which reflect the is (sub-skale) wat die teorie reflekteer
theory used to design the test. wat gebruik is om die toets te
Thus, the test has [4] validity. ontwerp. Dus besit die toets [4]
geldigheid.
Reliability: Consistency / Betroubaarheid:
Konsekwentheid

Internal consistency / Each item (question) in the test relates to the total
score / Elke item (vraag) in die toets hou verband
Interne konsekwentheid: met die totale telling

The test score at time 1 is strongly related to the

Test-retest / Toets- test score at time 2 (see correlations) / Toetstelling
op tydstip 1 hou sterk verband met toetstelling op
hertoets: tydstip 2

Half of the questions are strongly related to the

other half (e.g., questions 2,5,6 as a total score are
strongly related to questions 1,3,4 as a total score);
Split-half / Verdeel in Questions are usually divided by odd/even numbers
/ Helfte van vrae is sterk verwant aan ander helfte
helfte: (bv. Vrae 2,5,6 as totale telling is sterk
verbandhoudend met vrae 1,3,4 as totale telling);
vrae gewoonlik verdeel in onewe/ewe getalle.
Internal Consistency / Interne Konsekwentheid

Test Construct Total

Score
(Conscientiousness)
Konstruk totale telling
(Konsensieusheid)

All the items are correlated to the test total /

Al die items gekorreleer met toetstotaal

Item 1 score / telling Item 2 score / telling Item 3 score / telling Item 4 score / telling Item 5 score / telling
Test-retest Reliability / Toets-hertoets
Betroubaarheid
Split-half Reliability / Deel-in-helfte Betroubaarheid

<< Correlation
Coefficient
Are the following reliable and what type of
coefficient was calculated?
Is die onderstaande betroubaar en watter tipe
koëffisiënt is uitgewerk?

1. An IQ test is administered to the same people twice after a one-year

gap. The reliability coefficient is .500 / ‘n IK-toets word twee keer aan
dieselfde mense gestel na die verloop van ‘n jaar. Die
betroubaarheidskoëffisiënt is .500
2. A new personality test needs to be standardized. One group answers
all the odd numbered questions and another the even numbered
questions. The coefficient is .900 / ‘n Nuwe persoonlikheidstoets
moet gestandaardiseer word. Een groep beantwoord al die vrae wat
met ewe getalle genommer is en ‘n ander groep beantwoord die vrae
wat met onewe getalle genommer is. Die koëffisiënt is .900
3. A career guidance test measures 3 interests (Art, Science, Social
Welfare). The relationship between each item and the interest it
measures is calculated at .850 / ‘n Loopbaanvoorligtingtoets meet 3
belange (Kuns, Wetenskap, Sosiale Welsyn). Die verwantskap
tussen elke item en die belang wat dit meet word bereken by .850
 A test can seem “reliable”, but not valid – if a test is not valid it cannot be
reliable (how do you measure intelligence consistently if you are not measuring
intelligence?) / ʼn Toets kan “betroubaar” voorkom, maar nie geldig nie – indien
ʼn toets nie geldig is nie kan dit nie betroubaar wees nie (hoe meet jy
intelligensie konsekwent as jy nie intelligensie meet nie?)

SEEMS!
Interpreting Psychometric
Tests / Interpretasie van
Psigometriese Toetse
To effectively understand test scores in research interpretation of the raw score (the
actual score the person got) is required to give it meaning. Psychometric tests are
interpreted using norms. /
Om toetstellings in navorsingsinterpretasie/-vertolking van die ruwe telling (die werklike
telling wat die persoon behaal het) effektief te verstaan, word vereis dat daar betekenis
aan gegee word. Psigometriese toetse word vertolk deur norme te gebruik.
Norm Groups: Interpreting
psychometric tests
Normgroepe: Interpretasie/vertolking
van psigometriese toetse
• Norm group: Large group of • Normgroep: Groot groepe
scores/results which a score can tellings/uitslae waarmee ‘n
be compared to telling vergelyk kan word
• Comprised of many people’s • Bestaan uit baie mense se uitslae
results • Deel van standaardisering
• Part of standardization
• ‘n Telling kan met die gebruik van
• A score can be compared to a ‘n tabel vergelyk word om die
table to find the normed score genormeerde telling te kry
• Normed scores are used for • Genormeerde tellings word
comparisons; How the person gebruik vir vergelykings; Hoe die
compares to the “average” persoon vergelyk met die
person on the test “gemiddelde” persoon op die
• Norms give meaning to test toets
scores • Norme verleen betekenis aan
• Different types of norms exist toetstellings
(e.g., percentiles, sten scales) • Verskillende tipes norme bestaan
(bv. persentiele, sten-skale)
Types of norms
Normgroepe / -tipes
• Norms are based on the • Norme berus op die statistiese
statistical distribution of the verspreiding van die normgroep
norm group the score is waarmee die telling vergelyk
compared to word
• Stanine: 1 to 9 (e.g., 8 is an • Standaard nege (stanine): 1-9
above average level of the (bv., 8 is bogemiddelde vlak van
characteristic) die eienskap)
• Sten: 1 to 10 (e.g., 3 is a below • Standaard tien (sten): 1-10 (bv.,
average level of the 3 is onder gemiddelde vlak van
characteristic) die eienskap)
• Percentile: Greater than X • Persentiel: Groter as X
percentage of people in the norm persentasie van mense in die
group (e.g., a percentile of 80 normgroep (bv., ʼn persentiel van
indicates level of the 80 dui aan die vlak van die
characteristic is greater than 80% eienskap is groter as 80% van die
of the norm group) normgroep)
Norms based on the normal distribution
The percentages show the
percentage of the sample
(number of people) in each
section. For example, 68.26% of
people are between -1 and +1
standard deviations of the mean
(this is “average”)

The percentile scores show that

someone in the ~85th percentile
has a higher score than 84.1% of
the sample / population. This is
+1 standard deviation above the
mean

If you have a stanine score of 7

then you are above average (+1
standard deviation) and scored
better than about 84.1% of the
sample / population on the test.
Only 4% of people will have a
stanine of 1 (very low score) or 9
(very high score)
Norme gebaseer op die normale verspreiding

• Die persentasies toon die

persentasie van die steekproef
(aantal mense) in elke afdeling.
Byvoorbeeld, 68.26% mense is
tussen -1 en +1 standaard
afwykings van die middel (dit is
“gemiddeld”)

• Die persentiel tellings toon dat

iemand in die ~85ste persentiel
ʼn hoër telling het as 84.1% van
die steekproef / populasie. Dit
is +1 standaard afwyking bo die
middel

• Indien jy ʼn “stanine” telling van

7 het, is jy bo die gemiddeld (+1
standaard afwyking) en het
beter punte behaal as ongeveer
84.1% van die steekproef /
populasie in die toets. Net 4%
mense sal ʼn stanine van 1 (baie
lae telling) of 9 (baie hoë telling)
behaal
 Percentiles /Persentiele

Standard Ten
(STEN) Scores / STEN tellings
Which of the following demonstrates an
appropriate interpretation of a test score?

a. A score of 15 on an intelligence test is converted to

15% because the total is out of 100.
b. A score of 20 on an aptitude test designed for high
school graduates indicates that the person scored
better than 75% of primary school pupils.
c. A score of 50 on an intelligence test by a university
graduate indicates that the person is above average
in comparison to all university graduates who have
taken the test.
d. A score of 9 out of 10 interest in art means that the
individual is much more interested in art than many
other people who have taken the test.
Watter van die volgende demonstreer ‘n gepaste
interpretasie van ‘n toetstelling?
a. ‘n Telling van 15 vir ‘n intelligensietoets word
omgeskakel na 15% omdat die totaal uit 100 tel.
b. ‘n Telling van 20 op ‘n aanlegtoets wat ontwerp is vir
hoërskool-gegradueerdes toon aan dat die persoon
‘n beter punt behaal het as 75% van
laerskoolstudente.
c. ‘n Telling van 50 op ‘n intelligensietoets by ‘n
universiteit-gegradueerde toon aan dat die persoon
bogemiddeld is in vergelyking met alle universiteit-
gegradueerdes wat die toets afgelê het.
d. ‘n Telling van 9 uit 10 vir belangstelling in kuns
beteken dat die individu baie meer belangstel in
kuns as baie ander mense wat ook die toets afgelê
het.
 Mentimeter Quiz
(extra fast) / Mentimeter
Vasvra (ekstra vining)
Scales of measurement / Skale van meting
Psychological assessment characteristics / Psigologiese assesseringseienskappe
Reliability / Betroubaarheid
Validity / Geldigheid
Norms / Norme
 PSYC312

Study Unit 3.1 & 3.2: Introduction to Quantitative

Research and Quantitative Research Designs

Leereenheid 3.1 & 3.2: Inleiding tot Kwantitatiewe

Navorsing en Kwantitatiewe Navorsingsontwerpe
Lecturer/Dosent: Dr Ingrid Opperman
Office/Kantoor: Potchefstroom Campus, E8, G16
Consulting Hours/Spreekure: By Appointment/Per afspraak
Learning Outcomes: Sections 3.1. and 3.2.
Leeruitkomstes: Afdelings 3.1. en 3.2.
• Identify quantitative research- • Identifiseer kwantitatiewe
related problems and navorsingsverwante probleme
formulate quantitative en formuleer kwantitatiewe
research questions navorsingsvrae.
• Identify, describe, and apply • Identifiseer, beskryf en pas die
the characteristics of eienskappe van kwantitatiewe
quantitative research navorsing toe.
• Describe and understand the • Beskryf en verstaan die
positivist paradigm positivistiese paradigma.
• Identify, describe, and apply • Identifiseer, beskryf en pas die
the characteristics of the eienskappe van die
different quantitative research verskillende kwantitatiewe
designs to answer research navorsingsontwerpe toe om
questions navorsingsvrae te
beantwoord.
Study Materials
Studiemateriaal
• Please refer to eFundi for • Raadpleeg asseblief eFundi
an extensive list of the vir 'n uitgebreide lys van die
textbook chapters required handboekhoofstukke wat
for these study sections benodig word vir hierdie
• Please refer to the reader studieafdelings.
sections available on eFundi • Verwys asseblief na die
for further prescribed leesafdelings beskikbaar op
materials, primarily eFundi vir verdere
focusing on quantitative voorgeskrewe materiaal,
research designs. This wat hoofsaaklik fokus op
information is examinable. kwantitatiewe
navorsingsontwerpe.
Hierdie inligting is
eksamineerbaar.
The (Post)Positivist Paradigm
Die (Post)Positivistiese Paradigma
• Ontology: the world is • Ontologie: die wêreld is
a single, objective ‘n enkele, objektiewe
reality realiteit
• Epistemology: Facts are • Epistemologie: Feite is
legitimate claims from geldige bewerings
an impartial research vanuit onpartydige
• Methodology: navorsing
Numerical • Metodologie:
measurement (e.g., Numeriese meting (bv.
surveys or tests) and opnames of toetse) en
statistical data analysis statistiese data-analise
Positivist versus interpretivist paradigms
Positivistiese versus interpretivistiese paradigmas

Interpretivist /
(Post)Positivist
Social Constructivist
Realism Relativism

Single “real” world which is objectively Multiple realities which must be

measurable understood and explored

Generalization: What applies to the Patterns and ideas expressed by

sample applies to the population participants

Objective, quantifiable information Subjective information (opinions, ideas,

(numerical information) experiences)

Objective understanding: Numerical Subjective understanding: Qualitative

measurement and statistical analysis themes
Characteristics in Quantitative Research

Karaktereienskappe in Kwantitatiewe Navorsing

• Numerical data is used to answer the • Numeriese data word gebruik om die
research question objectively navorsingsvraag objektief te
beantwoord.
• Large, random samples which reflect
the population accurately • Groot, ewekansige steekproewe wat
die bevolking akkuraat weerspieël.
• Control: A specific variable (thing) or
characteristic is studied under a single • Beheer: 'n Spesifieke veranderlike
condition, not from multiple (ding) of eienskap word bestudeer
perspectives onder 'n enkele toestand, nie vanuit
meervoudige perspektiewe nie.
• Conclusions are drawn about the
sample and generalized to the • Gevolgtrekkings word getrek oor die
population using statistical analysis steekproef en gegeneraliseer na die
bevolking deur statistiese analise.
• Generalization: What applies to the
sample also applies to the population • Veralgemening: Wat op die steekproef
van toepassing is, is ook van toepassing
• Inference: You infer (conclude) op die bevolking.
something about the population from
the sample based on statistical analysis • Inferensie: U trek 'n gevolgtrekking oor
die bevolking vanuit die steekproef
gebaseer op statistiese analise.
Quantitative Research: Numerical Measurement

Kwantitatiewe Navorsing: Numeriese Meting

• Quantitative: Numerical • Kwantitatief: Numeriese

measurement meting
• Measurement of emotional • Meting van emosionele
intelligence to compare intelligensie om groepe te
groups vergelyk
• Numerical relationships • Numeriese verhoudings
between intelligence and tussen intelligensie en aanleg
aptitude for mathematics vir wiskunde
• Qualitative: In-depth • Kwalitatief: In-diepte
understanding begrip
• Rich description of • Ryke beskrywing van
experiences of working in ervarings van groepwerk in
groups during classes klasse
• Individual understandings of • Individuele begrip van hoe
how eating disorders affect eetversteurings die individu
the individual’s life se lewe affekteer
Types of Quantitative Data

Tipes Kwantitatiewe Data

• Continuous / Interval: • Continue / Interval:
Numerical measurement Numeriese meting wat
which is incremental (e.g., inkrementeel is (bv.
academic marks or scores) akademiese punte of
• Higher and lower
• Calculate an average (mean)
tellings)
• Hoër en laer
• Categorical: Division into • Bereken 'n gemiddelde
categories by counting (gemiddeld)
• Exclusive categories
(e.g., you are enrolled • Kategoriek: Verdeling in
for PSYC312 or you are kategorieë deur te tel
not – you cannot be in • Uitsluitlike kategorieë (bv. jy
both categories) is ingeskryf vir PSYC312 of jy
is nie - jy kan nie in beide
kategorieë wees nie)
The Quantitative Research Process

Measurement Conclusion
• Identify the research • Descriptive or
question inferential statistics
• Quantitative • What does the data
• Formulate the • Probability of being
(numerical) data say about the
hypothesis based on “right”
• Impartial data hypothesis? Is the
the question
research question
answered?
Research Statistical
question Analysis
 Die Kwantitatiewe
Navorsingsproses

Meting Gevolgtrekking
• Identifiseer die • Beskrywend of
navorsingsvraag inferensiële
• Kwantitatief statistieke • Wat sê die data oor
• Formuleer die (numeriese) data die hipotese?
hipotese • Waarskynlikheid om
• Onpartydige data “reg” te wees

Statistiese
Navorsingsvraag
Analise
Which is quantitative and which is qualitative?

Watter een is kwantitatief en watter een is

kwalitatief?

What are the differences that make one quantitative and one
qualitative?
Is there a relationship between student grades and how often they
attend class?
Do students believe that attending class results in higher grades?

Wat is die verskille wat een kwantitatief en een kwalitatief

maak?
Is daar ‘n verwantskap tussen studente se punte en hoe dikwels
hulle klas bywoon?
Glo studente dat klasbywoning beter punte as uitslag sal lewer?
Designing and Answering a Quantitative Research
Question

Die Ontwerp en Beantwoording van ‘n Kwantitatiewe

Navorsingsvraag

• All research has a specific • Alle navorsing besit ‘n

question and design spesifieke vraag en ontwerp
• Hypothesis: General expected • Hipotese: Algemene verwagte
outcome uitkomste
• Research question: The point • Navorsingsvraag: Die punt
of inquiry to answer van ondersoek om te
• Design: How the question can beantwoord
be answered numerically • Ontwerp: Hoe die vraag
• Analysis: What statistics will numeries beantwoord kan
be used word
• Analise: Watter statistieke
gebruik sal word
The Quantitative Hypothesis and Research
Question

Die Kwantitatiewe Hipotese en Navorsingsvraag

• Hypothesis: A deductively • Hipotese: ‘n Tentatiewe

derived tentative explanation verduideliking van die feite
of facts wat op ‘n deduktiewe manier
• Can be “tested” further using afgelei is
numerical data • Kan verder “getoets” word
• A focus of the study’s deur die gebruik van
investigation with a likely numeriese data
outcome • ‘n Fokus van die studie se
• Research question: The ondersoek met ‘n waarskynlike
uitkoms
question the research wants
to answer linked to the • Navorsingsvraag: Die vraag
hypothesis wat die navorsing wil
beantwoord gekoppel aan die
hipotese
Hypotheses vs. Research Questions: It is not always
compulsory to have a hypothesis – quantitative research can also be
exploratory

Hipoteses versus Navorsingsvrae: Dit is nie altyd verpligtend

om 'n hipotese te hê nie - kwantitatiewe navorsing kan ook verkennend
wees.
Hypothesis Research question
• Based on specific outcomes found in • Broadly based on the literature in
other literature general
• Predicts a likely or potential outcome • Asks a question about a topic without
presuming what the outcome could be
• Researcher focuses on stating if the
hypothesis is right/wrong (more • Researcher focuses on using data to
confirmatory?) answer the question in general (more
exploratory?)
• Researcher predicts direction or
difference • Researcher asks if there is a difference
• group 1 is higher than group 2; or a relationship
• when variable 1 increases, so • is one group’s average score
does variable 2 higher?;
• is there some sort of relationship
between variable 1 and variable
2?
Examples of Quantitative Research Questions & Hypotheses

Voorbeelde van Kwantitatiewe Navorsingsvrae & Hipoteses

• Students living in residences have • Studente wat in koshuise woon,

higher average scores on het 'n hoër gemiddelde tellings
PSYC312 vir PSYC312.
• Categorical data: Living in • Kategoriek data: Woon in 'n
residence (yes/no) koshuis (ja/nee)
• Interval (score) data: Scores on • Interval (telling) data: Tellings vir
PSYC312 where the average PSYC312 waar die gemiddelde
scores of the two groups are tellings van die twee groepe
compared vergelyk word
• Do children who are • Het kinders wat ondervoed is,
malnourished have different verskillende spoed van
speeds of cognitive kognitiewe ontwikkeling?
development? • Kategoriek data: Ondervoed
• Categorical data: Malnourished (ja/nee)
(yes/no) • Interval (telling) data: Spoed van
• Interval (score) data: Speed of kognitiewe ontwikkeling in punte
cognitive development in points wat geagregreer kan word om die
which can be averaged to twee groepe te vergelyk
compare the two groups
What is the hypothesis? What is the research
question?

Wat is die hipotese? Wat is die navorsingsvraag?

A researcher reads a book which states that women have higher

emotional intelligence than men.
‘n Navorser lees ‘n boek wat voorhou dat vrouens se emosionele
intelligensie hoër is as mans s’n.

Literature states that students with different home languages

interpret the word “permutation” differently and that this can be
measured by whether the interpretation is correct.
Literatuur hou dit voor dat studente met verskillende huistale die
word “permutasie” anders interpreteer en dat dit gemeet kan word
deurdat die interpretasie korrek is of nie.
What is the research question and what data
would be used?

Wat is die navorsingsvraag en wat data behoort

gebruik te word?
A researcher is studying the effects of number of minutes spent
studying on examination results.
‘n Navorser bestudeer die uitwerking van die hoeveelheid minute
gebruik vir studie op eksamenuitslae.

A researcher wants to find out what the most common difficulty

with getting to campus is. There are three options: transport, times
of classes, and location of campus. The students mark which
option applies to them.
‘n Navorser wil bepaal wat die algemeenste probleem is om op
kampus te kom. Daar is drie opsies: vervoer, klastye, en ligging
van kampus. Die studente toon aan watter opsie op hulle van
toepassing is.
Quantitative Research Designs
Kwantitatiewe Navorsingsontwerpe
Quantitative research designs have two main foci areas which are linked to the
type of data which will be required:
1. Comparing groups (categorical data) to see which has a significantly
higher or lower average score (interval data)
2. Looking for relationships between variables (both being scores / interval
data with no groups): When the scores on one variable get higher do the
scores on the other get higher or lower or is there no relationship?

Kwantitatiewe navorsingsontwerpe het twee hooffokusareas wat gekoppel is

aan die tipe data wat vereis sal word:
1. Vergelykings tussen groepe (kategoriese data) om te sien watter groep 'n
beduidend hoër of laer gemiddelde telling het (interval data).
2. Soek na verbande tussen veranderlikes (beide tellings / interval data
sonder groepe): Wanneer die tellings op een veranderlike hoër word, word
die tellings op die ander ook hoër of laer, of is daar geen verhouding nie?
Two Groups of Quantitative Research Designs

Non-experimental Experimental
Conclusion about how some
Conclusion about something as it
intervention (e.g., a workshop)
is right now
changed how things are

No interference from the Treatment or intervention

researcher implemented by the researcher

Conclude if some difference or Conclude whether something

relationship does or does not (treatment or intervention) did
exist or did not have an effect
Quantitative Research Designs: An Overview

Always Non-experimental
Descriptive What things are like right now

Always Non-experimental
Cross-sectional / Comparative Comparing groups’ (categorical) measurements or scores
(interval data) right now (at the present time)

Non-experimental or sometimes experimental

Longitudinal Is there change in scores (interval data) over a significant
period of time (e.g., a year)?

Always Experimental
Whether a control group has higher or lower scores (interval
Experimental / Quasi-experimental data) than an experimental group who received a treatment or
intervention

Non-experimental or sometimes experimental

Correlational Whether there is a relationship between two variables’ scores
(interval data)
Descriptive Designs

Beskrywende Ontwerpe
• Describe characteristics • Beskryf die eienskappe
of the sample van die steekproef:
• Categorical data (counts • Kategoriese data (tel in
in specific categories) spesifieke kategorieë)
and/or score data en/of telling data
(intervals) (intervalle)
• Number (count / • Aantal (tel / frekwensie)
frequency) in a category in 'n kategorie
• Proportion in a category • Proporsie in 'n kategorie
• Average for participants • Gemiddeld vir
in a category deelnemers in 'n
kategorie
 Number of % of
What sports are most
students Sample
popular with
university students?
Category 1: Swimming 50 11%
Students are asked to indicate
their favourite sport from the
five options given; they can only Category 2: Rugby 132 30%
have one favourite. The count of
participants is the number of
students. The proportion of
participants is the percentage of Category 3: Tennis 23 5%
students. Each participant can
only fall into one category.
Category 4: Cricket 99 22%
Studente word gevra om hul
gunsteling sport aan te dui uit die Category 5: Running 140 32%
vyf opsies wat gegee word; hulle
kan slegs een gunsteling hê. Die
telling van deelnemers is die Total 444 100%
aantal studente. Die proporsie
van deelnemers is die persentasie
van studente. Elke deelnemer kan
slegs in een kategorie val.
Descriptive Categories with Frequencies: Example

Beskrywende Kategorieë met Frekwensies: Voorbeeld

Most popular sports for university

students by category (n = 444)
Bar charts can show the 80%

count of participants in 70%

70%

each category. Bar 67%

charts are presented in 60%

the findings. 50%

50%

Staafdiagramme kan die 40%

telling van deelnemers 30%

in elke kategorie toon.
Staafdiagramme word 20%

in die bevindings
aangebied. 10%

0%
Category 1: Residence Category 2: Off-campus Category 3: With parents
Descriptive Categories with Frequencies: Example

Beskrywende Kategorieë met Frekwensies: Voorbeeld

Pie charts also show Most popular sports for university
what proportion of students by category (n = 444)
participants fall into
each category. The pie
chart is part of the
findings. 27%

36%

Piediagramme toon ook

watter proporsie
deelnemers in elke
kategorie val. Die
piediagram is deel van
die bevindinge.

37%
 Descriptive Designs with Scores: Average marks for PSYC per
category where students live

Beskrywende Ontwerpe met Tellings: Gemiddelde punte vir PSYC

per kategorie waarin studente woon

Average (mean) scores (e.g., PSYC Where live Average PSYC Mark
marks or test results) in a Category 1: Residence 67%
descriptive design. It does not Category 2: Off-campus 70%
draw conclusions about which
group has a significantly higher Category 3: With parents 50%
average score (that is a cross-
sectional or comparative design).
Tables and graphs are used in the Average PSYC Mark Per Category
findings.
CATEGORY 3: WITH PARENTS 50%
Gemiddelde (gemiddelde) tellings
(bv. PSYC-merke of toetsresultate) CATEGORY 2: OFF-CAMPUS 70%
in 'n beskrywende ontwerp. Dit
trek nie gevolgtrekkings oor CATEGORY 1: RESIDENCE 67%
watter groep 'n beduidend hoër
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
gemiddelde telling het nie (dit is 'n
dwarssnit- of vergelykende Category 1: Category 2: Off- Category 3: With
Residence campus parents
ontwerp). Tabelle en grafieke Average PSYC Mark 67% 70% 50%
word gebruik in die bevindinge.
Non-experimental: Comparative & Cross-sectional Designs

Nie-eksperimenteel: Vergelykende en Deursnee Ontwerpe

• Cross-sectional: Data are collected at a • Dwarssnit: Data word op 'n enkele punt in
single point in time tyd ingesamel
• Note: Cross-sectional data can also • Nota: Dwarssnitdata kan ook na die
refer to the sample (e.g., a cross- steekproef verwys (bv. 'n
sectional sample [data was collected dwarssnitsteekproef [data is op een punt in
at one point in time] was used to tyd ingesamel] is gebruik om 'n verhouding
investigate a relationship in a in 'n korrelatiewe ontwerp te ondersoek)
correlational design)
• Vergelyking van gemiddelde tellings tussen
• Some comparison of average scores twee/meer groepe gebaseer op 'n bestaande
two/more groups based on some existing verskil
difference
• Groups are categories • Groepe is kategorieë
• Scores are interval data which can be • Tellings is interval data wat geaggregeer kan
averaged word
• Does one group (category) have a higher or • Het een groep (kategorie) 'n hoër of laer
lower average score than another on the gemiddelde telling as 'n ander op die
variable of interest (what is measured / the veranderlike van belang (wat gemeet word /
scores) die tellings)
• Each group (category) has some unique • Elke groep (kategorie) het 'n unieke
property (e.g., biological sex, course of eienskap (bv. biologiese geslag, kursus van
study, level of education, ethnicity, etc.) studie, vlak van onderwys, etnisiteit, ens.)
The Cross-sectional / Comparative Design Components

Die Komponente van die Dwarssnit / Vergelykende Ontwerp

Research Question / Conclusion

Hypothesis • Does group 1 have a higher or
• Do these two groups differ lower average score on the
• Identify variable of interest – variable of interest than group 2?
what about these two groups • Focus on the differences between
differs? the groups themselves

Type of data
• Categorical data – two unique
groups need to be compared
• Interval data (scores) for the
variable of interest – the average
score for each group is compared
 Do children who play violent video games have higher scores on a
test of aggression (scores can be 1-50)?

Speel kinders wat geweldadige videospelle speel, het hoër tellings

op 'n toets van aggressie (tellings kan wees 1-50)?

Hypothesis from Measure:

literature Administer the test
of aggression
• Children who play violent
games will have higher • Score from 1 to 50 for
scores on the variable of each child
interest • interval data

Sample of children Compare

divided into two • Is the average score for
groups group1 higher or lower
than for group 2?
• Group 1: Play violent
• Higher: Hypothesis
video games (yes)
confirmed
• Group 2: Do not play
• Not higher or lower:
violent video games (no)
Hypothesis not
• Categorical data confirmed
Write a purpose statement which reflects the
study to be conducted.
Skryf 'n doelstellingsverklaring wat die studie
wat uitgevoer gaan word, weerspieël.
A researcher wants to find out whether children who play outside are
more often sociable than unsociable.
‘n Navorser wil bepaal of kinders wat buite speel meer dikwels gesellig as
ongesellig is.

A researcher assesses sociability using a questionnaire (score of 0-100

where 100 is most sociable) and wants to show what the average scores
are for children who play outside and children who play inside.
‘n Navorser assesseer geselligheid met die gebruik van ‘n vraelys (telling
van 0-100 waar 100 die mees gesellig is) en wil aantoon wat die
algemene telling vir kinders is wat buite speel en ook vir kinders wat
binne speel.
Example Purpose Statement:

Voorbeeld Doelstellingsverklaring:
This quantitative, comparative study will compare whether
children who play outside are more sociable than children who
play inside by using a questionnaire of sociability with scores
from 0-100. The average scores of sociability will be compared
for the two groups using a t-test to determine if the scores for one
group are higher than the scores for another.

Hierdie kwantitatiewe, vergelykende studie sal ondersoek of

kinders wat buite speel meer gesellig is as kinders wat binne
speel deur 'n vraelys van geselligheid met tellings van 0-100 te
gebruik. Die gemiddelde tellings van geselligheid sal vergelyk
word vir die twee groepe deur 'n t-toets te gebruik om te bepaal of
die tellings vir een groep hoër is as die tellings vir 'n ander.
Cross-sectional study comparing four types of tires by number of
miles driven

Dwarssnitstudie wat vier tipes bande vergelyk aan die hand van die
aantal myle gery
Cross-sectional study comparing reading scores for three types of
education programs

Dwarssnitstudie wat lees-tellings vergelyk vir drie tipes

onderwysprogramme.
What is the variable of interest? What would you draw a
conclusion about?

Wat is die veranderlike van belang? Waaroor sou jy 'n

gevolgtrekking maak?

A literature review showed 'n Literatuuroorsig het

that children who attended getoon dat kinders wat
pre-school have higher voorskoolse onderwys
intelligence test scores bygewoon het, hoër
than children who did not intelligensietoetstellings
attend pre-school. Based behaal as kinders wat nie
on this hypothesis, the voorskoolse onderwys
researcher gives an ontvang het nie. Gebaseer
intelligence test to 15-year- op hierdie hipotese, voer
olds and gets a history of die navorser 'n
their schooling from their intelligensietoets uit op 15-
parents. jariges en verkry 'n
geskiedenis van hul
skoolopleiding van hul
ouers.
What would you do (step by step) to answer the following cross-
sectional / comparative research question and hypothesis?

Wat sou jy doen (stap vir stap) om die volgende dwarssnit /

vergelykende navorsingsvraag en hipotese te beantwoord?

Research question: Do children Navorsingsvraag: Het kinders

living in rural areas have wat in landelike gebiede woon,
different levels of emotional verskillende vlakke van
intelligence than children living emosionele intelligensie as
in urban areas? kinders wat in stedelike gebiede
woon?
Hypothesis: Children living in
rural areas have higher levels of Hipotese: Kinders wat in
emotional intelligence than landelike gebiede woon, het
children living in urban areas. hoër vlakke van emosionele
intelligensie as kinders wat in
stedelike gebiede woon.
Longitudinal Designs

Langitudinale Ontwerpe

• Longitudinal: Data are collected at • Longitudinale: Data word by twee of

two or more points in time meer punte in tyd ingesamel
• One group of participants (no • Een groep deelnemers (geen
categories)
• Scores at several time points on the
kategorieë)
same variable • Tellings by verskeie tydpunte op
• Measurements are usually months to dieselfde veranderlike
years apart, not weeks
• Metinge is gewoonlik maande tot
• A comparison of two/more time jare uitmekaar, nie weke nie
points on the same variable
(measurement) for one set of • 'n Vergelyking van twee/meer
participants tydpunte op dieselfde veranderlike
(meting) vir een stel deelnemers
• Each time point is a like a “group” or
“category” with its own average • Elke tydpunt is soos 'n "groep" of
score (interval data) "kategorie" met sy eie gemiddelde
telling (interval data)
• Example: Emotional intelligence
scores at time 1 (March 2018) are • Voorbeeld: Emosionele intelligensie
significantly higher in the sample tellings op tyd 1 (Maart 2018) is
than at time 2 (February 2019) beduidend hoër in die steekproef as
op tyd 2 (Februarie 2019)
Cross-sectional / comparative vs. Longitudinal Designs

Dwarssnit / vergelykende vs. Langitudinale Ontwerpe

 Longitudinal Design Process

Langitudinale Ontwerpproses

Research question / Hypothesis Select a test of the variable of Obtain one sample
•Emotional intelligence increases throughout interest •1,000 random university students
the first year of university study •Emotional intelligence test with score from
1-100 (interval data)

Conclude Compare the average score for Test the sample several times
•Emotional intelligence score of first year each time point (like a group; •Test in January
students increased throughout their first analyse) •Test in July
year of study •Test in December
•Average score in January
•Scores in July were significantly higher
than scores in January •Average score in July
•Scores in December were significantly •Average score in December
higher than scores in July
Longitudinal study: Average length of stay (LOS) per year from 2011 to
2018 for: 1) all hospital admissions; and 2) hospital admissions over 7
days

Langitudinale studie: Gemiddelde verblyfsduur (LOS) per jaar vanaf

2011 tot 2018 vir: 1) alle hospitaalopnames; en 2) hospitaalopnames
langer as 7 dae
What type of research design is appropriate and what
will the purpose be? Identify the types of variables. (3)

Watter tipe navorsingsontwerp is toepaslik en wat sal die

doel wees? Identifiseer die tipes veranderlikes. (3)
A researcher wants to find out whether playing outside results in
children being more sociable or unsociable.
‘n Navorser wil bepaal of kinders wat buite speel meer dikwels
gesellig as ongesellig is.

The researcher assesses sociability using a questionnaire (score

of 0-100 where 100 is most sociable) and wants to show what the
average scores are for children who play outside and children who
play inside.
‘n Navorser assesseer geselligheid met die gebruik van ‘n vraelys
(telling van 0-100 waar 100 die mees gesellig is) en wil aantoon
wat die algemene telling vir kinders is wat buite speel en ook vir
kinders wat binne speel.
The researcher will use a comparative
design (1)…

…to identify differences between the

two groups (1).

The first group (children who play

outside) will be compared to the second
group (children who play inside) (1)…

…to find out which have higher average

sociability scores.
If this process is being followed, what type of design is being
used and why? Be sure to identify the variable(s) of interest
(3)

As hierdie proses gevolg word, watter tipe ontwerp word

gebruik en waarom? Maak seker om die veranderlike(s) van
belang te identifiseer. (3)

The researcher obtains a sample of 2,500 random children in the

Johannesburg area. The researcher administers a test of
intelligence at the beginning of the school year and at the end of
the school year and monitors attendance. The researcher
analyzes the data and finds that the average level of intelligence
increased significantly during the school year.

Die navorser verkry 'n steekproef van 2,500 lukrake kinders in die
Johannesburg-area. Die navorser administreer 'n intelligensietoets
aan die begin van die skooljaar en aan die einde van die skooljaar
en monitor bywoning. Die navorser analiseer die data en vind dat
die gemiddelde intelligensievlak gedurende die skooljaar
aansienlik toegeneem het.
The researcher is
using a
longitudinal
design (1)…

…to determine
whether the
average
intelligence (1)…

…of a single
group of school
children in
Gauteng…

…increased
throughout the
school year (1).
Correlational Designs

Korrelasie Ontwerpe

• Describe relationships • Beskryf verhoudings tussen

between two variables in a twee veranderlikes in 'n
sample steekproef:
• Both variables are interval • Beide veranderlikes is interval
(score) measurements (telling) metings
• Single sample: No groups • Enkele steekproef: Geen
• Associations – relationships groepe
are not causation • Verbindings - verhoudings is
• Positive: Both scores nie oorsaak en gevolg nie
increase • Positief: Beide tellings neem toe
• Negative: One score • Negatief: Een telling neem toe en
increases and the other die ander af
decreases • Nul: Geen verhouding
• Null: No relationship
Purpose of the correlational design

Doel van die korrelatiewe ontwerp

Correlational designs show a relationship between two sets
of scores (interval data)

Comparative designs compare the average (mean) score

between groups

Correlational designs only have one group of

participants

Comparative designs have one variable of interest

(scores which can be averaged)

Correlational designs have two variables and the researcher is

interested in how or if they are related in some way
 Process of a correlational design

Proses van 'n korrelatiewe ontwerp

Potential
Measurement
•Question: Are scores on •Calculate the relationship conclusion
emotional intelligence tests (correlation) between the two
related to scores on social •Assessments of emotional sets of scores •People with higher emotional
intelligence tests? intelligence and social •Possibilities: 1) higher EQ is intelligence scores also have
•Hypothesis: People with higher intelligence related to higher SQ; 2) higher higher social intelligence scores
emotional intelligence also •Every participant has two sets EQ is related to lower SQ; 3) •Deductively confirm the
have higher social intelligence of scores (an EQ score and an there is no relationship hypothesis (in this case)
SQ score): Two variables of
interest
Hypothesis or Analysis and
research question Interpretation
Experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs

Eksperimentele en Kwasi-eksperimentele Ontwerpe

• Did the intervention (treatment) • Het die ingryping (behandeling)
work? gewerk?
• Hypothesis: The treatment made a • Hipotese: Die behandeling het 'n verskil
difference to measurements on the gemaak in metings op die veranderlike
variable of interest (interval data / van belang (intervaldata / tellings)
scores)
• Vergelyk gemiddelde tellings tussen die
• Compare average scores between the eksperimentele groep (ontvang die
experimental group (receive the ingryping) en die kontrole groep
intervention) and the control group (ontvang nie die ingryping nie)
(do not receive the intervention)
• Eksperimentele ontwerp: Lukrake
• Experimental design: Random toewysing aan eksperimentele/kontrole
allocation to experimental/control groepe
groups
• Kwasi-eksperimentele ontwerp: Geen
• Quasi-experimental design: No lukrake toewysing aan
random allocation to eksperimentele/kontrole groepe
experimental/control groups
 Stanford prison experiment
Groups: Guards and prisoners
Intervention / treatment over several days
Outcome measurements: Avoidance, denial, and
resistance
Result: By day 6, guards’ measurements of avoidance
and denial were much higher than prisoners and for
both guards and prisoners’ resistance was much higher.
Notes: This experiment used division into two groups
instead of an experimental and control group, but the
principles of cause and effect still apply. This
experimental study was also longitudinal.

Groepe: Wagte en gevangenes

Intervensie / behandeling oor verskeie dae
Uitkomsmetings: Vermyding, ontkenning, en weerstand
Resultaat: Teen dag 6 was die metings van vermyding en
ontkenning vir wagte baie hoër as vir gevangenes, en vir
beide wagte en gevangenes was weerstand baie hoër.
Notas: Hierdie eksperiment het verdeeldheid in twee
groepe gebruik in plaas van 'n eksperimentele en 'n
kontrole groep, maar die beginsels van oorsaak en
gevolg is steeds van toepassing. Hierdie eksperimentele
studie was ook longitudinaal.
Explain what type of data is being used and
describe the correct research design (4)

Verduidelik watter tipe data gebruik word en

beskryf die korrekte navorsingsontwerp (4)

Literature says that children who read books on certain topics

also watch movies with that topic. The researcher believes that
children who read a larger number of mystery books also
spend more hours watching mystery TV shows.

Die literatuur hou dit voor dat kinders wat boeke rakende
sekere onderwerpe lees ook rolprente oor dieselfde
onderwerpe kyk. Die navorser glo dat kinders wat ‘n groter
hoeveelheid raaisel-boeke lees ook meer ure daaraan
spandeer om raaisel TV-programme te kyk.
The data will include the number of books children
read (1/2) and the number of hours mystery TV
shows are watched for (1/2).

These are continuous/scale variables (1)….

…which will be used to determine the relationship

between number of mystery books read and the
number of hours spent watching mystery TV shows
(1)…

using a correlational / relational design. (1)

What is/are the purpose of the study, types of
variables used, and type of research design? (4)

Verduidelik watter tipe data gebruik word en

beskryf die korrekte navorsingsontwerp? (4)

A researcher believes that taking coffee away from students

makes them more productive. The researcher measures
productivity from 0 to 50 where 50 is the highest level of
productivity.

‘n Navorser glo om studente van koffie te ontneem hulle

meer produktief sal maak. Die navorser meet produktiwiteit
van 0 tot 50 waar 50 die hoogste vlak van produktiwiteit
aandui.
The researcher will use a interval variable
(assessment) to measure productivity from 0 to
50 (1)…

…and a categorical variable to identify which of

the two groups the person falls into (coffee or no
coffee) (1).

The researcher will use an experimental or quasi-

experimental design because the study involved a
treatment or intervention (taking the coffee away
from one group of students) (1)…

…to find out whether the group who no longer

have coffee are more or less productive than the
group who still have coffee. (1)
Differences between the quasi-experimental and
comparative designs

Verskille tussen die kwasi-eksperimentele en

vergelykende ontwerpe

What would make the previous case study / scenario comparative rather
than quasi-experimental and how could you turn it into a comparative
design?
Wat sou die vorige gevalstudie / scenario vergelykend maak eerder as
kwasi-eksperimenteel en hoe kon jy dit omskep in 'n vergelykende
ontwerp?

A researcher believes that taking coffee away from students makes

them more productive. The researcher measures productivity from 0 to 50
where 50 is the highest level of productivity.

‘n Navorser glo om studente van koffie te ontneem hulle meer

produktief sal maak. Die navorser meet produktiwiteit van 0 tot 50 waar
50 die hoogste vlak van produktiwiteit aandui.
 Summary Opsomming
• Quantitative research uses numbers for analysis: Counting • Kwantitatiewe navorsing gebruik syfers vir analise: Die
the number of people in a category or measuring to telling van die aantal mense in 'n kategorie of meting om 'n
obtain a score which can be averaged (interval data) telling te verkry wat geaggregeer kan word (intervaldata)
• Deductive reasoning is used to identify what the • Deduktiewe redenasie word gebruik om te identifiseer wat
researcher thinks could be found, collect specific data die navorser dink wat gevind kan word, spesifieke data te
through measurement, and draw a conclusion versamel deur meting, en 'n gevolgtrekking te maak
• (Post)Positivism indicates that the researcher is objective: • (Post)Positivisme dui daarop dat die navorser objektief is:
They measure or count what exists without debating Hulle meet of tel wat bestaan sonder om mense se
people’s personal beliefs or interpretations persoonlike oortuigings of interpretasies te bespreek
• Descriptive designs describe counts and averages as they • Beskrywende ontwerpe beskryf tellings en gemiddeldes
are at that point in time soos dit op daardie oomblik is
• Comparative and cross-sectional designs compare two or • Vergelykende en dwarssnitontwerpe vergelyk twee of meer
more groups (categories) on the variable of interest (the groepe (kategorieë) op die veranderlike van belang (die
average of the measurements for people in each category gemiddelde van die metings vir mense in elke kategorie)
• Longitudinal designs use one group of participants and • Langitudinale ontwerpe gebruik een groep deelnemers en
measurements at different time points make up the metings op verskillende tydpunte om die "groepe" te vorm
“groups” to compare average scores at each time om gemiddelde tellings by elke tyd te vergelyk
• Correlational designs consider the relationship between • Korrelatiewe ontwerpe oorweeg die verhouding tussen
two or more interval scores on an assessment or twee of meer intervaltellings op 'n assessering of meting
measurement
• Eksperimentele en kwasi-eksperimentele ontwerpe fokus
• Experimental and quasi-experimental designs focus on op of 'n behandeling of ingryping werk deur die
whether a treatment or intervention works by comparing gemiddelde tellings van 'n groep wat die behandeling
the average scores of a group who had the treatment ontvang het (eksperimentele groep) te vergelyk met 'n
(experimental group) to a group who did not (control groep wat dit nie het nie (kontrole groep)
group)
 PSYC312

Study Unit 3.5 & 3.6: Quantitative Data Analysis and

Reporting
Studie-eenheid 3.5 & 3.6: Kwantitatiewe Data-analise
en Verslagdoening
Lecturer/Dosent: Dr Ingrid Opperman
Office/Kantoor: Potchefstroom Campus, E8, G16
Consulting Hours/Spreekure: By Appointment/Per afspraak
Learning Outcomes: Sections 3.5. and 3.6.
Leeruitkomste Afdelings 3.5. en 3.6.
• Differentiate between the different • Onderskei tussen die verskillende
types of quantitative data analysis tipes kwantitatiewe data-analise.
• Evaluate the outcome of a • Evalueer die uitkoms van 'n
quantitative data analysis kwantitatiewe data-analise.
• Form a comprehensive conclusion • Vorm 'n omvattende slotsom oor
about a research question based on 'n navorsingsvraag gebaseer op
a quantitative data analysis 'n kwantitatiewe data-analise.
• Critically examine the findings • Ondersoek krities die bevindinge
presented in a quantitative research wat aangebied word in 'n
report kwantitatiewe navorsingsverslag.
• Analyze how the components of a • Analiseer hoe die komponente
quantitative research report can be van 'n kwantitatiewe
integrated to form a conclusion or navorsingsverslag geïntegreer
argument kan word om 'n slotsom of
argument te vorm.
Study Materials
Studiemateriaal
• Refer to any available readers in • Hoofstuk 11: Statistiese Analise I en II
addition to the listed study materials in Eerste Stappe in Navorsing
(Kwantitatiewe Analise) om die tipes
• Chapter 11: Statistical Analysis I and kwantitatiewe data te hersien.
II in First Steps in Research
(Quantitative Analysis) to review the • Hoofstuk 12: Afdelings oor die
types of quantitative data konsep van statistiese beduidendheid
en die p-waarde (jy hoef nie die
• Chapter 12: Sections on the concept berekeninge uit te voer nie).
of statistical significance and the p-
value (you do not need to perform • Hoofstuk 14: Oorsig van Statistiese
the calculations) Tegnieke in Eerste Stappe in
Navorsing (Kwantitatiewe Analise)
• Chapter 14: Overview of Statistical wat fokus op die t-toets, analise van
Techniques in First Steps in Research variansie, en korrelasiekoëffisiënt (jy
(Quantitative Analysis) focusing on hoef nie die berekeninge uit te voer
the t-test, analysis of variance, and nie).
correlation coefficient (you do not
need to perform the calculations) • Raadpleeg asseblief die MOD /
Studiegids vir meer spesifieke
• Please refer to the MOD / Study studie-afdelings.
Guide for more specific study
sections
The Quantitative Research Process

Die Kwantitatiewe Navorsingsproses

Research Research Design Sampling & Data Data Analysis

Question • Comparison? Collection • Matched to the
• Can be numerically • Relationship? • Random sampling purpose of the
measured • Describe? technique design
• Draw a firm • Numerical data • Outcome indicating
conclusion statistically
• Ordinal? Interval /
significant difference
• Positivist paradigm: continuous / scale?
or association
Can be answered • Positivist paradigm:
objectively • Positivist paradigm:
Objective
Objective conclusion
measurement
Focus of Quantitative Data Analysis

Fokus van Kwantitatiewe Data-analise

• Descriptive statistics: • Beskrywende statistiek:

Describe the current Beskryf die huidige
sample without drawing steekproef sonder om 'n
a conclusion slotsom te trek.
• Inferential statistics: • Inferensiële statistiek:
Draw a conclusion about Trek 'n slotsom oor
difference or associations verskille of assosiasies om
to make an inference 'n inferensie (slotsom) oor
(conclusion) about the die bevolking te maak (let
population (note: wel: veralgemening).
generalization) • Vergelyking van groepe.
• Comparing groups • Assessering van 'n
• Assessing an association assosiasie of korrelasie.
or correlation
Quantitative research study: Living with or without
parents: A comparison of stress levels
Complete the Following Problem Statement
This quantitative, [enter design] study will examine the stress
levels of students living with or without their parents. Data will be
collected from a sample of students using [enter data collection
method]. The scores will be compared using a [data analysis
method] to investigate whether those living with their parents are
more / less stressed than those living without their parents.

Based on the research design: What is the purpose of the analysis?

a. Describe?
b. Compare?
c. Assess an association or correlation?
Key Words to Identify Quantitative Research Designs and Data
Analysis Methods

Kernwoorde om Kwantitatiewe Navorsingsontwerpe en Data-

analisiemetodes te Identifiseer

• Describe: A description as is • Beskryf: 'n Beskrywing soos dit is

(descriptive design and statistics) (beskrywende ontwerp en statistiek).
• Inferential: Draw a conclusion based • Inferensieël: Trek 'n slotsom
on a difference or association which gebaseer op 'n verskil of assosiasie
can be inferred to the population wat afgelei kan word na die
(generalized) bevolking (veralgemeen).
• Inferential statistics: Specific • Inferensiële statistiek: Spesifieke
statistics used to test hypotheses statistiek wat gebruik word om
hipoteses te toets.
• Difference: Compare two or more
groups (comparative) based on a • Verskil: Vergelyk twee of meer
conclusion from inferential statistics groepe (vergelykend) gebaseer op 'n
slotsom van inferensiële statistiek.
• Relationship: Assess how strong the
relationship between two variables • Verhouding: Evalueer hoe sterk die
based on a conclusion from verhouding tussen twee
inferential statistics veranderlikes is gebaseer op 'n
slotsom van inferensiële statistiek.
Terms for Quantitative Data

Terme vir Kwantitatiewe Data

• Raw scores: Scores from the • Raw scores: Tellings vanaf die
questionnaire or psychometric vraelys of psigometriese toets.
test • Genormeerde tellings: Raw
• Normed scores: Raw scores scores vergelyk met die
compared to the norm group normgroep om 'n
to give a comparative value vergelykende waarde te gee
(also called transformed (ook genoem
scores) getransformeerde tellings).
• Captured: Logged in a • Vasgevang: In 'n sigblad of
spreadsheet or similar soortgelyke sagteware
software as a numerical value geregistreer as 'n numeriese
• Code: A value assigned to a waarde.
category so that it is • Kode: 'n Waarde wat
numerical instead of text toegewys word aan 'n
kategorie sodat dit numeries is
in plaas van teks.
Using Quantitative Data

Die Gebruik van Kwantitatiewe Data

1. Administration of questionnaire or 1. Administrasie van vraelys of toets.
test
2. Data vaslegging in numeriese
2. Capturing data in numerical format formaat.
3. Collating data from multiple 3. Versamel data vanaf verskeie vraelys
questionnaires or tests per of toetse per deelnemer.
respondent (participant)
4. Kodering van kategoriese
4. Coding categorical variables veranderlikes.
5. Calculating totals 5. Berekening van totale.
6. Summarizing data using descriptive 6. Opsomming van data deur gebruik te
statistics maak van beskrywende statistiek.
7. Calculating inferential statistics 7. Berekening van inferensiële statistiek.
8. Assessing the probability (p) value 8. Assessering van die waarskynlikheid
(p-waarde).
9. Drawing and reporting on a
conclusion 9. Trekking en rapportering van 'n
slotsom.
Preparing Data: Coding Categorical Data

Data Voorbereiding: Kodering van Kategoriese Data

• Statistical packages often cannot • Statistiese pakkette kan dikwels

take variable names which are nie veranderlike name wat nie
not numbers nommers is, aanvaar nie.
• Codes are arbitrary numbers • Kodes is willekeurige getalle wat
assigned to categories to replace aan kategorieë toegewys word
the names om die name te vervang.
• A code represents a category: • 'n Kode verteenwoordig 'n
Codes are not numerical values. kategorie: Kodes is nie numeriese
They are arbitrary values waardes nie. Dit is willekeurige
assigned to categories waardes wat aan kategorieë
• E.g.: Codes for modules: PSYC312 toegewys word.
= 1; PSYC311 = 2 • Byvoorbeeld: Kodes vir modules:
• 750 students fall into 1 (PSYC312) PSYC312 = 1; PSYC311 = 2
and 500 into 2 (PSYC311) • 750 studente val onder 1
[frequencies] (PSYC312) en 500 onder 2
• Average module mark: 1 = 75%; 2 (PSYC311) [frekwensies].
= 65% • Gemiddelde modulepunt: 1 = 75%;
2 = 65%.
Coded Quantitative Data Prepared for Analysis

Respondent_ID Lecturer Stress_Score Anxiety_Score Memory_Score Reasoning_Score_Norm

1 1 28 43 120 5

2 3 30 50 115 6

3 3 15 30 108 8

4 2 18 35 130 9

5 1 20 49 90 1

Codebook: Lecturer 1 = Ingrid Opperman & Tamlynn Jefferis (Group A)

2 = Sello Boshomane & Gerhard Rodgers (Group B)

3 = Phillip Marais & Martin Grove (Group C)

Overview: Inferential Research Designs and
Statistical Analyses

Intention: Numerical
Conclusions

Purpose: Describe (as-

is)
Infer
(Conclude)

Quasi-
Design: Descriptive
Design
Comparative
Design
Correlational
Design
experimental
design

Analysis: Descriptive
statistics
T-test &
ANOVA
Pearson’s r
T-test &
ANOVA
Descriptive Statistics

Beskrywende Statistiek

• Raw data are summarized • Ru data word opgesom om

to provide totals, averages, totale, gemiddeldes,
frequencies, etc. frekwensies, ens. te verskaf.
• Intention: Describe the • Doel: Beskryf die steekproef
sample as-is soos dit is.
• Common descriptives: • Gewone beskrywings:
• Frequency / proportion • Frekwensie / proporsie
• Mean (average) • Gemiddelde (middelwaarde)
• Median (mid-point) • Mediaan (middelpunt)
• Mode (most frequent value) • Modus (mees algemene
waarde)
• Descriptive statistics are
also calculated before • Beskrywende statistieke
moving on to inferential word ook bereken voordat
statistics inferensiële statistiek
aangepak word.
Common Descriptives

Gewone Beskrywings

• Frequency (f): How many • Frekwensie (f): Hoeveel

respondents in a category? respondente is in 'n kategorie?
• Frequencies can be transformed • Frekwensies kan omskep word na
into percentages or proportions persentasies of proporsies.
• Mean (M): The average score for • Gemiddelde (M): Die gemiddelde
a specific group or the entire telling vir 'n spesifieke groep of
sample die hele steekproef.
• Median: The mid-point of data • Mediaan: Die middelpunt van die
when put in ascending order data wanneer dit in oplopende
volgorde geplaas word.
• Mode: The most frequently
occurring value • Modus: Die mees algemeen
• Standard deviation: Dispersion – voorkomende waarde.
how spread out around the mean • Standaardafwyking: Verspreiding
the respondents’ scores (values) - hoe versprei die respondente se
are tellings (waardes) om die
gemiddelde is.
Normal proportions in a random sample (M = 100,
SD = 15)
Graphical Presentation: Frequencies / proportions

Favorite Type of Movie

SciFi: 4 (20%)
Comedy: 4 (20%)

Drama: 1 (5%)

Action: 5 (25%)

R omance: 6 (30%)
Respondent_ID Lecturer Stress_Score Anxiety_Score Memory_Score Reasoning_Score_Norm
1 1 28 43 120 5
2 3 30 50 115 6
3 3 15 30 108 8
4 2 18 35 130 9
5 1 20 49 90 1

Sample_Mean 22.2 41.4 112.6 5.8

Sample_Median 20 43 115 6

Lecturer
(Group) Average_Stress Average_Anxiety Memory_Score Reasoning_Score_Norm

1 24 46 105 3

2 18 35 130 9

3 22.5 40 111.5 7
Types of Inferential Statistics: Drawing conclusions
to generalize

Tipes Inferensiële Statistiek: Slotsomme trek om te

veralgemeen
• T-test: Do two groups • T-test: Do two groups
differ significantly? differ significantly?
• Analysis of variance • Analysis of variance
(ANOVA): Do more (ANOVA): Do more
than two groups differ than two groups differ
significantly? significantly?
• Correlation coefficient • Correlation coefficient
/ Pearson’s r: Is there a / Pearson’s r: Is there a
significant relationship significant relationship
between two variables? between two variables?
Assessing Meaning: Statistical Significance & the Null
Hypothesis & the p-value

Beoordeling van Betekenis: Statistiese Beduidendheid en die

Nulhipotese en die p-waarde
• Reject the null hypothesis (the • Verwerp die nulhipotese (die verskil
difference or relationship is not of verhouding is nie "werklik" nie):
“real”): The alternate hypothesis is Die alternatiewe hipotese is korrek.
correct
• Aanvaar die alternatiewe hipotese
• Accept the alternate hypothesis (the (die verskil of verhouding is
difference or relationship is “real”): "werklik"): Die verskil / verhouding is
The difference / relationship is real werklik en die nulhipotese word
and the null hypothesis is rejected as verwerp as onkorrek.
incorrect
• Dit is altyd moontlik dat die
• It is always possible that the means gemiddeldes verskil of daar 'n
differ or there is a correlation just by korrelasie is bloot toevallig - die
chance – the difference does not verskil beteken niks.
mean anything
• As die waarskynlikheid van die
• If the probability of the statistical statistiese waarde hoog is, dan is dit
value is high, then it is likely that the waarskynlik dat die verskil of
difference or relationship was by verhouding toevallig was (toevallig).
chance (coincidental)
• P-waardes dui die waarskynlikheid
• P-values indicate the probability of van die toeval aan.
the coincidence
Statistical Significance: Example
Probability (likelihood) of the The p-value indicates the likelihood
statistical value calculated (e.g., that the conclusion that there is a
result is t = 1.22 or r = .450) difference is correct based on the
• Statistical meaning: How likely statistical value calculated (result)
was the statistic calculated?
• Formulae are used to calculate
statistical values (t, F, r)
• A table is used to identify the p-
value (probability value)
associated with the statistical
value
• High p-values are associated with
very unlikely statistical results
(e.g., p = .30 is a 30% chance the
result was coincidental and there
is no “real” difference)
Type 1 error: Falsely stating that there is a difference or effect when
there is not; We said that the difference was real, but it isn’t

If p = .05 there is a 5% chance of a type 1 error

If p = .01 there is a 1% chance of a type 1 error
Examples of the Null and Alternate Hypothesis

Voorbeelde van die Nul- en Alternatiewe Hipotese

• Null: There is no difference in • Nul: Daar is geen verskil in

PSYC312 marks between PSYC312 punte tussen studente
students who live in residence wat in koshuise bly en studente
and students who do not. wat nie bly nie.
• Alternate: Students who live in • Alternatief: Studente wat in
residence have higher PSYC312 koshuise bly, het hoër PSYC312
marks than students who do not punte as studente wat nie bly nie.
• p = .02 – students who live in • p = .02 - Studente wat in koshuise
residence have significantly bly, het aansienlik hoër PSYC312
higher PSYC312 marks than punte as studente wat nie bly nie
students who do not and there is en daar is 'n 2% kans dat hierdie
a 2% chance that this conclusion slotsom onkorrek is.
is incorrect • Daar is 'n 2% kans op 'n tipe 1 fout
• There is a 2% chance of a type 1 (ons het gesê hulle het hoër
error (we said they have higher punte, maar hulle het eintlik nie,
marks, but they actually do not, it dit was 'n toeval).
was a coincidence)
Inferential Statistics
Inferensiële Statistieke
T-tests (t): Compare the means of two groups

T-toetse (t): Vergelyk die gemiddeldes van

twee groepe
• The t-test states if the • Die t-toets bepaal of die
mean of one group is gemiddelde van een
significantly higher groep beduidend hoër
than the mean of is as die gemiddelde
another van 'n ander.
• The p-value associated • Die p-waarde wat
with the t value verband hou met die t-
indicates the likelihood waarde dui aan hoe
that the difference was waarskynlik dit is dat
coincidental (by die verskil toevallig was
chance) (per toeval).
t-test
Null hypothesis: There is no
difference in scores between
smokers and non-smokers
Alternate hypothesis:
Nonsmokers have significantly
higher scores than smokers
Statistic: t = 4.32, p = .02
Conclusion: Nonsmokers have
significantly higher mean scores
than smokers and there is only a
2% chance that this difference
was by chance or coincidental
ANOVA (F): Comparing more than two groups

ANOVA (F): Vergelyk meer as twee groepe

• Analysis of variance • Analise van Variansie

(ANOVA) is used to (ANOVA) word gebruik om
compare the means 3 or die gemiddeldes van 3 of
more groups meer groepe te vergelyk.
• Is the mean of one/more • Is die gemiddelde van een
groups significantly higher of meer groepe beduidend
than the mean of the hoër as die gemiddelde van
others? die ander?
• Do the three (or more) • Verskil die gemiddeldes van
groups’ means differ die drie (of meer) groepe
significantly? beduidend?
• The p-value associated with • Die p-waarde wat verband
the F value indicates the hou met die F-waarde dui
likelihood that the aan hoe waarskynlik dit is
difference was coincidental dat die verskil toevallig was
(by chance) (per toeval).
Analysis of
Variance
(ANOVA)
Null hypothesis: The three groups’
means do not differ significantly
Alternate hypothesis: The three
groups’ means differ significantly
Statistics: F = 5.32, p = .025
Conclusion: The means of the
yellow, blue, and red groups differ
significantly and there is a 2.5%
chance that this difference is by
chance or coincidental

Top graphic: The null hypothesis –

the means are similar
Bottom graphic: The alternate
hypothesis – the means are very
different
Pearson’s r correlation coefficient in correlational designs:
Relationships

Pearson se r-korrelasiekoëffisiënt in korrelasionele ontwerpe:

Verhoudings

• Correlational design: Is there a • Korrelasionele ontwerp: Is daar 'n

relationship / association verhouding / assosiasie tussen
between the two variables? die twee veranderlikes?
• Correlation coefficient: The value • Korrelasiekoëffisiënt: Die waarde
reflecting how strong the wat aandui hoe sterk die
relationship is and what direction verhouding is en in watter rigting
it is in dit is.
• Strong values are closer to -1 or • Sterke waardes is nader aan -1 of
+1 (cannot exceed 1) +1 (kan nie 1 oorskry nie).
• Positive values are both increasing • Positiewe waardes neem beide
together toe saam.
• Negative values are one • Negatiewe waardes neem een toe
increasing and one decreasing en een af.
• Probability value: Likelihood that • Waarskynlikheidswaarde: Die
relationship is by chance or waarskynlikheid dat die
coincidental verhouding toevallig of toevallig
is.
Positive (A), Negative (B), and Null (C) Correlations
 What type of data do you have?

One/more
Only categorical Two continuous categorical, one
continuous

Describing Association / Describing Group

groups? Relationship? groups? comparisons?

Frequencies and Correlation Means for each >2 groups:

2 groups: t-test
percentages (Pearson’s r) category ANOVA
Reporting Quantitative
Research

Rapportering van
Kwantitatiewe Navorsing
When quantitative findings are reported, the statistical values and associated
probability values are clearly indicated in the findings while their meaning is
discussed in the conclusions.
Wanneer kwantitatiewe bevindinge gerapporteer word, word die statistiese
waardes en die gepaardgaande waarskynlikheidswaardes duidelik aangedui in
die bevindinge terwyl hul betekenis bespreek word in die gevolgtrekkings.
Components of drawing an understandable
conclusion

Komponente om 'n verstaanbare slotsom te trek

• What were the null and alternate • Wat was die nul- en alternatiewe
hypotheses? hipotese?
• What is the statistical value (t, F, or • Wat is die statistiese waarde (t, F, of
r)? r)?
• What is the p-value? • Wat is die p-waarde?
• Does the p-value indicate that I • Dui die p-waarde daarop dat ek die
should reject the null hypothesis in nulhipotese moet verwerp ten gunste
favour of the alternate hypothesis? van die alternatiewe hipotese?
• If comparative or quasi- • Indien vergelykend of kwasi-
experimental: What were the mean eksperimenteel: Wat was die
values for each group? gemiddelde waardes vir elke groep?
• If correlational: What was the • Indien korrelasioneel: Wat was die
correlation coefficient’s strength and sterkte en rigting van die
direction? korrelasiekoëffisiënt?
• What does this mean for my study • Wat beteken dit vir my studie en
and research question? navorsingsvraag?
Examples of findings in quantitative research

Voorbeelde van bevindinge in kwantitatiewe

navorsing
• Most students preferred • Die meeste studente verkies
psychology classes (63%) to sielkunde klasse (63%) bo
physiology classes (37%) fisiologie klasse (37%).
• There is a significant difference (t • Daar is 'n beduidende verskil (t =
= 4.38, p = .04) in happiness 4.38, p = .04) in geluk tussen
between psychology students (M sielkunde studente (M = 40) en
= 40) and physiology students (M fisiologie studente (M = 20).
= 20)
• Die eksperimentele groep op
• The experimental group on medikasie het 'n beduidend laer
medication had a significantly gemiddelde bloeddrukwaarde
lower average blood pressure gehad as die kontrolegroep wat
value than the control group who nie medikasie ontvang het nie (t =
did not receive medication (t = 3.56, p = .01).
3.56, p = .01) • Daar was 'n sterk, positiewe
• There was a strong, positive verhouding tussen tyd wat aan
relationship between time spent studies bestee is en PSYC312
studying and PSYC312 marks (r = punte (r = .699) en die
.699) and the relationship was verhouding was statisties
statistically significant (p = .04) beduidend (p = .04).
What do the following findings conclude?

Wat lei die volgende bevindinge af?

• The mean anxiety score for • Die gemiddelde angs telling vir
physics students (M = 20) was fisika studente (M = 20) was
higher than that of hoër as dié van
engineering students (M = 14) ingenieursstudente (M = 14) (t
(t = 1.24, p = .10) = 1.24, p = .10)
• There was a significant • Daar was 'n beduidende
relationship between altruistic verhouding tussen altruïstiese
personality levels and the persoonlikheidsvlakke en die
amount of money donated to hoeveelheid geld wat aan
charity (r = .670, p = .02) liefdadigheid geskenk is (r =
• The control group had lower .670, p = .20)
positive attitude scores than • Die kontrolegroep het laer
the experimental group or positiewe houdingtellings
placebo group (F = 5.32, p = gehad as die eksperimentele
.04) groep of plasiebogroep (F =
5.32, p = .04)
What is included in the discussion?

Wat word ingesluit in die bespreking?

• Reminder of the findings (there • Herinnering aan die bevindinge

was a difference, there was a (daar was 'n verskil, daar was 'n
relationship) verhouding)
• Not the actual statistics • Nie die werklike statistiek nie
• Comparing the findings to similar • Vergelyking van die bevindinge
or different research findings met soortgelyke of verskillende
from the literature navorsingsbevindinge uit die
• Creating an argument why the literatuur
alternate hypothesis was • Die skep van 'n argument
“correct” waarom die alternatiewe
• Illustrating the importance of the hipotese "korrek" was
statistically significant finding (if • Die belangrikheid van die
p < .05) statisties beduidende bevinding
illustreer (as p < .05)
• Illustrating why the finding was
not statistically significant based • Illustreer waarom die bevinding
on other literature (if p was > .05) nie statisties beduidend was op
grond van ander literatuur nie (as
p > .05)
Example of a discussion based on a t-test

Voorbeeld van 'n bespreking gebaseer op 'n

t-toets
Psychology students were Sielkunde studente is
found to be significantly bevind om oor die
happier overall than algemeen beduidend
physiology students. gelukkiger te wees as
Author 1 (2024) concur fisiologie studente. Skrywer
with this conclusion and 1 (2024) stem hiermee
argued that this may be saam en het
because the modules are geargumenteer dat dit dalk
less taxing. However, is omdat die modules
Author 2 (2023) stated that minder uitputtend is. Tog
this type of difference is het Skrywer 2 (2023) gestel
because psychology dat hierdie tipe verskil is
students are better omdat sielkunde studente
prepared to cope with beter voorberei is om
tertiary study than tertiêre studie te hanteer
physiology students are. as fisiologie studente.
Example of a discussion based on a t-test in a quasi-
experimental study
Voorbeeld van 'n bespreking gebaseer op 'n t-toets
in 'n kwasi-eksperimentele studie

Students who underwent Studente wat die

the study skills intervention studievaardighede-
had significantly higher intervensie ondergaan het,
average marks than het beduidend hoër
students who did not. gemiddelde punte behaal
Other researchers have as studente wat nie dit
concluded that this type of gedoen het nie. Ander
intervention builds self- navorsers het tot die
confidence, allowing gevolgtrekking gekom dat
students to perform at hierdie tipe intervensie
their best (Author 3, 2019) selfvertroue opbou, wat
studente in staat stel om
op hul beste te presteer
(Skrywer 3, 2019).
Example of a discussion based on a
correlation
Voorbeeld van 'n bespreking gebaseer op 'n
korrelasie
There was a significant Daar was 'n beduidende
relationship between verhouding tussen vlak
level of stress and level van stres en vlak van
of happiness in tertiary geluk in tersiêre
education students. As onderwys studente. Soos
stress increased, stres toegeneem het, het
happiness decreased. geluk afgeneem. Dit mag
This may be due to wees as gevolg van
excessive levels of stress buitensporige vlakke van
resulting in less time stres wat lei tot minder
spent on enjoyable tyd wat aan genotvolle
activities (Author 4, aktiwiteite bestee word
2018). (Skrywer 4, 2018).
 Mentimeter Quiz
Quantitative research designs and data analysis
Summary / Opsomming
• Descriptive statistics describe the • Beskrywende statistiek beskryf die
frequencies, mean, median, and mode in frekwensies, gemiddelde, mediaan, en
the sample as it is modus in die steekproef soos dit is.
• Inferential statistics draw a firmer • Inferensiële statistiek trek 'n sterker
conclusion about the null and alternate gevolgtrekking oor die nul- en
hypothesis which can be applied to the alternatiewe hipotese wat op die
population bevolking toegepas kan word.
• T-tests: Compare two groups • T-toetse: Vergelyk twee groepe
(comparative and quasi-experimental) (vergelykend en kwasi-eksperimenteel).
• ANOVA: Compare more than two groups • ANOVA: Vergelyk meer as twee groepe
(comparative and quasi-experimental) (vergelykend en kwasi-eksperimenteel).
• Pearson’s r correlation coefficient: Assess • Pearson se r korrelasiekoëffisiënt:
relationships or associations Beoordeel verhoudings of assosiasies
(correlational) (korrelasioneel).
• Findings report the relevant means (if • Bevindinge rapporteer die relevante
applicable), statistical value (t, F, or r) and gemiddeldes (indien van toepassing),
probability (p) value statistiese waarde (t, F, of r) en
waarskynlikheid (p)-waarde.
• Probability values reflect the likelihood
that the result was coincidence or by • Waarskynlikheidswaardes weerspieël die
chance versus a “real” difference waarskynlikheid dat die resultaat
toevallig was of per toeval eerder as 'n
"werklike" verskil.
PSYC312

Study Unit 2: Qualitative Research Designs

Leereenheid 2: Kwalitatiewe Navorsingsontwerpe
Lecturer/Dosent: Dr Ingrid Opperman
Office/Kantoor: Potchefstroom Campus, E8, G16
Consulting Hours/Spreekure: By Appointment/Per afspraak
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 IMPORTANT: Changes to Assessment Plan
# Date Open Date Closed Type Content Module
Weight
1 15 March 2024 18 March 2024 eFundi MCQ Conceptualizing psychological and 10%
qualitative research
Qualitative research designs
Qualitative data collection
2 12 April 2024 15 April 2024 eFundi MCQ Qualitative research designs 10%
Quantitative research designs
3 TBC TBC Mid-semester Test Conceptualizing psychological research 15%
Inductive and deductive reasoning
Qualitative and quantitative research
designs and data collection
4 10 May 2024 13 May 2024 eFundi MCQ Full scope of Study Unit 1-3, 15%
particularly inductive and deductive
reasoning, research designs, data
collection, data analysis, and report
writing
5 TBC 24 May 2024 Summative Assignment The summative assignment replaces 50%
the examination
Learning Outcomes: Study Section 2.1. and 2.2
Leeruitkomstes: Bestudeer Afdeling 2.1. en 2.2.
• Define and explain what qualitative research is • Definieer en verduidelik wat kwalitatiewe
navorsing is.
• Describe the philosophical underpinnings of the
interpretivist / social constructivist paradigms • Beskryf die filosofiese onderbou van die
interpretatiewe/sosiaal konstruktivistiese
• Motivate why the interpretivist and social paradigmas.
constructivist paradigm is suitable for a qualitative
research study • Motiver waarom die interpretatiewe en sosiaal
konstruktivistiese paradigma geskik is vir 'n
• Identify and apply the characteristics of a kwalitatiewe navorsingstudie.
qualitative research project
• Identifiseer en pas die eienskappe van 'n
• Identify and describe the different qualitative kwalitatiewe navorsingsprojek toe.
research designs and apply their characteristics to
solving research-related problems and answering • Identifiseer en beskryf die verskillende kwalitatiewe
research questions navorsingsontwerpe en pas hul eienskappe toe om
navorsingsverwante probleme op te los en
• Justify the choice of a specific qualitative research navorsingsvrae te beantwoord.
design in a research project
• Regverdig die keuse van 'n spesifieke kwalitatiewe
navorsingsontwerp in 'n navorsingsprojek.
Study Materials
Studiemateriaal
• Chapter 4 of First Steps in Research: • Hoofstuk 4 van First Steps in Research:
Introducing Qualitative Research Introducing Qualitative Research
• Chapter 5 of First Steps in Research: • Hoofstuk 5 van First Steps in
Qualitative research designs and data Research: Qualitative research
gathering techniques designs and data gathering
• Suggested reading: Creswell, J. W. techniques
(2009) Research Designs: Qualitative, • Voorgestelde leeswerk: Creswell, J. W.
quantitative and mixed methods (2009) Research Designs: Qualitative,
approaches. Thousand Oaks. quantitative and mixed methods
(Appropriate Sections) approaches. Thousand Oaks.
• Additional materials communicated (Gedeeltes van toepassing)
on eFundi. • Addisionele materiaal wat op eFundi
• Please consult eFundi for a full list of gedeel is.
readings and sections.
What is Qualitative
Research?
Qualitative research focuses on the human
experience; the perspectives of people.
Qualitative research is concerned with
individual behaviours, perspectives,
experiences, and understandings of a
phenomenon using in-depth non-numerical
data such as interviews, focus groups, or
observations.

Kwalitatiewe navorsing fokus op die menslike

ervaring; die perspektiewe van mense.
Kwalitatiewe navorsing hou verband met
individuele gedrag, perspektiewe, ervarings,
en begrip van 'n verskynsel deur die gebruik
van diepgaande nie-numeriese data soos
onderhoude, fokusgroepe, of waarnemings.
The Interpretivist / Social Constructivist Paradigms in Qualitative
Research
Die Interpretivistiese / Sosiale Konstruktivistiese Paradigmas in
Kwalitatiewe Navorsing

• Multiple, subjective realities (no one • Meervoudige, subjektiewe werklikhede

truth, the truth depends on the person) (geen enkele waarheid nie, die waarheid
• Meaning is socially constructed hang af van die persoon)
(dependent on other people and the • Betekenis is sosiaal gekonstrueer
community) (afhanklik van ander mense en die
• Meaning is dynamic and changes with gemeenskap)
society and people’s perceptions • Betekenis is dinamies en verander met
• Researchers cannot be neutral – they die samelewing en mense se persepsies
have their own opinions and ideas which • Navorsers kan nie neutraal wees nie –
they need to be aware of hulle het hul eie opinies en idees waaraan
• There are multiple interpretations of any hulle bewus moet wees
single phenomenon • Daar is meervoudige interpretasies van
enige enkele verskynsel
What indicates that the case study is using the
interpretivist paradigm?
Wat dui daarop dat die gevallestudie die
interpretatiewe paradigma gebruik?
Published research studies have Gepubliseerde navorsingsstudies
shown that men feel overlooked, het getoon dat mans voel asof
unimportant, or even unwanted hulle oor die hoof gesien word,
as fathers to their own children. onbelangrik is, of selfs as
This is known to have a negative ongewens as vaders tot hulle eie
effect on their mental health, kinders. Dit is bekend dat dit 'n
particularly in societies where negatiewe uitwerking op hulle
men are considered providers, not geestesgesondheid het, veral in
caregivers. samelewings waar mans beskou
word as verskaffers, nie versorgers
nie.
Choice of Qualitative Research Designs are Linked to the Research
Paradigm (Worldview)

Die keuse van kwalitatiewe navorsingsontwerpe is gekoppel aan die

navorsingsparadigma (wêreldbeskouing)

Are you What about their

What is the What is the What does the exploring perspectives are
phenomenon literature say? people’s you trying to find
question? perspectives? out?

Wat is die Wat is die Wat sê die

Verken jy mense
se
Wat probeer jy
uitvind oor hul
verskynsel? literatuur?
vraag? perspektiewe? perspektiewe?
Qualitative Research Designs
Kwalitatiewe Navorsingsontwerpe

• A research design is a method to • ‘n Navorsingsontwerp is ‘n

approach answering the metode om die beantwoording
research question, choosing van ‘n navorsingsvraag, die
participants, and collecting data seleksie van deelnemers en die
• Research designs help ensure insameling van data te benader
that research is systematic • Navorsingsontwerpe help om te
• Phenomenology is the most verseker dat navorsing
common qualitative research sistematies is
design that we will explain • Fenomenologie is die mees
algemene kwalitatiewe
navorsingsontwerp
Common Qualitative Research Designs
Gewone Kwalitatiewe Navorsingsontwerpe
Ethnography Case study
• Cultures • Specific cases
• Communities • Details about
everything

Phenomenonology Narrative
• Lived experiences • Personal stories
• Explore and understand • Experiences of events
Qualitative:
Personal
Interpretations
and Constructed
Meanings
Common types of qualitative designs
Phenomenology is used to understand complex phenomena in individuals. This is the most
common design when using interviews for data collection.

Narrative designs focus on stories participants tell about their own experiences. This studies a
(often chronological) story about the phenomenon of interest. Individual interviews are often
used for participants to tell their stories.

Ethnography is used to study culture-sharing groups in-depth. Long-term access is used for a
comprehensive understanding of previously little understood groups. Ethnography does not
refer to just living in, or studying, some phenomenon in a community, but rather to studying
the culture itself. Different data collection methods are combined to fully understand the
group.

Case studies are important to study a specific “thing” within a bounded system. They refer to
something that has happened or a specific way things are which the researcher wants to
investigate (i.e., the phenomenon, such as how an impoverished school achieved very high
grade 12 results). Case studies usually use multiple forms of data collection.
Phenomenology
Fenomenologie
• Individual experiences and • Individuele ervarings en
meanings assigned to betekenisse word aan fenomene
phenomena toegeskryf
• Common themes about what • Algemene temas oor wat
phenomena mean to the fenomene vir die individu kan
individual beteken
• Individual and group • Individuele- en groeps
interpretations of a interpretasies van ‘n fenomeen
phenomenon • In-diepte beskrywings van ‘n
• In-depth descriptions of a spesifieke fenomeen
specific phenomenon
 Phenomenology: Studies of experiences

Study of experiences of people Experience is a conscious Interpretations are dynamic Descriptions or interpretations
process of themes in different people’s
experiences
Individual interpretations Individual experiences Over time Common interpretations in context of
Socially constructed meanings Meaning is attached to experiences In context of culture culture
Similar lived experiences with individual
interpretations
What makes this phenomenology?
Wat maak dit fenomenologie?
Researchers interview 13 people Navorsers ondervra 13 mense wat
who survived COVID-19 after being COVID-19 oorleef het nadat hulle vir
in the intensive care unit for over meer as drie weke in die
three weeks. The research question intensiewesorg-eenheid was. Die
was “What helps COVID-19 patients navorsingsvraag was "Wat help
recover faster after being in intensive COVID-19-pasiënte om vinniger te
care?” The themes from the herstel nadat hulle in intensiewe sorg
interviews showed that familiar was?" Die temas uit die onderhoude
places and people, doctors who het getoon dat bekende plekke en
communicate well, and family mense, dokters wat goed
support are important for a quick kommunikeer, en
recovery. gesinsondersteuning belangrik is vir
'n vinnige herstel.
What type of research design should be used? Explain your answer with
reference to the scenario (2)

A researcher wants to understand whether women CEO’s

experience discrimination from male colleagues. A group
of 8 women CEO’s discuss their experiences of
discrimination with each other and the researcher.

‘n Navorser wil verstaan of vroulike HUBs (Hoof

Uitvoerende Beamptes) diskriminasie vanaf manlike
kollegas ervaar. ‘n Groep van 8 vroulike HUBs bespreek
hulle ervarings van diskriminasie met mekaar en die
navorser.
Answer

A phenomenological design is used (1) …

… to get in-depth understandings of the women CEO’s

experiences of discrimination from male colleagues (1)
Ethnography
Etnografie
• Study of a “peoples” • Studie van ‘n “volke”
• Unique, culture-sharing groups • Unieke groepe wat ‘n kultuur
• Long-term access deel
• Immersion in the culture • Langtermyn toegang
• Considers context and culture- • Verdieping in die kultuur
shared interpretations of the • Oorweeg konteks en gedeelde-
world kultuur interpretasies van die
• Complex descriptions of various wêreld
phenomena • Komplekse beskrywings van
verskeie fenomene
Ethnography:
Writing about
people
Who are the focus of this ethnographic study and why is it
ethnography and not phenomenology?
Wie is die fokus van hierdie etnografiese studie en waarom
is dit etnografie en nie fenomenologie nie?
Researchers made observations of Navorsers het waarnemings van
local people, participated in daily plaaslike mense gemaak, aan
activities, and did formal daaglikse aktiwiteite deelgeneem,
interviews with the Sikasso people en formele onderhoude met die
in southern Mali between the Sikasso volk in suidelike Mali
years 2011 and 2013. The tussen die jare 2011 en 2013
researchers focused on rites of gevoer. Die navorsers het gefokus
passage into manhood for boys op inwydingsrituele vir seuns tot
and what roles men are expected manwees en watter rolle van
to play in society. mans in die samelewing verwag
word.
Case Study
Gevallestudie
• Highly detailed account of a • Hoogs-gedetailleerde verslag
bounded system or event van ‘n begrensde sisteem of
• Single, specific person, company, gebeurtenis
or event • Enkele, spesifieke persoon,
• Holistic groep of gebeurtenis
• Highly detailed • Holisties
• Variety of data collection • Hoogs-gedetailleerd
methods • Verskeidenheid van data-
insamelingsmetodes
 Personal
(individual)
information Real-world
exemplar to
generalize to
similar cases

Application Unique
of theory to occurrences
existing
practice

Single real-world entity

Who or what is the case study about?
Wie of wat is die gevallestudie oor?
Medical students use practical Mediese studente gebruik praktiese
knowledge, critical thinking, and kennis, kritiese denke, en
problem-solving to diagnose their probleemoplossing om hul pasiënte
patients. Similar skills are used by te diagnoseer. Soortgelyke
psychologists. However, few vaardighede word deur sielkundiges
psychology students exhibit strong gebruik. Tog toon min
critical thinking and reasoning skills. sielkundestudente sterk kritiese
One university is known for denke- en redeneervaardighede. Een
producing graduates with stronger universiteit staan bekend daarvoor
skills through a variety of teaching dat hulle gegradueerdes met sterker
methods which could be understood vaardighede produseer deur 'n
better. verskeidenheid onderrigmetodes wat
beter verstaanbaar kan wees.
Who are the participants and what is the approach / design? Explain your answer
with reference to the scenario (4)
Wie is die deelnemers en wat is die benadering / ontwerp?

A researcher is studying people’s individual experiences

of xenophobic attacks. 10 foreign nationals agree to be
interviewed about their personal experience.

‘n Navorser bestudeer mense se individuele ervarings van

xenofobiese aanvalle. 10 buitelanders stem in tot
onderhoude rakende hul persoonlike ervarings.
Answer
The participants are foreign nationals who have experienced
xenophobic attacks (1; just listing foreign nationals gives ½).

A phenomenological design (1) will be used because …

… the researcher wants an in-depth understanding of a

specific phenomenon (1).

Phenomenology will help understand these participants’

personal experiences of xenophobic attacks (1).
What is the approach / design? Explain your answer referencing the scenario (3)
Wat is die benadering / ontwerp?
A researcher is investigating how an individual with autism spectrum
disorder responds to a new play-based therapy. The researcher is
conducting interviews with various people, making observations with
extensive notes, and searching much literature on how this program would
work.

‘n Navorser ondersoek hoe ‘n individu met outisme spektrum versteuring

reageer op ‘n nuwe spel-gebaseerde terapie. Die navorser voer onderhoude
met verskeie mense, vorm waarnemings met breedvoerige notas, en
deursoek baie literatuur rakende hoe hierdie program sou werk.
Answer

A case study (1) is appropriate because the researcher

is seeking to understand how a …

…single individual with autism spectrum disorder (1;

bounded system) is responding to an intervention.

A case study involves in-depth research into a single

subject or process (1), such as play-based therapy.
Who are the participants and what is the approach / design?
Explain your answer with reference to the scenario. (4)

Illegal immigrants in the USA are often subjected to much

discrimination and many misconceptions exist. However,
many life events can culminate in their arrival in the new
country. A researcher wants to find out what life events took
place over time leading to 3 illegal immigrants arriving in the
USA and their individual experiences of those events.

Onwettige immigrante in die VSA is dikwels onderworpe aan

erge diskriminasie en vele wanopvattings bestaan. Vele
lewensgebeurtenisse kan egter lei tot hul aankoms in die
nuwe land. ‘n Navorser wil vasstel watter
lewensgebeurtenisse plaasgevind het met die verloop van tyd
wat lei na die aankoms van 3 onwettige immigrante in die
VSA en hul individuele ervarings van daardie gebeurtenisse.
Answer

The participants in this study are illegal immigrants in the USA (1).

The sample can be obtained using purposive sampling (1) with the criteria
that the participants must be illegal immigrants living in the USA.

Since the researcher wants to understand the events in the participants’

lives which led them to arriving in the USA, and their experiences of those
events, a narrative design (1) can be used …

… for participants to tell their stories (1)

Narrative Designs
Narratiewe Ontwerpe
• Narrative / Story-telling • Narratief / Storie-vertelling
• Lived stories about a • Geleefde stories rakende ‘n
phenomenon or event fenomeen of gebeurtenis
• Chronological: The phenomenon • Chronologies: Die fenomeen of
or story over time storie oor tyd
• Episodic: The specific story or • Episodies: Die spesifieke storie of
event gebeurtenis
• Highly detailed • Hoogs-gedetailleerd
Narrative Designs
Narratiewe Ontwerpe
Who or what is the case study about? What sort of
information could the researcher get?
Wie of wat is die gevallestudie oor? Watter tipe inligting kan
die navorsers bekom?
Islamic women are often denied even Islamitiese vroue word dikwels selfs basiese
basic education in their own countries. onderrig ontneem in hul eie lande. Tog het
However, some young Islamic women sommige jong Islamitiese vroue geweier om
have refused to accept this practice, left hierdie praktyk te aanvaar, het hul
their family homes at great risk to gesinswoningen verlaat met groot risiko vir
themselves, and travelled to other hulself, en na ander lande gereis as immigrante
countries as immigrants (often illegally) (dikwels onwettig) om toegang tot
to try and obtain access to educational onderwysprogramme te probeer verkry. Ses van
programs. Six of these women agree to
share the story of how they came to the hierdie vroue stem daarmee in om die verhaal te
decision to leave their home and the deel van hoe hulle tot die besluit gekom het om
challenges they experienced in seeking hul huis te verlaat en die uitdagings wat hulle
education as immigrants in a new ondervind het om as immigrante in 'n nuwe land
country which often viewed them as a onderrig te bekom, waar hulle dikwels as 'n
threat due to their religion. bedreiging beskou is as gevolg van hul
godsdiens.
Action Research
Aksienavorsing
• Sample / participants are active • Steekproef / deelnemers is aktiewe
participants in the research deelnemers in die
process navorsingsproses
• Focus on change and community • Fokus op verandering en
solutions gemeenskapsoplossings
• Empowerment • Bemagtiging
• Researcher mediates interventions • Navorser bemiddel intervensies
• Cyclical process: Problem, • Sikliese proses: Probleem,
intervention, consequence, intervensie, gevolg, ontwikkel
develop further interventions for verdere intervensies vir “nuwe
“new” problems probleme”
Who would be interviewed? Explain your answer with reference to the focus of
the study (3)
Met wie sal onderhoude gevoer word?

A researcher is considering how parents with young

children in the Western Cape can be resilient even
though there are very high crime levels.

‘n Navorser oorweeg hoe ouers met jong kinders in die

Wes-Kaap veerkragtig kan wees selfs met die baie hoë
misdaadsyfer.
Answer

The researcher would interview the parents (1) …

… of young children in the Western Cape (1) in a high-

crime area.

The researchers would interview these parents to better

understand how they are resilient (1) despite high crime
levels.
What type of research design is most appropriate? Explain your answer
with reference to the scenario. (4)
Watter tipe navorsingsontwerp is mees gepas?

A researcher is interested in teen girls’ experiences after

being rescued from human trafficking rings. The researcher
wants to understand how they came to be part of the ring as
well as how they were rescued. The researcher identifies 3
girls who meet the purpose of the study.

‘n Navorser is geïnteresseerd in die ervarings van

tienermeisies nadat hulle uit die slawehandel gered is. Die
navorser wil verstaan hoe hulle deel geword het van die
slawehandel sowel as hoe hulle gered is. Die navorser
identifiseer 3 meisies wat aan die doel van hierdie studie
voldoen.
Answer
The researcher will use a narrative design (1) …

… to understand the stories (1) …

… about how the girls came to be part of the ring and how they were rescued (1).

The researcher wants an in-depth account of the girls’ experiences (1)

What type of research design is this and what is the data collection technique?
Explain your answer with reference to the scenario (4)
Watter tipe navorsingsontwerp is hierdie en wat is die tegniek?

A researcher is interested in how Grade 12 mathematics

teachers perceive students who are struggling
academically and what they believe the reasons behind
these struggles are. The researcher wants to develop an
in-depth understanding of the teachers’ perspectives.

‘n Navorser is geïnteresseerd in hoe Graad 12 wiskunde

onderwysers studente waarneem wat akademies sukkel
en wat hulle dink die rede daarvoor is. Die navorser wil ‘n
in-diepte begrip ontwikkel van die onderwysers se
perspektiewe.
Answer

The researcher is using a phenomenological design (1) …

… to understand the phenomenon of teacher’s perceptions

about the reasons that students are struggling academically (1).

The researcher will use interviews (1, see next) or focus groups
(1, see prev) …

… to gain an in-depth understanding of the teachers’

perspectives in their own words (1)
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Geloofwaardigheid en Betroubaarheid
• Research is systematic so data must • Navorsing is sistematies, so data
be credible (valid) and trustworthy moet geloofwaardig (geldig) en
(reliable) betroubaar wees
• Data should be applicable to other • Data moet toepaslik aan ander
contexts kontekste wees
• Interviews with different participants • Onderhoude met ander deelnemers
• Data must be confirmable • Data moet bevestigbaar wees
• Repeating the same study for • Herhaal dieselfde studie vir
confirmation bevestiging
• Methods should be clear so that • Metodes moet duidelik wees sodat
others can repeat the study ander navorsers die studie kan herhaal
• Using multiple data sources to • Die gebruik van veelvoudige data-
confirm ideas and understand bronne om idees te bevestig en om
changing perspectives (triangulation veranderende perspektiewe te
and crystallization of concepts) verstaan (triangulasie en
kristallisasie van konsepte)
Is this data trustworthy?
State why (3)
Is hierdie data betroubaar?
A researcher chooses 12 women to interview about their experiences
of university life. Although the researcher is not interested in any
specific experiences, they believe that the information will be useful.
The researcher writes a final report stating that women have negative
experiences based on “conversations.”

‘n Navorser kies 12 vrouens om mee onderhoude te voer rakende hul

ervarings van universiteitslewe. Alhoewel die navorser nie in enige
spesifieke ervarings geïnteresseer is nie, glo hy dat die inligting nuttig
sal wees. Die navorser skryf ‘n finale verslag waar hy stel dat vrouens
negatiewe ervarings deurgaan gebaseer op “gesprekke”.
Answer

The data is not trustworthy (reliable) (1) …

… because the researcher did not have a systematic approach /

research question / design (1) …

…so the data cannot be trustworthy because the research cannot be

replicated (it is not confirmable). (1)
Summary
Opsomming
• Qualitative research is a systematic process of • Kwalitatiewe navorsing is ‘n sistematiese
gathering in-depth information based on proses van in-diepte inligting versamel,
individual interpretations and social gebaseer op individuele interpretasies en
constructions sosiale konstruksies
• Phenomenology (in-depth understanding of a • Fenomenologie (in-diepte begrip van ‘n
phenomenon) is the most common fenomeen) is die algemeenste kwalitatiewe
qualitative research design navorsingsontwerp
• Non-probability, purposive sampling is often • Nie-waarskynlikheid, doelbewuste
used to ensure that participants can provide steekproefneming word dikwels gebruik om te
suitable information verseker dat deelnemers gepaste inligting kan
• Qualitative research usually uses interviews voorsien
and focus groups • Kwalitatiewe navorsing maak gewoonlik
• Data should accurately reflect a specific gebruik van onderhoude en fokusgroepe
phenomenon and other researchers should • Data moet ‘n spesifieke fenomeen akkuraat
be able to replicate the study reflekteer en ander navorsers behoort in staat
te wees om die studie te herhaal
PSYC312
Study Unit 1: Introduction to
Psychological Research and Core
Concepts

Lecturer/Dosent: Dr Ingrid Opperman

Office/Kantoor: Potchefstroom Campus, E8, G16
Consulting Hours/Spreekure: By Appointment/Per Afspraak
Starting Class

• Ensure that you have a QR code reader or a

camera with a QR code reader activated:
• The QR code should take you to a Google Form which
serves as an attendance register.

• Maak seker dat jy 'n QR-kodeleser het of 'n

kamera met 'n geaktiveerde QR-kodeleser:
• Die QR-kode behoort jou na 'n Google-vorm te neem
wat as 'n teenwoordigheidsregister dien.
In the event you cannot access the Google Form

If you cannot access the QR code or don’t have a reader,

then we can add you to the spreadsheet after class.

If significant numbers of students cannot access the code

then we will revert to a paper/pencil register.

As jy nie toegang tot die QR-kode kan verkry nie of nie 'n
leser het nie, kan ons jou na die sigblad byvoeg na klas.

Indien 'n beduidende aantal studente nie toegang tot die

kode kan verkry nie, sal ons oorgaan na 'n papier-en-
potloodregister.
Planned Assessments (Subject to Change)

Assessment Date Marks % Contribution

MCQ: 18th March 2024 20 10%
Study Unit 1
Mid-semester Test TBC 50 15%
Study Unit 1-3
MCQ: 13th May 2024 50 15%
Study Unit 2 and 3
MCQ: 20th May 2024 20 10%
Study Unit 4
Final Summative 24th May 2024 100 50%
Assignment
Study Materials: Study Unit 1
Studiemateriaal
• Focus on the slides and • Fokus op die skyfies en
lecture content, as well as klasinhoud
the reader provided • Hoofstuk 3 van First Steps
• Chapter 3 of First Steps in in Research (Beplanning
Research (Planning a van ’n Navorsingsvoorstel)
Research proposal) includes bevat goeie inligting
good information about rakende doelstellings en die
purpose statements and rol van navorsing
the role of research • Hersien Hoofstuk 10 van
• Research at Grassroots First Steps in Research
contains a number of useful (Steekproefneming)
chapters on conceptualizing
research (recommended)
 Lecture 1:
Study Section 1.1: Conceptualizing
Research

Studeer Artikel 1.1:

Konseptualisering van Navorsing
Learning outcomes:
1. Explain the concept and purpose of research in the social sciences /
Verduidelik die konsep en doel van navorsing in die sosiale wetenskappe
2. Identify and describe the general research process / Identifiseer en
beskryf die algemene navorsingsproses.
3. Differentiate between the six dimensions of research and explain how
they are linked to the social sciences research process / Maak onderskeid
tussen die ses dimensies van navorsing en verduidelik hoe hulle gekoppel
is aan die navorsingsproses in die sosiale wetenskappe
What is Research?
Wat is Navorsing?

Research is a systematic process of collecting,

analyzing, and interpreting quantitative or
qualitative data to better understand a
phenomenon and answer a research question

Navorsing is ‘n sistematiese proses van

insameling, analise en interpretasie van
kwantitatiewe of kwalitatiewe data om ‘n
fenomeen/verskynsel beter te verstaan en om ‘n
navorsingsvraag te beantwoord
Characteristics of Research: Achieving the Research Goal
Kenmerke van Navorsing: Bereiking van die Navorsingsdoel

Systematic / Sistematies
• Step by Step / Stap-vir-stap
• Logical Process / Logiese Proses
Data: Collect, Analyze, Interpret / Insamel, Analiseer, Interpreteer
• What data? / Watter data?
• Answer the research question / Beantwoord die navorsingsvraag
Increase Understanding / Verdiep begrip
• New phenomena / Nuwe verskynsels/fenomene
• Known phenomena with limited information / Bekende verskynsels/fenomene
met beperkte inligting
• Replication / Replikasie/herhaling
The Six Dimensions of Research

Why? How? Where?

• The scientific • Systematic • The setting
gap or methodology.
question?

What? Who?
• The aim. • The
population When?
Die Ses Dimensies van Navorsing

Hoekom? Hoe? Waar?

• Die wetenskaplike • Sistematiese • Die omgewing.
gaping of vraag? metodologie.

Wat? Wie?
• Die doel. • Die
bevolking/populasie
Wanneer?
Goal of Research / Doel van Navorsing:
To Answer the Research Question
Om die Navorsingsvraag te beantwoord
• Research always begins • Navorsing begin altyd
with a question based met ‘n vraag gebaseer
on… op…
• What is known • Wat bekend is
• What is observed • Wat waargeneem word
• What is important • Wat belangrik is
• Identify the • Identifiseer die
phenomenon of study fenomeen/verskynsel
• Describe, explain, van studie
explore • Beskryf, verduidelik,
verken
What? - The Overall Purposes of Research
Wat? - Die Algemene Doelstellings van
Navorsing
• Answer a research question • Beantwoord 'n
or goal navorsingsvraag of -doel
• Provide insight (explore) • Verskaf insig (verken)
• Describe a phenomenon • Beskryf 'n verskynsel
• Understand cause and • Verstaan oorsaak-en-
effect relationships gevolgverhoudings
• Evaluate social • Evalueer sosiale
interventions intervensies
• Implement social • Implementeer sosiale
interventions intervensies
• Collaborate with • Saamwerk met
communities to bring gemeenskappe om
change verandering te brin
The Research Cycle
Die Navorsingsiklus
• Research follows a • Navorsing volg ‘n sikliese
cyclical process from proses vanaf die
identifying a question to identifikasie van ‘n vraag
reaching a conclusion tot by tot ‘n
• Conclusions usually lead gevolgtrekking kom
to more questions and • Gevolgtrekkings lei
new research gaps gewoonlik na meer vrae
• The steps in the research en nuwe
cycle illustrate the navorsingsgapings
process of research • Die stappe in die
navorsingsiklus illustreer
die proses van navorsing
The Research Cycle
Literature
Review

Purpose
Identifying the Statement of
gap Question and
Contribution

Conclusion Strategy
The
Research
Question

Analysis and
Methodology
Interpretation

Data Ethical
collection Engagement
Die Navorsingsiklus
Literatuur-
oorsig

Doelstelling van
Identifikasie van
Vraag en
die gaping
Bydrae

Gevolgtrekking Strategie

Die
Navorsings-
vraag

Analise en
Metodologie
Interpretasie

Etiese
Data-insameling
betrokkenheid
Identifying Dimensions:
Identifikasie van Dimensies:
Do students in large classes have poorer examination
results than students in small classes?
Het studente in groot klasse swakker eksamenuitslae as
studente in klein klasse?

• Why is the research being conducted? / Hoekom word

die navorsing uitgevoer?
• What is the aim of the research? / Wat is die doel van
die navorsing?
• Who are the participants? / Wie is die deelnemers?
• Where is the setting? / Waar is die omgewing?
Basic Phases of the Research Process
Basiese fases van die navorsingsproses
• Focusing (framing the • Fokus (raming van die
research) – What and Why navorsing) - Wat en
• Planning (designing the Waarom
research) - How • Beplanning (ontwerp van
• Implementing (doing the die navorsing) - Hoe
research) – Who and • Implementering (uitvoering
where? van die navorsing) - Wie en
• Analyzing (interpreting the waar?
research) • Analise (interpreteer die
• Reporting (disseminating navorsing)
the research) • Verslagdoening
(verspreiding van die
navorsing)
Identifying a Topic to Research
Identifisering van 'n Onderwerp om Navorsing
oor te doen
• What do you want to know? • Wat wil jy weet? Hoekom?
Why? • Bronne van navorsing
• Sources of research topics: onderwerpe:
• Practice • Praktyk
• Theory • Teorie
• Previous research • Vorige navorsing
• Personal interest • Persoonlike belangstelling
• Suitable research topics are • Geskikte navorsing onderwerpe is
scientifically researchable: wetenskaplik navorsbaar:
• Testable (open to proof or • Toetsbaar (oop vir bewys of
disproof) weerlê)
• Require data interpretation • Vereis data-interpretasie
• Speak to significance, not just the • Spreek tot betekenis, nie net die
current status huidige status nie
• Contribute to knowledge • Dra by tot kennis
• Can be linked to what is known • Kan gekoppel word aan wat
bekend is
Lecture 1 & 2
Study Section 1.2.: Literature Reviews:

Studie Afdeling 1.2: Literatuuroorsigte:

Focusing and framing the research project
• Describe the purpose of a literature review;
• Explain and describe the process of conducting a literature review

Fokus en raam die navorsingsprojek

• Beskryf die doel van 'n literatuuroorsig;
• Verduidelik en beskryf die proses van die uitvoering van 'n literatuuroorsig.
Steps to Frame the Proposed Study

Stappe om die Voorgestelde Studie te Raam

1. Identify the topic 1. Identifiseer die onderwerp
2. Formulate the research 2. Formuleer die
question navorsingsvraag
3. Assess the suitability of the 3. Evalueer die geskiktheid
approach van die benadering
4. Develop the proposal 4. Ontwikkel die voorstel
5. Consider the place of 5. Oorweeg die plek van
literature and theory in the literatuur en teorie in die
rationale rasionaal
6. Consider the ethical 6. Oorweeg die etiese
implications implikasies

A thorough literature review 'n Deeglike literatuuroorsig dra

contributes to all six steps by tot alle ses stappe.
Purpose of the Literature Review
Doel van die Literatuuroorsig
Motivate the research
Bemotiveer die navorsing
Provide background context
Verskaf agtergrondkonteks
Basis of comparison for your findings
Grondslag van vergelyking vir jou bevindinge
Justify your method
Regverdig jou metode
Show the gap
Wys die gaping
Importance of the Literature Review
Belangrikheid van die Literatuuroorsig
• Clarifying and refining the topic • Verduideliking en verfyning van
and goal die onderwerp en doel
• Rationale for the theoretical • Rasionaal vir die teoretiese
framework of the study raamwerk van die studie
• Identifying where knowledge • Identifisering van waar
gaps exist kennisleemtes bestaan
• Identifying weaknesses in • Identifisering van swakhede in
existing studies bestaande studies
• Understanding how others have • Die begrip van hoe ander
studied the same topic can help dieselfde onderwerp bestudeer
refine the planned research het, kan help om die beplande
methods navorsingsmetodes te verfynder
• Understanding the likely ethical • Begrip van die waarskynlike
implications of similar research etiese implikasies van
soortgelyke navorsing
Literature Reviews Improve the Quality of
Topics
Literatuuroorsigte verbeter die kwaliteit van
onderwerpe.
• Good research topics • Goeie
contribute and can be navorsingonderwerpe dra
linked to what is known – by en kan gekoppel word
based on the literature aan wat bekend is -
review gebaseer op die
• Understand how the study literatuuroorsig
enhances relevant, existing • Verstaan hoe die studie
knowledge relevante, bestaande kennis
• Identify practical needs for verbeter
studies to fill • Identifiseer praktiese
• Demonstrate relevance to behoeftes vir studies om in
current issues te vul
• Demonstreer relevansie tot
huidige kwessies
 The Literature Review Process
Afrikaans

Preparation Retrieval Appraisal Synthesis / Writing

Summarizing
What is the topic? Keywords and terms Skim content Note taking Description
What resources do you Filters Relevance Themes Analysis / Critique
have? Searches Argue your point of view

Wat is die onderwerp? Sleutelwoorde en terme Deur inhoud blader Nota neem Beskrywing Ontleding /
Watter hulpbronne het Filters Relevansie Temas Kritiek Bepleit jou
jy? standpunt
Soektogte
Guided Practical Exercises: Doing a literature search
Afrikaans

• Topic: Metacognitive strategies and memory

• Aim: To find out if metacognitive strategies affect memory performance
• Refined aim?:
• Keywords to search: …
• Looking at results on Google Scholar
Steps to Write a Good Literature Review
Stappe om 'n Goeie Literatuuroorsig te Skryf

Understand the Identify key terms / Evaluate sources /

purpose / Verstaan die Identifiseer Search / Soek
doel sleutelbegrippe Evalueer bronne

Present the opening

Develop an outline /
State the objectives / and background / Dien Organize sources /
Ontwikkel 'n
Stel die doelwitte vas die opening en Organiseer bronne
uiteensetting
agtergrond in

Paraphrase the Conclude and explain

information / the gap / Trek 'n
Herformuleer die gevolgtrekking en
inligting verduidelik die gaping
Lecture 2:
Approaches to Research
Benaderings tot Navorsing
Approaches to research and how reasoning works
• Describe and distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning
• Describe and distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research methods
Benaderings tot navorsing en hoe redenasie werk
• Beskryf en onderskei tussen induktiewe en deduktiewe redenasie
• Beskryf en onderskei tussen kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe navorsingsmetodes
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Approaches
Induktiewe en Deduktiewe Redenasie Benaderings
Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning
Induktiewe Redenasie Deduktiewe Redenasie
Likely conclusions based on evidence Conclusion Testing
Waarskynlike gevolgtrekkings op bewyse gebaseer Toetsing van Gevolgtrekkings
Bottom up Top down
Van onder tot bo Van bo tot onder
Principles based on observations Collecting data (observations) to demonstrate
Beginsels gebaseer op waarnemings principles / hypotheses
Insameling van data (waarnemings) om beginsels /
hipoteses te demonstreer
Broad integration Evidence-based conclusions
Breë integrasie Bewysgebaseerde gevolgtrekkings
Open-ended Pre-existing theories
Oop-einde Voorafbestaande teorieë
Exploratory Specific hypothesis
Verkennend Spesifieke hipotese
Researcher is “unknowing” Researcher is the “expert”
Navorser is “onwetend” Navorser is die “kundige”
Explore broad data Collect specific data
Verken breë data Samel spesifieke data in
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Approaches
Induktiewe en Deduktiewe Redenasie Benaderings

Inductive Reasoning: Bottom Up Deductive Reasoning: Top Down

Induktiewe Redenasie: Van Onder tot Bo Deduktiewe Redenasie: Van Bo tot Onder

Conceptualization of Theory or Concepts Theory and Hypothesis

Konseptualisering van Teorie of Konsepte Teorie en Hipotese

Generalization and Grouping Themes Prediction or Likely Outcomes

Veralgemening en Groepering van Temas Voorspelling of Waarskynlike Uitkomstes

Observation Empirical Testing

Waarneming Empiriese Toetsing
Inductive and Deductive Research
Induktiewe en Deduktiewe Navorsing

Phenomenon
Fenomeen/Verskynsel

Observation From Theory

Waarneming Vanaf Teorie

Data Collection
Data-insameling

Detailed Accounts Empirical Observation

Gedetailleerde verslae Empiriese Waarneming

Analysis
Analise

In-depth Ideas / Themes Logical Statistics

In-Diepte Idees / Temas Logiese Statistieke

Conclusions
Gevolgtrekkings
Grouped Ideas and Theory Confirm or Reject Hypothesis
Gegroepeerde Idees en Teorie Bevestig of Verwerp Hipotese
Inductive or Deductive?
Induktief of Deduktief?
Cognitive theories state that people perform better on
tests when temperatures are colder. The researcher
compares people who did the test in the cold to those
who did the test in a hot room. The results show that
people who did the test in the cold room performed
better.

Kognitiewe teorieë hou voor dat mense beter presteer in

toetse wanneer temperature laer is. Die navorser
vergelyk mense wat die toets in die koue afgelê het met
mense wat die toets in ‘n warm kamer afgelê het. Die
uitslae toon dat mense wat die toets in die koue kamer
afgelê het beter presteer het.
Inductive or Deductive?
Induktief of Deduktief?
Students often discuss the importance of their study
guide in how effective their learning is. Many students
mention that the study guide helps them focus their
learning. The institution decides to implement clearer,
more detailed study guides based on the theory that this
will enhance student success.

Studente bespreek dikwels die belang van hulle

studiegids in hoe effektief hulle studeer. Baie studente
noem dat die studiegids hulle bystaan om hulle studies
te fokus. Die instansie besluit om duideliker, meer
gedetailleerde studiegidse te implementeer, gebaseer
op die teorie dat dit die studente se prestasie sal
verbeter.
Types of Research Design or Approach
Tipes Navorsingsontwerp of -benadering
• Qualitative • Kwalitatief
• Inductive • Induktief
• Building theories • Die bou van teorieë
• “Rich” and complex data • “Ryk” en komplekse data
such as interviews soos onderhoude

• Quantitative • Kwantitatief
• Deductive • Deduktief
• Derived from Theory • Afgelei uit Teorie
• Clear hypotheses • Duidelike hipoteses
• Specific data for the • Spesifieke data vir die
question vraag
Qualitative or Quantitative
Kwalitatief of Kwantitatief
The researchers want to explore how women in
Afghanistan feel about Islamic law. Private interviews
are conducted with 9 women to discuss this topic and
many new insights emerge from which the researchers
create a broad conceptualization of how these women
feel.

Die navorsers wil verken hoe vrouens in Afghanistan oor

Islamitiese wet voel. Private onderhoude word gehou
met 9 vrouens om hierdie onderwerp te bespreek en
baie nuwe insigte kom na vore waaruit die navorsers ‘n
breë konseptualisering skep oor hoe hierdie vrouens
voel.
Quantitative (Numerical) Research
Kwantitatiewe (Numeriese) Navorsing

• Describe numerically • Beskryf numeries

Descriptive Beskrywend
• Overview • Oorsig

• Compare different • Vergelyk verskillende

Experimental conditions / interventions Eksperimenteel toestande / intervensies
• Compare outcomes • Vergelyk uitkomstes

• Compare outcomes • Vergelyk uitkomstes

• No interventions • Geen intervensies
Observational Waarnemend
• Observe the state of the • Neem die stand van die
phenomenon fenomeen/verskynsel waar
Qualitative (In-depth) Research
Kwalitatiewe (In-diepte) Navorsing

• Groepbesprekings
• Group discussions Fokusgroepe
Focus Groups • Details rakende ‘n
and Interviews
• Details about a topic en onderwerp
• New ideas explored Onderhoude • Verken nuwe idees

• Personal impressions • Persoonlike indrukke

In-depth • Details In-diepte • Details
Understanding • Open-ended or guided Begrip • Oop-einde of gerig
• Focus on interpretations • Fokus op interpretasies

• Deep investigation of the • Diep ondersoek van die

phenomenon fenomeen/verskynsel
Exploratory
• Exploring new ideas
Verkennend • Verken nuwe idees
• Open to change • Oop vir verandering
Qualitative or Quantitative
Kwalitatief of Kwantitatief
Researchers want to describe the number of students
on a university campus who own cars. This research is
important as many students spend a lot of time travelling
which might impact their studies. The researcher
analyzes the data and concludes that ~60% of students
on campus own a car.

Navorsers wil die hoeveelheid student wat karre besit op

‘n universiteitskampus omskryf. Hierdie navorsing is
belangrik omdat baie studente baie tyd aan reis
spandeer wat dan ‘n impak op hulle studies mag hê. Die
navorser analiseer die data en kom tot die
gevolgtrekking dat ~60% van studente op kampus ‘n kar
besit.
Unique Steps in Qualitative vs Quantitative Research
Unieke Stappe in Kwalitatiewe vs Kwantitatiewe
Navorsing:
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Kwalitatiewe Navorsing Kwantitatiewe Navorsing
• Idea acknowledging assumptions and • Idea and hypothesis (theory)
interpretations
• Define variables and how to measure them
• Understand the theoretical paradigm
• Select a research design
• Select a research design or strategy
• Collect and analyze data
• Collect and analyze data
• Deductively draw conclusions
• Interpret conclusions

• Idee en Hipotese (Teorie)

• Ideë Erken van Aannames en Interpretasies
• Definieer veranderlikes en hoe om hulle te
• Verstaan die Teoretiese Paradigma meet
• Kies 'n Navorsingsontwerp of -strategie • Kies 'n navorsingsontwerp
• Versamel en Analiseer Data • Versamel en analiseer data
• Interpreteer Gevolgtrekkings • Deduktief trek gevolgtrekkings
Case Study

A researcher is considering the reasons that married rural women choose

not to leave abusive husbands. A literature review shows that many of
these women are uneducated and unemployed; therefore, they feel
unable to leave their husbands. Family systems theory understands the
family as a single, emotionally interdependent unit where the emotions
and needs of one family member influence those of the family members
around them. The researcher decides to investigate whether the women
who are unwilling to leave abusive husbands feel that way due to
pragmatic issues such as living costs or due to emotional states of
helplessness which developed within the family unit.

• Qualitative or quantitative?
• How was inductive reasoning used to decide what to investigate?
• Which theory with the discussion and conclusions be based on?
• What type of information should be included in the literature review?
• What assumptions has the researcher made about the study and what
conclusions they might find?
Case Study

In the previous scenario, the researcher made the

following assumptions: a) that family systems theory
is “true”; b) that the women experience pragmatic
difficulties and emotional helplessness; and c) that
these women would be able to express these
challenges honestly to the researcher.

Why are these assumptions and not a hypothesis?

Can this topic be investigated quantitatively by using
deductive reasoning and a hypothesis?
Social Roles of Researchers
Sosiale Rolle van Navorsers
Make sense of social life
Maak sin van sosiale lewe

Contribute to interventions
Dra by tot intervensies

Better communities
Verbeter gemeenskappe

Understand global issues

Verstaan wêreldkwessies

Understand cultures
Verstaan kulture

Find solutions
Vind oplossings
Summary / Opsomming
• Research is a systematic process of • Navorsing is ‘n sistematiese proses van
answering a question by collecting and die beantwoording van ‘n vraag deur data
analyzing data in te samel en te analiseer
• The research process can be deductive (top- • Die navorsingsproses kan deduktief (bo
down, quantitative) or inductive (bottom-up, tot onder, kwantitatief) of induktief
qualitative) (onder tot bo, kwalitatief) wees
• Research is carried out in a cycle where final • Navorsing word in ‘n siklus uitgevoer
conclusions pose more/new research
questions
waar finale gevolgtrekkings meer/nuwe
navorsingsvrae stel
• Research must focus on “why,” “what,”
“how,” “who,” “where,” and “when.” • Navorsing moet fokus op “hoekom”,
“wat”, “hoe”, “wie”, “waar” en
• The “who” is determined by sampling – “wanneer”.
identifying representatives of the population
• Die “wie” word vasgestel deur
• Researchers have a variety of important steekproefneming – identifisering van
social roles, such as furthering interventions verteenwoordigers van die populasie
and contributing to global knowledge
• Navorsers beklee ‘n verskeidenheid van
belangrike sosiale rolle, soos die
bevordering van intervensies en bydrae
tot wêreldkennis
PSYC312
Study Unit 6: Data Analysis and Practical
Application
Leereenheid 6: Data-Analise en Praktiese
Toepassing
Lecturer/Dosent: Dr Ingrid Opperman
Office/Kantoor: Potchefstroom Campus, E8, G16
Consulting Hours/Spreekure: By Appointment/Per afspraak
Learning Outcomes
Leeruitkomste
• Formulate a good research • Formuleer ‘n goeie
question navorsingsvraag
• Apply the different methods of • Pas die verskillende metodes van
qualitative data collection kwalitatiewe data-insameling toe
• Understand the importance of • Verstaan die belangrikheid van
aligning data collection, research die belyning van data-insameling,
design, and data analysis navorsingsontwerp en data-
• Understand the different analise
methods of qualitative data • Verstaan die verskillende
analysis metodes van kwalitatiewe data-
• Be able to write and compile a analise
research proposal in accordance • Wees in staat om ‘n
with APA rules navorsingsontwerp te skryf en
saam te stel in ooreenstemming
met die APA-reëls
Study Materials
Studiemateriaal
• Chapter 1 of First Steps in • Hoofstuk 1 van First Steps in
Research, the sections on Research, die gedeeltes oor
Research Questions Navorsingsvrae
• Review the content of Chapter • Hersien die inhoud van
2: The Language of Research Hoofstuk 2: The Language of
in First Steps in Research for Research in First Steps in
context Research vir konteks
• Review the content of Chapter • Hersien die inhoud van
3: Planning a Research Hoofstuk 3: Planning a
Proposal in First Steps in Research Proposal in First
Research for guidance Steps in Research vir leiding
• Chapter 6: Analyzing • Hoofstuk 6: Analise van
Qualitative Data in First Steps Kwalitatiewe Data in First
in Research (Qualitative Steps in Research
Analysis). (Kwalitatiewe Analise).
Revision: Research Questions
Hersiening: Navorsingsvrae
• Research questions are • Navorsingsvrae word
formulated once the geformuleer sodra die
objectives of the study are doelwitte van die studie
clear duidelik is
• Objectives and topic are based • Doelwitte en onderwerp is
on prior literature reviews gebaseer op vorige
literatuuroorsigte
• Guides the literature review
for the specific study • Rig die literatuuroorsig vir die
spesifieke studie
• Provides a focus for
methodology and data • Voorsien ‘n fokus vir
collection metodologie en data-
insameling
• The research question,
methodology, data analysis, • Die navorsingsvraag,
and conclusions must be metodologie, data-analise en
aligned gevoltrekkings moet belyn
wees
Research Questions Develop with the Study

Focus on specific aspects of

Broad topics in the literature
the literature for the study

Specific Research
Question

Use of topic to align methods

Ensuring the research
reflected in the research
question is answerable
question
Navorsingsvrae Ontwikkel Saam met die Studie

Breë onderwerpe in die Fokus op spesifieke aspekte

literatuur van die literatuur vir die studie

Spesifieke
Navorsingsvraag

Gebruik van onderwerp om

Verseker dat die
metodes te belyn wat in die
navorsingsvraag beantwoord
navorsingsvraag gereflekteer
kan word
word
Types of Research Questions
Tipes Navorsingsvrae
• Descriptive: What • Beskrywend: Watter
proportion of psychology proporsie van sielkunde-
students live in studente bly in koshuise?
residences? • Verduidelikend: Is
• Explanatory: Is living in a akademiese prestasie
residence associated with beter as jy in ‘n koshuis
higher academic marks eerder as van kampus af
than living off campus? bly?
• Exploratory: How does • Verkennend: Wat is die
living in a residence impak van koshuislewe
impact the way students op die manier wat
study? studente studeer?
Identify the types of the following research questions
Identifiseer die tipes van die volgende navorsingsvrae

How many prisoners were abused as children?

Hoeveel gevangenes was as kinders mishandel?

What are the experiences of young women living in

mixed-gender residences?
Wat is jong vrouens se ervarings van inwoning in
gemengde-geslag koshuise?

Are men more likely than women to participate in

surveys about alcohol usage?
Is mans meer geneig as vrouens om deel te neem aan
opnames rakende die gebruik van alkohol?
Good Research Questions
Goeie Navorsingsvrae
• Concise (specific focus) • Bondig (spesifieke fokus)
• Clear • Duidelik
• Operationalizable (can be • Operasionaliseerbaar (kan
implemented) geïmplementeer word)
• Open-ended (no obvious • Oop-einde (geen voor die
answer) hand liggende antwoord nie)
• Elegant and simple • Elegant en eenvoudig
• Timely • Tydig
• Theoretically rich (can lead to • Teoreties ryk (kan na nuwe
new questions) vrae lei)
• Puzzle features (addresses a • Raaisel-eienskappe (spreek ‘n
problem) probleem aan)
• Self-explanatory • Self-verduidelikend
Poor Research Questions Cannot Align with
the Methods and Analysis
Swak Navorsingsvrae Kan Nie met die
Metodes en Analises Belyn word nie
• Developmental (how can…); what • Ontwikkelend (hoe kan…); watter
data would be analyzed? data sal geanaliseer word?
• Planning (how will we…); What • Beplanning (hoe sal ons…); Watter
design would be used? ontwerp sal gevolg word?
• Obvious answer; Why is the research • Voor die hand liggende antwoord;
needed? Hoekom is die navorsing nodig?
• Needs analysis; What data would be • Benodig analise; Watter data sal
analyzed and how? geanaliseer word en hoe?
• Preaching (how do we ensure…); Not • Predikend (hoe verseker ons…); Nie in
in line with inductive reasoning lyn met induktiewe beredenerings-
processes. prosesse nie.
• Committed (decided on an answer); • Toegewyd (besluit op ‘n antwoord);
Not in line with inductive reasoning Nie in lyn met induktiewe
processes. beredenerings-prosesse nie.
• Solution-seeking; How would the • Oplossing-soekend; Hoe sal die
analysis from participants create a analise van deelnemers tot 'n
conclusion? gevolgtrekking lei?
Are the following research questions good?
Is die volgende goeie navorsingsvrae?

What methods can be used to ensure that students

attend all classes and enjoy their studies?
Watter metodes kan gebruik word om te verseker
dat studente al hulle klasse bywoon en hul studies
geniet?

What is the relationship between alcohol

consumption on amount of time spent studying?
Wat is die verwantskap tussen alkoholgebruik en die
hoeveelheid tyd wat aan studie spandeer word?
How do the following research questions align with
(which?) research design?
Hoe belyn die volgende navorsingsvrae met (watter?)
navorsingsontwerp?
What is the relationship between travel time to campus and hours
spent studying?
Wat is die verwantskap tussen reistyd na kampus en ure wat aan
studie spandeer word?

What are the experiences of young women who are unable to

attend classes due to child-care responsibilities?
Wat is die ervarings van jong vrouens wat as gevolg van
kindersorg-verantwoordelikhede nie klas kan bywoon nie?

Do more women than men take on traditional childcare roles?

Neem meer vrouens as mans tradisionele kindersorg-rolle aan?
Creating a purpose statement
Die skepping van ‘n doelstelling
A purpose statement is a “summary” of 'n Doelstelling is 'n "opsomming" van
the research plan die navorsingsplan
• The topic • Die onderwerp
• The sample and design • Die steekproef en ontwerp
• The alignment between the sample, • Die belyning tussen die steekproef,
design, data collection method, and ontwerp, data-insamelingsmetode,
data analysis en data-analise

The purpose/objective of this (research Die doel/doelwit van hierdie

approach and design) study is to (navorsingsbenadering en –ontwerp)
(…understand? describe? explore?) the studie is om die (fenomeen) te
(phenomenon) for/of (sample) in/at (…verstaan? beskryf? verken?) vir/van
(research site). The (phenomenon) will (steekproef) in/by (navorsingsligging).
be studied using (method) to Die (fenomeen) sal bestudeer word met
understand (research question/specific die gebruik van (metode) om
objective/hypothesis). (navorsingsvraag/spesifieke
doelwit/hipotese) te verstaan.
Identify each component of the purpose statement
Identifiseer elke komponent van die doelstelling
The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological
study is the understand immigrants’ perceptions of
xenophobia in Soweto. The study will use individual,
semi-structured interviews to explore immigrants’
perceptions of how xenophobia affects their daily lives.

Die doel van hierdie kwalitatiewe, fenomenologiese

studie is om immigrante se persepsies van xenofobie
in Soweto te verstaan. Die studie sal gebruik maak van
individuele, semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude om
immigrante se persepsies rakende hoe xenofobie hul
daaglikse lewe affekteer, te verken.
Qualitative Data Analysis: Focus
Kwalitatiewe Data-analise: Fokus
• Focus on exploration, • Fokus op verkenning,
understanding, begryping, interpretasie en
interpretation, and themes temas
• Interpretivist: Focus on • Interpritivisties: Fokus op
individual meanings individuele betekenisse
• Inductive: Themes and • Induktief: Temas en
categories of information kategorieë van inligting
emerge tree na vore
• Deductive: Themes and • Deduktief: Temas en
categories of information kategorieë van inligting
are looked for (pre- word na gesoek (vooraf op
decided); Applies to some besluit); Van toepassing op
forms of content analysis sommige vorme van
inhoudsanalise
Qualitative Data Analysis: Methods
Kwalitatiewe Data-Analise: Metodes
• Thematic Analysis (most common) • Tematiese Analise (mees algemeen)
• Derive categories and themes from the data • Lei kategorieë en temas vanuit die data af
• Group meanings • Groepeer betekenisse
• What are the themes of meaning? • Wat is die temas van betekenis?
• Content Analysis • Inhoudsanalise
• Summarize content • Som inhoud op
• Similarities and differences • Ooreenkomste en verskille
• What is said? • Wat word gesê?
• Narrative analysis • Narratiewe analise
• Stories of (usually) chronological lived • Stories van (gewoonlik) chronologies
experiences geleefde ervarings
• Organization and content of story • Organisasie en inhoud van storie
• Common “themes” in the story • Algemene “temas” in die storie
• Discourse Analysis • Diskoers-analise
• Meaning of spoken/written words (not • Betekenis van gesproke/geskrewe woorde
interactions) (nie interaksies nie)
• Conversation Analysis • Gespreksanalise
• Talk in interaction • Gesprek in interaksie
• Hermeneutics • Hermeneutiek
• Interpreting textual data • Interpretasie van tekstuele data
• Cycle between the whole and the parts • Siklus tussen die geheel en die gedeeltes
Conducting Qualitative (Thematic) Data Analysis

Bestuur van Kwalitatiewe (Tematiese) Data-Analise

• Prepare the data • Berei die data voor

• Describe the sample • Beskryf die steekproef
• Transcribe and organize • Transkribeer en organiseer
• Immerse • Verdiep
• Coding • Kodering
• Meaningful units • Betekenisvolle eenhede
• Marking data segments focusing on • Merk data-segmente wat fokus op
meaning betekenis
• Similar codes become categories • Soortgelyke kodes word kategorieë
• Similar categories become themes • Soortgelyke kategorieë word temas
• Organize and structure themes • Organiseer en struktureer temas
• Combination of related codes • Kombinasie van verwante kodes
• Recurrence until data saturation • Herhaling tot data-versadiging bereik
• Adjust and recombine definitions word
• Notice links between themes • Definisies word aangepas en
herkombineer
• Neem kennis van skakels tussen temas
Thematic Analysis: Preparing the Data
Tematiese Analise: Voorbereiding van die Data

• Interview recordings, videos, or • Onderhoud-opnames, video's of

graphics in a format suitable for grafika in 'n formaat wat gepas is vir
analysis (e.g., transcribed) die analise (bv. getranskribeer)
• Before starting analysis, the • Voordat die navorser begin met
researcher should: analise, moet hy/sy:
• Be able to comprehensively describe • In staat wees om die steekproef
the sample deeglik te beskryf
• Have data which is organized and • Data hê wat georganiseerd en gepas is
suitable for analysis (e.g., vir die analise (bv. transkripsies van
transcriptions of interviews, graphics onderhoude, grafika wat volgens
organized by participant) deelnemer georganiseer is)
• Become familiar with all the responses • Vertroud raak met al die response
(data; immersion) (data; immersie)
• Anonymize the data (e.g., Participant • Maak die data anoniem (anonimiseer)
1) (bv. Deelnemer 1)
• The characteristics of the sample are • Die eienskappe van die steekproef is
important for the interpretation of belangrik vir die interpretasie van die
the data analysis data-analise
• People with characteristic X tended to • Mense met eienskap X was geneig om
express theme X tema X uit te druk
Thematic Analysis: Coding the Data
Tematiese Analise: Kodering van die Data

• Codes: Identify small pieces • Kodes: Identifiseer klein

of relevant information stukkies relevante inligting
from what participants say uit dit wat deelnemers sê
• Focus on what is expressed • Fokus op dit wat deur
by participants deelnemers uitgedruk word
• In line with the goal of the • In lyn met die doel van die
research: What information navorsing: Watter inligting
is relevant to the study? is relevant tot die studie?
• Codes reflect the ideas in • Kodes reflekteer die idees in
thematic analysis tematiese analise
• Difference: Codes reflect • Verskil: Kodes reflekteer die
the content (what is said) in inhoud (wat gesê is) in
content analysis inhoudsanalise
Thematic Analysis: Organizing Themes
Tematiese Analise: Organisering van Temas

• Codes describe the ideas in • Kodes beskryf die idees in die

the interviews (transcripts) onderhoude (transkripsies)
• Themes: • Temas:
• Groups of related codes • Groepe van verwante kodes
• Patterns in ideas or thoughts • Patrone in idees of gedagtes
• Reflective of meaning and • Refleksie van betekenis en
interpretations in relation to interpretasies verwant aan die
the research focus navorsingsfokus
• Themes keep the research • Temas hou die
question in mind navorsingsvraag in gedagte
• Answer the question • Beantwoord die vraag
• Do not look for a specific, • Soek nie na ’n spesifiek,
pre-determined answer voorafbepaalde antwoord nie
Thematic Analysis: Reviewing Themes
Tematiese Analise: Hersiening van Temas

• Themes (and codes) are • Temas (en kodes) word

frequently reworked or gereeld hersien of
combined herkombineer
• Descriptively name themes • Benoem temas beskrywend
• Reflective of meaning • Refleksie van betekenis,
considering interpretations, met oorweging van
context, and the research interpretasies, konteks en
question die navorsingsvraag
• Themes are reviewed in • Temas word hersien binne
context of: die konteks van:
• Sample characteristics • Steekproef-eienskappe
• The research question or aim • Die navorsingsvraag of -doel
Generating and Reviewing Themes
Generasie en Hersiening van Temas

In this context, “perceived lack of skills” could be reworked to “uncertainty” about skills,
particularly the development of new skills. This could also reflect concerns about lack of
competence or uncertainty about new methods interpreted in context of the sample,
type of work (social construction), and research question.

In hierdie konteks kan “perceived lack of skills” herwerk word na

“onsekerheid/twyfelagtigheid” oor vaardighede, in besonder die ontwikkeling van nuwe
vaardighede. Dit kan ook bekommernisse aan ’n gebrek aan bevoegdheid reflekteer,
sowel as onsekerheid oor nuwe metodes wat binne die konteks van die steekproef
geïnterpreteer word, die tipe werk (sosiale konstruksie), en die navorsingsvraag.
Interpreting Qualitative Analyses
Die Interpretasie van Kwalitatiewe
Analises
• Descriptive summaries of • Beskrywende opsommings van
categories and structures kategorieë en strukture
• Analytical understanding of links • Analitiese begrip van skakels
• Investigate new ideas and • Ondersoek nuwe idees en
emerging patterns related to the opkomende patrone wat verwant is
research question and literature aan die navorsingsvraag en die
• Re-link to existing theories literatuur
• Take on multiple perspectives • Skakel weer aan bestaande teorieë
• Aanvaar veelvoudige perspektiewe
• Draw conclusions about the
research question • Kom tot gevolgtrekkings rakende die
• Thematic analysis is inductive: navorsingsvraag
• Themes emerge from the data • Tematiese analise is induktief:
• Deductive: The researcher • Temas ontstaan vanuit die data
searches for specific themes in • Deduktief: Die navorser soek na
the data spesifieke temas in die data
Qualitative Research Study: Students’ challenges in
studying from home during the COVID-19 pandemic
Kwalitatiewe Navorsingstudie: Studente se uitdagings om
tuis te studeer tydens die COVID-19 pandemie
Participant 1: Studying at home was difficult because my parents often
distracted me by asking me to tend to chores while I was trying to study. It
made me feel very stressed and anxious.
Deelnemer 1: Om tuis te studeer was moeilik, want my ouers het gereeld
my aandag afgetrek deur my te vra om huistakies te doen terwyl ek
probeer studeer. Dit het veroorsaak dat ek baie stres en angs ervaar het.

Participant 2: The biggest challenge studying at home was the amount of

noise next door. Because they weren’t working, they kept having parties
even though they shouldn’t. I couldn’t concentrate and I worried about my
studies a lot.
Deelnemer 2: Die grootste uitdaging daarvan om tuis te studeer, was die
groot geraas by die bure. Omdat hulle nie gewerk het nie, het hulle
heeltyd partytjies gehou, selfs al behoort hulle dit nie te gedoen het nie.
Ek kon nie konsentreer nie en was baie bekommerd oor my studies.
Qualitative Research Study: Students’ challenges in
studying from home during the COVID-19 pandemic
Kwalitatiewe Navorsingstudies: Studente se uitdagings
om tuis te studeer tydens die COVID-19 pandemie
Results / Resultate
Thematic data analysis will be used to inductively find themes in what
the two participants said.
Tematiese data-analise sal gebruik word om op ‘n induktiewe manier
temas te vind in dit wat die twee deelnemers gesê het.
Focus of the study / research: Name the focus
Fokus van die studie / navorsing: Noem die fokus
Look for information from both the participants which could go together:
Soek na inligting vanaf beide deelnemers wat by mekaar kan pas:
Theme 1: Name the theme
Tema 1: Noem die tema
Theme 2: Name the theme
Tema 2: Noem die tema
Qualitative Research Study: Students’ challenges in
studying from home during the COVID-19 pandemic
Kwalitatiewe Navorsingstudies: Studente se uitdagings
om tuis te studeer tydens die COVID-19 pandemie
Conclusions / Gevolgtrekkings
The research question is:
Die navorsingsvraag is:

This study found that participants…….

Hierdie studie het bevind dat deelnemers…….
1.
2.

The study can conclude that……

Hierdie studie kan tot die gevolgtrekking kom dat…….
1.
2.
Qualitative Data: Trustworthiness
Kwalitatiewe Data: Betroubaarheid
• Credibility (internally valid) • Geloofwaardigheid (intern geldig)
• Validity of the conclusion • Geldigheid van die gevolgtrekking
• Conclusion matching the “reality” reported on • Gevolgtrekking pas by die “realiteit” waaroor daar
verslag gedoen is
• Transferability (applicability)
• Findings apply to other situations • Oordraagbaarheid
(toepaslikheid/aanwendbaarheid)
• Contextual inferences
• Bevindinge is van toepassing op ander situasies
• Dependability (reliable, consistent) • Kontekstuele gevolgtrekkings
• Findings established in a systematic research context • Betroubaarheid (betroubaar, konsekwent)
• Variability in results and findings is normal in
qualitative research • Bevindinge gevestig in ’n sistematiese
navorsingskonteks
• Reflect ranges of experience
• Veranderlikheid in resultate en bevindinge is normaal
• Confirmability (replicable, objective) in kwalitatiewe navorsing
• Reflekteer reekse van ervarings
• Check and re-check of quality of data collection and
analysis (reported accurately)
• Bevestigbaarheid (herhaalbaar, objektief)
• Iterative process of developing themes during
analysis • Kontroleer en herkontroleer die kwaliteit van data-
insameling en -analise (akkurate verslagdoening)
• Researcher bias does not influence findings
(objectivity) • Iteratiewe proses waar temas tydens analise
ontwikkel word
• Navorser se vooroordeel beïnvloed nie bevindinge nie
(objektiwiteit)
Strategies to Ensure Trustworthiness
Strategieë om Betroubaarheid te Verseker
• Prolonged engagement / Langdurige betrokkenheid
Credibility / • Participant validation / Deelnemer-validering
Geloofwaardigheid • Triangulation (multiple sources) / Triangulasie (veelvoudige
bronne)

• Thick (rich, complex) descriptions / Digte (ryk, komplekse)

Transferability / beskrywings
Oordraagbaarheid • Appropriate sampling technique (particularly purposive sampling)
(Toepaslikheid) / Gepaste steekproefnemingstegniek (in besonder met doelgerigte
steekproefneming)

• Audit trail of methods and analysis / Ouditspoor van metodes en

Dependability / analise
Betroubaarheid • Triangulation (multiple sources) / Triangulasie (veelvoudige
bronne)

• Triangulation / Triangulasie
Confirmability /
Bevestigbaarheid • Reflexive or iterative data analysis / Reflektiewe of iteratiewe
data-analise
Reporting the Findings
Verslaglewering rakende die
Bevindinge
• Reports are written with APA 7th edition • Verslae word geskryf met die gebruik van
formatting and referencing APA 7de-uitgawe formatering en verwysing
• Introduction: Introduce the idea and • Inleiding: Stel die idee en doel bekend
purpose
• Literatuuroorsig: Beskryf dit wat bekend is
• Literature Review: Describe what is known vanuit die literatuur
from the literature
• Metodologie:
• Methodology: • Paradigma
• Paradigm • Navorsingsontwerp
• Research design • Steekproef
• Sample • Data-insameling
• Data collection • Data-analise
• Data analysis
• Bevindinge
• Findings
• Bespreking
• Discussion
• Gevolgtrekkings
• Conclusions
• Verwysings
• References
Reporting the Qualitative Research Process

Data analysis Discussion and

•Description of the analysis
Conclusion
Paradigm and
used •Interpretation of meaning
Design •How the analysis aligns in context of other
•Worldview (paradigm) with the aim, paradigm, literature
demonstrating how and design •Relationship between
findings will be •The steps taken for the these findings and other
understood qualitative analysis (e.g., literature
•Design used to investigate generating codes, •Implications of the
the topic and why organizing themes, etc.) findings for the study aim

Sampling and data Findings

collection •Outcome of the analysis
•Sampling method and •Themes generated
description of the sample •Summary format
•How the aim, design, and
sampling method align
with data collection
Verslaglewering rakende die Kwalitatiewe
Navorsingsproses
Data-analise
Paradigma en Bespreking en
•Beskrywing van die
Ontwerp analise wat gebruik is
gevolgtrekking
•Wêreldbeskouing •Hoe die analise belyn •Interpretasie van
(paradigma) wat met die doel, paradigma betekenis binne konteks
demonstreer hoe en ontwerp van ander literatuur
bevindinge verstaan sal •Die stappe wat geneem •Verwantskap tussen
word is vir die kwalitatiewe hierdie bevindinge en
•Ontwerp wat gebruik data-analise (bv. ander literatuur
word om ondersoek in generering van kodes, •Implikasies van die
te stel oor die organisasie van temas, bevindinge vir die doel
onderwerp en hoekom ens.) van die studie

Steekproefneming en Bevindinge
data-insameling
•Uitkoms van die
•Steekproefmetode en analise
beskrywing van die •Temas wat gegenereer
steekproef is
•Hoe die doel, ontwerp •Opsommingsformaat
en steekproefmetode
belyn met data-
insameling
Writing Findings
Die Opskryf van Bevindinge
• The Findings (Results) section • Die Bevindinge- (Resultate)
describes the results afdeling beskryf die resultate
• the discussion interprets the • die bespreking interpreteer die
results resultate
• Concise • Bondig
• Directly relevant to the research • Direk relevant tot die
question navorsingsvraag
• Reminder of the type of analysis • Herinnering aan die tipe analise
• A summary of the main themes • ’n Opsomming van die hooftemas
which relate to the research wat verwant is aan die
question navorsingsvraag
• A description of patterns, links, • ’n Beskrywing van patrone,
or trends skakels of neigings
• Significant quotes or snippets • Betekenisvolle aanhalings of
directly from the interviews uittreksels direk vanuit die
(direct quotations) onderhoude (direkte aanhalings)
Is this the correct way to report findings?
Is hierdie die regte manier om bevindinge te
rapporteer?
When asked about social Toe die deelnemers gevra is
media as a form of oor sosiale media as ’n
communication, the vorm van kommunikasie,
participants agreed that het hulle saamgestem dat
some form communication daar ’n vorm van
was involved in that people kommunikasie betrokke
communicated messages was in die sin dat mense
to one another, but that boodskappe aan mekaar
“real” communication gekommunikeer het, maar
involved more depth and dat “werklike”
other aspects such as tone kommunikasie meer diepte
of voice and non-verbal behels, sowel as ander
expression. aspekte soos stemtoon en
nie-verbale uitdrukking.
Is this the correct way to report findings?
Is hierdie die regte manier om bevindinge te
rapporteer?
When asked about Toe daar aan deelnemers
whether video-game gevra is of videospeletjie-
testing is a “real” career toetsing ’n “regte”
path, participants indicated loopbaanrigting is, het
that they believed that it deelnemers aangedui dat
was more of a hobby. This hulle glo dat dit meer van ’n
is aligned with research by stokperdjie is. Dit belyn met
Student et al. (2019) who die navorsing deur Student et
suggested that Generation al. (2019), wat voorgestel het
X view video-games as a dat Generasie X
leisure only activity, not a videospeletjies beskou as
creative development slegs ’n
process. ontspanningsaktiwiteit, nie ’n
kreatiewe
ontwikkelingsproses nie.
Writing a Discussion
Skryf ’n Bespreking

• Components of the discussion: • Komponente van die bespreking

• Summary: Key results from the • Opsomming: Sleutelresultate
findings vanuit die bevindinge
• Interpretation: What the results • Interpretasie: Wat die resultate
mean (with reference to other beteken (met verwysing tot ander
literature to give context) literatuur om konteks te verskaf)
• Argument: Demonstrate support • Argument: Demonstreer
for the overall conclusion while ondersteuning vir die algehele
presenting possible alternative gevolgtrekking, terwyl moontlike
explanations from other research alternatiewe verduidelikings
vanuit ander navorsing aangebied
• What not to include in a word
discussion:
• New results (all the results are in • Wat om nie in te sluit by ’n
the “Findings” section) bespreking nie:
• Claims or speculation that the • Nuwe resultate (al die resultate is
results and literature do not in die “Bevindinge”-afdeling)
support • Bewerings of spekulasie wat nie
• Personal opinions deur die resultate en literatuur
ondersteun word nie
• Persoonlike opinies
Discussion: How do depressed persons describe their own
accomplishments?
Bespreking: Hoe beskryf depressiewe persone hulle eie
prestasies?

The outcome of this research Die uitkoms van hierdie navorsing

provides insight into how bied insig oor hoe depressiewe
depressed persons describe their persone hulle eie prestasies beskryf.
own accomplishments. Depressed Depressiewe deelnemers was
participants tended not to geneig om nie hulle eie prestasies te
acknowledge their own erken nie. Dit is soortgelyk aan
achievements. This is similar to ander bevindinge wat daarop dui
other findings which suggest that dat persone met depressie sukkel
persons with depression struggle to om positiewe erkenning aan
express positive regard for hulleself en ander te gee (Student et
themselves or others (Student et al., 2020). Verder het ander
al., 2020). Moreover, other navorsing ook bevind dat
research has found that depressed depressiewe persone sukkel om
persons struggle to assign value to waarde aan hulle eie prestasies te
their own achievements, even if heg, selfs al erken hulle die waarde
they recognize the worth of that van daardie prestasie (Student et
achievement (Student et al., 2022). al., 2022).
APA Formatting
APA-Formatering
Heading Level 1 / Opskrif Vlak 1

Heading level 1 (the first heading) is centered and bold. The document’s text should be Times New Roman, 12

point, and left aligned / Opskrif vlak 1 (die eerste opskrif) is gesentreerd en vetgedruk. Die dokument se teks moet in Times

New Roman, 12-punt, en linksbelyn wees

Heading Level 2 / Opskrif Vlak 2

Heading level two is left-aligned and bold. Each paragraph should start with an indent for the first line. Text

should be double spaced. / Opskrif vlak twee is linksbelyn en vetgedruk. Elke paragraaf moet met ‘n inkeping begin vir die

eerste lyn. Teks moet in dubbelspasiëring wees.

Heading level 3 / Opskrif vlak 3

Heading level 3 is left aligned, bold, and italicized. For heading levels 1 to 3, the first letter of each word

should be capitalized / Opskrif vlak 3 is linksbelyn, vetgedruk en in kursief. Vir opskrif vlakke 1 tot 3, moet die eerste letter

van elke woord hoofletters wees.

APA 7th Edition Referencing
APA 7de-Uitgawe Verwysing
Author's name in parentheses: two authors / Outeur se naam in hakies: twee outeurs
One study found that the most important element in comprehending non-native speech is familiarity with the topic
(Gass & Varonis, 1984).
Author’s name in parentheses: three authors / Outeur se naam in hakies: drie outeurs
One study found that the most important element in comprehending non-native speech is familiarity with the topic
(Gass, Elkin, & Varonis, 1984).
Author’s name in-text: / Outeur se naam in-teks:
Gass and Varonis (1984) found that the most important element in comprehending non-native speech is familiarity
with the topic.

Reference List / Bronnelys/Verwysingslys

PSYC312

Study Unit 2.3. and 2.4.:

Qualitative Research Designs and Sampling

Leereenheid 2.3. en 2.4.:

Kwalitatiewe Navorsingsontwerpe en
Steekproefneming
Lecturer/Dosent: Dr Ingrid Opperman
Office/Kantoor: Potchefstroom Campus, E8, G16
Consulting Hours/Spreekure: By Appointment/Per afspraak
Learning Outcomes: Section 2.2 (Revision) and 2.3

Leeruitkomstes: Gedeelte 2.2 (Hersiening) en 2.3

• Identifiseer en beskryf die
• Identify and describe the different verskillende kwalitatiewe
qualitative research designs navorsingsontwerpe
• Justify the choice of a specific • Verdedig die keuse van ’n spesifieke
qualitative research design kwalitatiewe navorsingsontwerp
• Identify and describe the • Identifiseer en beskryf die
characteristics of specific sampling eienskappe van spesifieke
techniques steekproefnemingstegnieke
• Justify the choice of a specific • Verdedig die keuse van ’n spesifieke
sampling technique steekproefnemingstegniek
General Study Materials
Algemene Studiemateriaal
• Qualitative Research • Kwalitatiewe Navorsings-
Designs: Chapter 5 of First ontwerpe: Hoofstuk 5 van
Steps in Research First Steps in Research
• Non-probability sampling • Nie-waarskynlikheid-
method: Chapter 10, Section steekproefnemingsmetode:
10.2.2. in First Steps in Hoofstuk 10, Afdeling 10.2.2
Research in First Steps in Research
• General review: Chapter 4 of • Algemene oorsig: Hoofstuk 4
First Steps in Research van First Steps in Research
Is this qualitative data? Why?

Is hierdie kwalitatiewe data? Hoekom?

A researcher holds interviews with 10 participants about how they
experienced online learning and why they chose to continue at
online learning institutions instead of contact institutions.

‘n Navorser voer onderhoude met 10 deelnemers rakende hulle

ervaring met aanlyn-leer en hoekom hulle besluit het om verder
by aanlyn-leerinstansies te studeer in plaas van
kontakinstansies.
 Types of Qualitative Data

Tipes Kwalitatiewe Data

• Primary data: Unpublished, • Primêre data: Ongepubliseer,
first-hand accounts eerstehandse verslae
• Interviews • Onderhoude
• Direct observations • Direkte waarnemings
• Secondary data: Previously • Sekondêre data: Voorheen
published gepubliseer
• Journal articles • Joernaal-artikels
• Books • Boeke
• Somebody else’s interview • Iemand anders se onderhoud-
transcripts transkripsies
Data should be authentic and Data moet geverifieer wees en vir
assessed for accuracy akkuraatheid geassesseer wees
State what primary and secondary data is used with reference to
the scenario (4)

Sê watter primêre en sekondêre data gebruik word met verwysing

tot die scenario (4)

After interviewing the parents of young children, the researcher

transcribes the interviews and proceeds to analysis. The
researcher also collects newspaper reports on the topic to give
context to their understanding of the problem.

Nadat onderhoude met die ouers van jong kinders gevoer is,
transkribeer die navorser die onderhoude en begin met die
analise daarvan. Die navorser versamel ook koerantberigte
rakende die onderwerp om konteks te verleen aan sy begrip van
die probleem.
Answer
Antwoord

The researcher is using primary data in the form of interviews (1) …

Die navorser maak van primêre data in die vorm van onderhoude gebruik (1) …

… to obtain an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon (1)

… om 'n deeglike begrip van die verskynsel te verkry (1)

The researcher will use secondary data in the form of newspaper reports (1) …
Die navorser sal van sekondêre data gebruik maak in die vorm van koerantberigte (1) …

… to give context to their understanding of the problem (1)

… om konteks tot hulle begrip van die probleem te verskaf (1)
Reminder: Inductive & Deductive Reasoning

Herinnering: Induktiewe en Deduktiewe Beredenering

Inductive reasoning follows a bottom-up Induktiewe beredenering volg ’n van-onder-
approach from an observation (data) which na-bo benadering vanaf ’n waarneming
is analyzed into themes or ideas and finally (data) wat ontleed word na temas of idees,
a conclusion is drawn. en uiteindelik word ’n gevolgtrekking
gemaak.
Deductive reasoning starts from a
theoretical hypothesis to test (“prove”) Deduktiewe beredenering begin by ’n
where specific data is collected and teoretiese hipotese om te toets (“bewys”)
statistics are used to find out if the waar bepaalde data versamel word en daar
hypothesis is true (the researcher was right) word dan van statistieke gebruik gemaak
om uit te vind of die hipotese waar is (of die
navorser reg was)
In both cases, data (observations) are
collected); therefore participants are
required to provide the information In beide gevalle word data (waarnemings)
versamel; dus is deelnemers nodig om die
inligting te voorsien
 • Unique perspective(s) • What do participants
commonly express?
Reminder: • Unieke perspektief(we)
• Wat word oor die

Inductive algemeen deur deelnemers

uitgedruk?

Reasoning in
the qualitative
Theme
research Observation
Waarneming Tema
process

Herinnering:
Induktiewe Individual
interpretation in a
Beredenering societal context
Proposed conclusion
Voorgestelde
Individuele
in die interpretasie in ’n
gevolgtrekking
samelewingskonteks
kwalitatiewe • What are people’s personal • What do the themes say
navorsingspro experiences and ideas
about the phenomenon
about this phenomenon?

ses • Wat is mense se

• Wat sê die temas oor
hierdie verskynsel?
persoonlike ervarings en
idees rakende die
verskynsel
Why does qualitative research use inductive reasoning?

Waarom maak kwalitatiewe navorsing gebruik van

induktiewe beredenering?
• Qualitative research focuses on human • Kwalitatiewe navorsing fokus op menslike
experiences and perceptions ervarings en persepsies
• Perceptions and individual experiences • Persepsies en individuele ervarings kan
cannot be predicted nie voorspel word nie
• The researcher can base their ideas in a • Die navorser kan hulle idees op ’n teorie
theory that people might feel a certain way baseer dat mense moontlik ’n bepaalde
(based on other literature), but cannot manier mag voel (gebaseer op ander
design a study which specifically finds if letterkunde), maar kan nie ’n studie
this is right or wrong ontwerp wat spesifiek bevind of dit reg of
• Because “reality” is subjective and open to verkeerd is nie
multiple interpretations, tentative • Omdat “realiteit” subjektief en vir
conclusions should be formed from the veelvoudige interpretasies oop is, moet
people spoken to; this requires tentatiewe gevolgtrekkings gevorm word
observations / themes / ideas and vanuit die mense waarmee daar gepraat
potential conclusions is; dit vereis waarnemings / temas / idees
en potensiële gevolgtrekkings
Why is this process inductive and not deductive?

Waarom is hierdie proses induktief en nie deduktief nie?

A researcher read 5 transcripts of ’n Navorser het 5 transkripsies
face-to-face interviews conducted van aangesig-tot-aangesig
with men who had been onderhoude met mans wat
diagnosed with alcoholism. Most gediagnoseer is met alkoholisme
of the men stated that they gelees. Meeste van die mans het
started drinking alcohol to relax genoem dat hulle alkohol begin
after work. The men worked in drink het om te ontspan na werk.
high-pressure jobs. The Die mans het almal hoëdruk-
researcher concludes that high- beroepe beoefen. Die navorser
pressure jobs might be a factor in kom tot die gevolgtrekking dat
men developing alcoholism. hoëdruk-beroepe moontlik ’n rol
kan speel in die ontwikkeling van
alkoholisme by mans.
What observations were used?

Watter waarnemings is gebruik?

A researcher read 5 transcripts of ’n Navorser het 5 transkripsies
face-to-face interviews conducted van aangesig-tot-aangesig
with men who had been onderhoude met mans wat
diagnosed with alcoholism. Most gediagnoseer is met alkoholisme
of the men stated that they gelees. Meeste van die mans het
started drinking alcohol to relax genoem dat hulle alkohol begin
after work. The men worked in drink het om te ontspan na werk.
high-pressure jobs. The Die mans het almal hoëdruk-
researcher concludes that high- beroepe beoefen. Die navorser
pressure jobs might be a factor in kom tot die gevolgtrekking dat
men developing alcoholism. hoëdruk-beroepe moontlik ’n rol
kan speel in die ontwikkeling van
alkoholisme by mans.
Populations and Samples

Populasies en Steekproewe
• Population: • Populasie:
• Large number of people • Groot aantal mense
• Shared characteristics applicable to • Gedeelde eienskappe wat van
the research toepassing is op die navorsing
• People to whom the findings will apply • Mense op wie die bevindinge van
(quantitative research) or might be toepassing sal wees (kwantitatiewe
similar for (qualitative research) navorsing) of vir wie dit soortgelyk
mag wees (kwalitatiewe navorsing)
• Sample:
• Small group of people • Steekproef:
• Represent the characteristics • Klein groep mense
applicable to the research • Verteenwoordig die eienskappe wat
(characteristics of the population) van toepassing is tot die navorsing
• Selected to participate in the study (eienskappe van die populasie)
• Geselekteer om deel te neem aan die
studie
Sampling: Gathering Participants

Steekproefneming: Versamel Deelnemers

• Observations are required to find themes • Waarnemings word vereis om temas te
in what people say and draw tentative vind in dit wat mense sê en tot tentatiewe
conclusions; therefore, research requires gevolgtrekkings te kom; daarom vereis
participants (people) navorsing deelnemers (mense)
• Sampling: The specific technique to obtain • Steekproefneming: Die spesifieke tegniek
participants for a research study wat gebruik word om deelnemers te
verkry vir ’n navorsingstudie
• Non-probability sampling (qualitative
research): Specific characteristics are • Nie-waarskynlikheidsteekproefneming
used, and participants are chosen by the (kwalitatiewe navorsing): Spesifieke
researcher eienskappe word gebruik, en deelnemers
• Probability sampling (quantitative word deur die navorser gekies
research): Random selection is used so • Waarskynlikheidsteekproefneming
that the large sample represents the (kwantitatiewe navorsing): Ewekansige
population seleksie word gebruik sodat die groot
steekproef die populasie verteenwoordig
Is this a population or a sample?

Is hierdie ’n populasie of ’n steekproef?

Xhosa-speaking women who • Xhosa-sprekende vroue wat
intend to pursue university beoog om universiteitsonderrig
education in Johannesburg. na te streef in Johannesburg.

Adults with frontal lobe dementia • Volwassenes met

who have agreed to be frontotemporale demensie wat
interviewed by the researcher. ingestem het dat die navorser 'n
onderhoud met hulle kan voer
Green-card holding people of • Mense van Meksikaanse
Mexican origin living in the united herkoms wat groenkaarte het en
states in a study of the in die Verenigde Nasies woon,
experiences of discrimination. in ’n studie oor die ervaring van
diskriminasie
Why is non-probability sampling used in qualitative research?

Waarom word nie-waarskynlikheidsteekproefneming gebruik by

kwalitatiewe navorsing?

• Qualitative research focuses • Kwalitatiewe navorsing fokus

on in-depth experiences op in-diepte ervarings
• Participants must have had • Deelnemers moes al vantevore
these (or similar) experiences hierdie (of soortgelyke)
ervarings gehad het
• Qualitative data collection and
analysis are intensive • Kwalitatiewe dataversameling
• Doing interviews and finding en analise is intensief
themes takes time, therefore • Om onderhoude te voer en
the participants must be fully temas te vind neem tyd, dus
relevant to the study moet die deelnemers absoluut
relevant wees tot die studie
The link between non-probability sampling and the
interpretivist / social constructivist paradigm
Die skakel tussen nie-waarskynlikheidsteekproefneming en
die interpretivistiese / sosiaal konstruktivistiese paradigma
• Individual experiences in the • Individuele ervarings binne die
context of society shape what konteks van die samelewing
people’s “reality” is vorm wat mense se “realiteit” is
• Using large numbers of people • Om groot getalle mense op ’n
in a detached way assumes that objektiewe wyse te gebruik,
the researcher can find a single veronderstel dat die navorser ’n
answer to the question enkele antwoord op die vraag
• Qualitative research involves kan vind
multiple answers and ideas • Kwalitatiewe navorsing behels
which need to be interpreted verskeie antwoorde en idees
from the perspective of wat geïnterpreteer moet word
participants vanuit die deelnemers se
perspektief
 Purposive Snowball Convenience
Quota sampling
sampling sampling sampling
• Specific • Participants • Participants • Several
characteristics refer the applicable to specific
based on the researcher to the research characteristics
purpose of the other potential are used are important
research participants based on their for the
where it is a availability research and
very sensitive participants
topic or are selected
people are to represent
very difficult to all of these
access (find) characteristics
 Doelgerigte Sneeubal- Gerieflikheid- Kwota-
steekproefneming steekproefneming steekproefneming steekproefneming
• Spesifieke • Deelnemers • Deelnemers wat • Verskeie
eienskappe verwys die relevant is tot spesifieke
gebaseer op die navorser na die navorsing eienskappe is
doel van die ander potensiële word gebruik belangrik vir die
navorsing deelnemers in gebaseer op navorsing en
gevalle waar die hulle deelnemers
onderwerp baie beskikbaarheid word
sensitief is of geselekteer om
waar mense al hierdie
baie moeilik is eienskappe te
om te vind verteenwoordig
What types of non-probability sampling are these?
Watter tipes nie-waarskynlikheidsteekproefneming is
die volgende?
Researchers studying students’ Navorsers wat studente se
experiences of university life ervarings van universiteitslewe
interview 10 random students bestudeer, voer ’n onderhoud met
who see a flyer asking for 10 lukrake studente wat die
participants. pamflet sien wat vra vir
deelnemers.
Researchers focusing on how
abused women experience the Navorsers wat fokus op hoe
legal system approach a legal mishandelde vroue die regstelsel
clinic and request permission to ervaar, benader ’n regskliniek en
advertise participants of which six versoek toestemming om vir
who contact the researcher are deelnemers te adverteer, waarby
included. ses wat kontak maak met die
navorser ingesluit word.
Explain why snowball sampling is more appropriate than
purposive sampling with reference to the scenario.
Verduidelik waarom sneeubalsteekproefneming meer geskik as
doelgerigte steekproefneming is met verwysing tot die scenario.

Researchers are investigating the experiences of being a transgender

sex worker in a major city. A phenomenological design will be used, and
the researcher plans to interview 6 transgender sex workers from the
inner-city area.

Navorsers ondersoek die ervarings daarvan om ’n transgender

sekswerker in ’n groot stad te wees. ’n Fenomenologiese ontwerp sal
gebruik word, en die navorser beoog om onderhoude met 6
transgender sekswerkers van die middestad-area te voer.
Is this purposive sampling or convenience sampling?
Is hierdie doelgerigte steekproefneming of gerieflikheid-
steekproefneming?
The researcher is using a phenomenological design to study how
traumatic brain injury patients in hospitals experience a new
rehabilitation program. The researcher hands out leaflets and
interviews six of the patients who respond.

Die navorser maak gebruik van ’n fenomenologiese ontwerp om te

bestudeer hoe hospitaalpasiënte met traumatiese breinbeserings ’n
nuwe rehabilitasieprogram ervaar. Die navorser deel pamflette uit en
voer onderhoude met ses van die pasiënte wat daarop reageer.
Non-probability sampling and qualitative research designs
Nie-waarskynlikheidsteekproefneming en kwalitatiewe
navorsingsontwerpe
• No single non-probability • Geen enkele nie-
sampling technique is used for a waarskynlikheidsteekproef-nemingstegniek
specific qualitative research word gebruik vir ’n spesifieke kwalitatiewe
design navorsingsontwerp nie
• Qualitative research is about • Kwalitatiewe navorsing gaan oor bepaalde
specific experiences and ervarings en bepaalde verskynsels
specific phenomena • Die steekproefnemingstegniek moet
• The sampling technique must die gebruik van die ontwerp om die
facilitate using the design to verskynsel te verken en te verstaan,
explore or understand the fasiliteer
phenomenon
• Participants must be able to help • Deelnemers moet in staat wees
the researcher advance daartoe om die navorser te help om
understanding of the phenomenon vordering te maak met die verstaan
van die verskynsel
Choice of non-probability sampling technique

Keuse van nie-waarskynlikheidsteekproefnemingstegniek

How the
Who can
researcher is Non-probability
What the provide What type of
conducting the sampling
researcher is information participants are
study (design technique
studying about the needed
and data selected
phenomenon
collection)

Hoe die
navorser die Wie inligting Gekose nie-
Wat die Watter tipe
studie doen kan bied waarskynlik-
navorser deelnemers
(ontwerp en rakende die heidsteekproef-
bestudeer benodig word
data- verskynsel nemingstegniek
insameling)
What (is being studied), who (can provide information)? What sampling
technique is appropriate?

Wat (bestudeer word), wie (kan inligting bied)? Watter

steekproefnemingstegniek is gepas?
The researcher is using a Die navorser gebruik ’n
phenomenological design to fenomenologiese ontwerp om die
propose conclusions about gevolgtrekkings aan te bied oor
societal attitudes to die samelewing se houdings
neurodivergent people. teenoor neurodivergente persone.

The researcher is using a Die navorser gebruik ’n

narrative design to explore narratiewe ontwerp om
neurodivergent people’s neurodivergente persone se
experiences of treatment ervarings van
programs. behandelingsprogramme te
ondersoek.
State what research design is used, the sampling method, and who the sample are with
reference to the scenario (5)

Verklaar watter navorsingsontwerp gebruik word, sowel as die steekproefnemingsmetode, en

wie die steekproef is met verwysing tot die scenario (5)

A researcher identifies a community for whom an

intervention to reduce teen pregnancy might be helpful.
After implementing the intervention, the researcher
wants to interview teen girls who became pregnant
during that time. The researcher conducts interviews
and transcribes the data.

‘n Navorser identifiseer ‘n gemeenskap vir wie ‘n

intervensie om tienerswangerskap te verminder van
hulp sal wees. Na die implementering van die
intervensie, wil die navorser onderhoude met die
tienermeisies voer wat gedurende daardie tyd swanger
geword het. Die navorser voer onderhoude en
transkribeer die data.
Answer / Antwoord
The researcher is using a phenomenological design (1) … / Die navorser gebruik ’n fenomenologiese ontwerp (1 )…

… to understand individual perspectives. / … om die individue se perspektiewe te verstaan

The researcher will use purposive sampling (1) … / Die navorser sal gebruik maak van doelgerigte steekproefneming (1) …

… to invite teen girls who became pregnant during the intervention period (1) … / … om tienermeisies wat swanger geword het tydens die
intervensie-tydperk uit te nooi (1) …

… to participate. / … om deel te neem.

The researcher will conduct in-depth interviews … / Die navorser sal in-diepte onderhoude voer …

… to obtain data to help understand individual perspectives on why the girls became pregnant during the intervention period. / … om data in te
samel om te help om individuele perspektiewe te verstaan oor hoekom hierdie meisies swanger geword het tydens die intervensietydperk.

points are given for good reference to the scenario / logical thinking (2) / punte sal gegee word vir goeie verwysing tot die scenario / logiese
denke (2)
Overview
Oorsig
• Qualitative research focuses on observations • Kwalitatiewe navorsing fokus op waarnemings
(data) which is collected from in-depth (data) wat versamel word vanuit in-diepte
interactions with people interaksies met mense
• Different qualitative research designs are used • Verskillende kwalitatiewe navorsingsontwerpe
depending on the focus of the project (e.g., in- word gebruik afhangende van die fokus van
depth experiences of a phenomenon, life die projek (bv. in-diepte ervarings van ’n
stories, etc.) verskynsel, lewensverhale, ens.)
• Non-probability sampling refers to identifying • Nie-waarskynlikheidsteekproefneming verwys
who will participate in the research project na die identifisering van wie sal deelneem aan
die navorsingsprojek
• Several non-probability sampling techniques
can be used, each for a different purpose • Verskeie nie-
waarskynlikheidsteekproefnemingstegnieke
• The choice of non-probability sampling kan gebruik word, elk vir ’n ander doel
technique depends on the research question,
who the researcher wants to include in the • Die keuse van nie-waarskynlikheidsteekproef-
study and what research design is being used nemingstegniek hang af van die
navorsingsvraag, wie die navorser wil insluit in
die studie, en watter navorsingsontwerp
gebruik word
 PSYC312

Study Unit 2.3. and 2.4.:

Revision: Qualitative Research
Qualitative Data Collection

Leereenheid 2.3. en 2.4.:

Hersiening: Kwalitatiewe Navorsig
Kwalitatiewe Dataversameling

Lecturer/Dosent: Dr Ingrid Opperman

Office/Kantoor: Potchefstroom Campus, E8, G16
Consulting Hours/Spreekure: By Appointment/Per afspraak
Learning Outcomes: Qualitative Data Collection (Study
Section 2.4.)
Leeruitkomste: Kwalitatiewe data-insameling (Leergedeelte
2.4.)
• Describe and identify the three • Beskryf en identifiseer die drie
traditional methods of data tradisionele metodes van data-
collection used in qualitative insameling wat in kwalitatiewe
research navorsing gebruik word
• Compare and describe the • Vergelyk en beskryf die
differences between the three verskille tussen die drie
traditional methods of tradisionele metodes van
qualitative data collection, and kwalitatiewe data-insameling,
recommend the most suitable en beveel die mees geskikte
method for a research project metode vir 'n navorsingsprojek
aan
Learning Materials: Study Section 2.4.
Leermateriaal: Leereenheid 2.4
• First Steps in Research: • First Steps in Research:
Chapter 5, Section 5.4. Hoofstuk 5, Afdeling 5.4.
(Qualitative research methods (Kwalitatiewe
for data collection) navorsingsmetodes vir data-
• Introduction insameling)
• 5.4.3.: Observation • Inleiding
• 5.4.4.: Interviews • 5.4.3.: Waarneming
• 5.4.5.: Focus Groups • 5.4.4.: Onderhoude
• 5.4.5.: Fokusgroepe
Types of Qualitative Data
Tipes Kwalitatiewe Data
• First-hand accounts
• Interviews
Primary Data
• Observations
• Writings

• Second-hand information
• Newspaper stories
Secondary data • Journal articles
• Another researcher’s interview transcripts
 Qualitative Research Designs and Data
Phenomenological Unique, individual experiences from the participants’ perspectives
•Type of data: Individual participants’ experiences and discussions

Narrative Participants’ “stories” about a phenomenon or event from their own perspective in their own context
•Type of data: Individual participants’ experiences and discussions

Ethnography Study of a phenomenon within the culture, usually using long-term immersion
•Types of data: Individual participants’ experiences, observing how things are and what happens, reading information about the culture

Case study Single entity or bounded system (place, time, etc.) which is a unique “thing” or case
•Types of data: Individual people’s experiences, observing how things are and what happens, reading information about the case

Action research Participants are active volunteers who help effect social change
•Types of data: Individual people’s experiences, observing how things are and what happens, reading academic literature to integrate new information, assessing the quality of
a program using monitoring and evaluation
 Kwalitatiewe Navorsingsontwerpe en Data
Fenomenologies Unieke, individuele ervarings vanuit die deelnemers se perspektiewe
•Tipe data: Individuele deelnemers se ervarings en besprekings

Narratief Deelnemers se "stories" oor 'n verskynsel of gebeurtenis vanuit hul eie perspektief in hul eie konteks
•Tipe data: Individuele deelnemers se ervarings en besprekings

Etnografie Studie van 'n verskynsel binne die kultuur, gewoonlik deur langtermyn-onderdompeling te gebruik
•Tipe data: Individuele deelnemers se ervarings, waarneming van hoe dinge is en wat gebeur, lees inligting oor die kultuur

Gevallestudie Enkele entiteit of begrensde sisteem (plek, tyd, ens.) wat 'n unieke "ding" of geval is
•Tipe data: Individuele mense se ervarings, waarneming van hoe dinge is en wat gebeur, lees inligting oor die saak

Aksienavorsing Deelnemers is aktiewe vrywilligers wat help om sosiale verandering te bewerkstellig

•Tipe data: Individuele mense se ervarings, waarneming van hoe dinge is en wat gebeur, lees van akademiese literatuur om nuwe inligting te integreer, assessering van die
kwaliteit van 'n program deur monitering en evaluering
What type of qualitative research design is this?
Who will the data come from? How will the researcher get the data?
Watter tipe kwalitatiewe navorsingsontwerp is dit? Van wie sal die
data kom? Hoe sal die navorser die data kry?
The researcher conducts face- Die navorser voer van aangesig
to-face interviews with one tot aangesig onderhoude met
participant at a time. The een deelnemer op 'n slag. Die
researcher asks the participants navorser vra die deelnemers om
to describe what aspects of their te beskryf watter aspekte van
life are currently lowering their hul lewe tans hul welstand en
well-being and happiness. The geluk verlaag. Die deelnemers
participants talk about well- praat oor welstand en geluk, en
being and happiness, as well as gee ook aan die navorser
giving the researcher examples voorbeelde van die laaste paar
from the last few months. maande.
 Entry Quiz
Reasoning, paradigms, research designs, sampling, and
data collection in qualitative research

Ingangsvasvra
Redenering, paradigmas, navorsingsontwerpe, steekproefneming en
data-insameling in kwalitatiewe navorsing

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Qualitative Data Collection
Kwalitatiewe Data-insameling
• Researchers are “instruments” in • Navorsers is “instrumente” in die
collecting data insameling van data
• Data is understood via the • Data word deur die navorser
researcher from the participants’ begryp vanuit die perspektief van
perspective (interpretivist) die deelnemers
• Naturalistic observations such • Naturalistiese waarnemings
as interviews or immersion in a soos onderhoude of verdieping in
culture ‘n kultuur
• Data must be credible (“true”), • Data moet geloofwaardig
applicable to the research (“waar”), toepaslik tot die
question, dependable (reliable), navorsingsvraag, betroubaar en
and confirmable (can be bevestigbaar (kan herhaal word)
replicated) wees
Qualitative data must be from the participants’
perspective(s) / Kwalitatiewe data moet vanuit die
deelnemers se perspektiewe wees
• The interpretivist / social • Die interpretivistiese / sosiaal-
constructivist paradigm: Unique konstruktivistiese paradigma:
perspectives about what “is” and Unieke perspektiewe oor wat "is"
what it means en wat dit beteken
• Inductive reasoning: Require • Induktiewe redenering: Vereis
enough information to draw a genoeg inligting om 'n voorlopige
tentative conclusion from what gevolgtrekking te maak uit wat
multiple participants say or do verskeie deelnemers sê of doen
• Participant perspectives are • Deelnemerperspektiewe is
complex kompleks
• Additions to answers • Byvoegings tot antwoorde
• Qualifying statements • Kwalifiserende verklarings
• Emergence of new ideas • Opkoms van nuwe idees
 Common Methods of Qualitative Data Collection
Algemene Metodes van Kwalitatiewe Data-insameling

• Interviews: One-on-one or • Onderhoude: Een-tot-een of

groups groepe
• Focus groups: Groups of • Fokusgroepe: Groepe
participants discuss the topic deelnemers bespreek die
• Observations: Observing what onderwerp
people do and what is • Waarnemings: Waarneming
happening van wat mense doen en wat
gebeur
One-on-one Interviews / Aangesig tot
Aangesig Onderhoude
• Interview: Two-way conversation • Onderhoud: Tweerigtinggesprek
where the researcher asks the waar die navorser vrae aan die
participants questions deelnemers vra
• Questions are focused on the topic • Vrae is gefokus op die onderwerp
of the study to answer the research van die studie om die
questions navorsingsvrae te beantwoord
• See and understand the • Sien en verstaan die verskynsel soos
phenomenon as the participant die deelnemer (ryk data in 'n sosiale
does (rich data in a social reality) werklikheid)
• Single or multiple interviews can be • Enkel- of meervoudige onderhoude
used for one topic depending on the kan vir een onderwerp gebruik word,
focus of the study afhangende van die fokus van die
studie
Group Interviews (Not Focus Groups!) /
Groepsonderhoude (Nie Fokusgroepe nie!)
• Groups of participants are • Groepe deelnemers word op 'n
interviewed at a single time enkele tyd (minder algemeen)
(less common) each answering ondervra wat elkeen dieselfde
the same question vraag beantwoord
• Participants do not discuss the • Deelnemers bespreek nie die
topic with each other (that is a onderwerp met mekaar nie (dit
focus group) is 'n fokusgroep)
• Common in market research • Algemeen in marknavorsing en
and similar fields where the soortgelyke velde waar die
topic is not sensitive onderwerp nie sensitief is nie
A good interview:
‘n Goeie onderhoud:
Flexible Elaborative Contextual Understanding

Contextual factors in opinions and ideas

Explore emerging areas about the topic Clarify participant ideas and responses
are explained

Probe for further information (ask for Explore of “what it means” in that social
Ensure correct interpretation
more details and ideas) or cultural setting

Open to new ideas Explore ideas Identify what influences viewpoints

Structured Interviews (Descriptive) /
Gestruktureerde Onderhoude (Deskriptief)
• Detailed questions similar to a • Gedetailleerde vrae soortgelyk
survey aan 'n opname
• Highly specific questions • Hoogs spesifieke vrae wat
related to the core of the topic verband hou met die kern van
• Same order or sequence die onderwerp
• Little flexibility in how • Dieselfde volgorde
questions are asked • Min buigsaamheid in hoe vrae
• Can inhibit probing (asking for gevra word
more details and ideas) • Kan ondersoek inhibeer (vra vir
meer besonderhede en idees)
Semi-structured Interviews (Guided, but exploratory)
/ Semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude (Begeleide, maar
verkennend)
• Broader, but specific, questions • Breër, maar spesifieke vrae
• Explore emerging lines of inquiry • Verken opkomende lyne van
• Flexible while still focused on the ondersoek
topic • Buigsaam terwyl steeds op die
• Allow for more probing (asking for onderwerp gefokus
elaborations and expansion) • Laat toe vir meer ondersoek (vra
• More variation in content and vir uitbreidings en uitbreiding)
focus • Meer variasie in inhoud en fokus
Unstructured Interviews (purely exploratory) /
Ongestruktureerde onderhoude (suiwer verkennend)
• Similar to a conversation • Soortgelyk aan 'n gesprek
• General topic to discuss, not • Algemene onderwerp om te
query bespreek, nie navraag nie
• No specific or set questions • Geen spesifieke of vasgestelde
• Interviewer must be well- vrae nie
prepared for the topic • Onderhoudvoerder moet goed
• No specific order of questions voorbereid wees vir die
onderwerp
• Can be difficult to stay with the • Geen spesifieke volgorde van
focus of the study vrae nie
• Dit kan moeilik wees om by die
fokus van die studie te hou
Focus Groups (Exploratory discussions in groups) /
Fokusgroepe (Verkennende besprekings in groepe
• Discussion focused on a specific • Bespreking gefokus op 'n spesifieke
topic (not a group interview!) with onderwerp (nie 'n groeponderhoud
the researcher as a moderator nie!) met die navorser as moderator
• Group interactions: • Groepinteraksies:
• Widen range of responses • Verbreed reeks antwoorde
• Richer detail: Building on each • Ryker detail: Bou op mekaar se
others’ ideas idees
• Consider group dynamics • Oorweeg groepdinamika
• Not suitable for highly sensitive • Nie geskik vir hoogs sensitiewe
topics onderwerpe nie
• Relatively passive moderator • Relatief passiewe moderator
• Encourage discussion • Moedig bespreking aan
• Maintain focus • Behou fokus
 Process of conducting a focus group
Proses om 'n fokusgroep te hou

Generate multiple
Encourage debate or
views and
• Start the discussion discussion • More focus on the perceptions
• Develop rapport topic
• Note general • Individual ideas
• More specific views
perspectives • Elaboration
about the topic
• Increased • Dynamics of
• Deliberate probing
interaction discussion
Shift to more
Broad set of
structured
questions
questioning
Types of Probing in Interviews / Focus Groups
Tipes ondersoek in onderhoude / fokusgroepe
Detail probes Elaboration probes Clarification probes

Who are you talking about? Tell me more about… Is …. What you mean?

Where did that happen? Can you give an example? Is …. Correct?

What do you mean by that? Can you explain it to me? Did I understand…correctly?
 Achieving good interviews and focus groups
Die bereiking van goeie onderhoude en fokusgroepe

Reproducible Systematic
• Someone else • Interviewees must
could use the have unique
same topic guide interpretations
• Similar information • Do not focus on
every time just choosing data
that supports ideas

Credible Transparent
• Questions asked in • Clear report of
a way that methods
generates truthful • Documenting
accounts sampling,
• Careful planning of collection, and
questions analysis
Observations / Waarnemings
• Systematically recording behavioral • Sistematies optekening van gedragspatrone
patterns of participants and/or occurrences van deelnemers en/of gebeurtenisse
• Insider perspective (emic) or outsider • Insider-perspektief (emies) of buitestander-
perspective (etic) based perspektief (etiese) gebaseer
• What is observed is based on: • Wat waargeneem word, is gebaseer op:
• Purpose of study • Doel van studie
• Focus of study • Fokus van studie
• Natural immersion in a setting recording • Natuurlike onderdompeling in 'n
using: omgewingsopname deur gebruik te maak
• Anecdotes / descriptions van:
• Running records / sequential accounts • Anekdotes / beskrywings
• Structured observation schedules (specific • Lopende rekords / opeenvolgende vertellings
information written down) • Gestruktureerde waarnemingskedules
(spesifieke inligting neergeskryf)
• Being conscious of bias:
• Selective observation • Om bewus te wees van vooroordeel:
• Missing the big picture • Selektiewe waarneming
• Mis die groter prent
Types of Observation / Tipes Waarneming
• Non-participant
Complete observer • Etic (outsider) observation
• Unobtrusive

• Part of the situation as an observer

Observer as participant
• Uninvolved

• Emic (insider)
• Part of the research process
Participant as observer
• Work with participants (common in action research)
• Intervenes and participates in dynamics of situations

• Immersed in setting
Complete participant • Participants often unaware of observations
• Ethical concerns
Choosing the Right Data Collection Method /
Kies van die Regte Dataversamelingsmetode
Who can give me the
information
What do I want to find
(participants /
out? (Focus of Study)
sampling) and how
sensitive is the topic?

Is it more important to Do I need a broad

discuss the topic or to description or in-depth
get in-depth individual information? How
experiences? much detail?

How complicated is How specific do I need

the topic? the information to be?
 Exit Quiz
Reasoning, paradigms, research designs, sampling,
and data collection in qualitative research

Uitgangsvasvra
Redenering, paradigmas, navorsingsontwerpe,
proefneming en dataversameling in kwalitatiewe
navorsing
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Connections between collection and analysis: Data
Saturation from an Iterative Process
Summary / Opsomming
• The most common data collection • Die mees algemene data-
methods in qualitative research are: insamelingsmetodes in kwalitatiewe
• Interviews (individual or group) navorsing is:
• Focus groups • Onderhoude (individu of groep)
• Observations • Fokusgroepe
• A combination of methods is • Waarnemings
sometimes used in ethnography and • 'n Kombinasie van metodes word soms
case studies in etnografie en gevallestudies gebruik
• Choice of data collection method • Keuse van data-insamelingsmetode
depends on the research question and hang af van die navorsingsvraag en
design – what you want to find out and ontwerp – wat jy wil uitvind en by wie
from whom • Dataversadiging word bereik wanneer
• Data saturation is reached when no geen nuwe temas of inligting uit die
new themes or information emerge data na vore kom nie
from the data
PSYC312
Study Unit 4: Ethics
Leereenheid 4: Etiek
Lecturer/Dosent: Dr Ingrid Opperman
Office/Kantoor: Potchefstroom Campus, E8, G16
Consulting Hours/Spreekure: By Appointment/Per afspraak
Learning Outcomes
Leeruitkomstes
• Demonstrate basic knowledge • Demonstreer basiese kennis
and application of general en toepassing van algemene
ethics etiek
• Apply ethics to psychological • Pas etiek op sielkundige
researcher navorser toe
• Understand the ethical • Begryp die etiese beginsels
principles • Begryp die rol en
• Understand the roles and verantwoordelikhede van
responsibilities of social sosiale navorsers
researchers • Begryp etiese ontleding van
• Understand ethical navorsing en die navorser se
dissemination of research and verantwoordelikheid rakende
the researcher’s responsibility verslaglewering oor
when reporting findings bevindinge
Study Materials
Studiemateriaal
• An ethics reader is • ‘n Etiek-handleiding
provided on eFundi word aan die einde van
• Additional reading die studiegids en op
materials are available eFundi voorsien
on eFundi • Bykomende
leesmateriaal is ook op
eFundi beskikbaar
The 4 Ethical Principles
Die 4 Etiese Beginsels
• 4 Primary principles • 4 Primêre beginsels
• Autonomy / respect • Outonomie / respek
• Beneficence • Weldadigheid
• Non-maleficence • Nie-kwaadwilligheid
• Justice • Geregtigheid
• The application of principles • Die toepassing van die beginsels
differs slightly between is effe verskillend tussen
disciplines dissiplines
• Not always possible to strictly • Nie altyd moontlik om streng
adhere to all principles gehoorsaam te bly aan alle
beginsels nie
• Researchers must balance the
principles with the good of the • Navorsers moet die beginsels
participants and communities in balanseer met dit wat goed is vir
mind die deelnemers en gemeenskappe
wat in gedagte gehou word
Principle 1: Autonomy
Beginsel 1 : Outonomie
• Autonomy: Individuals have their • Outonomie: Individue besit hul eie
own decision-making capacity besluitnemingskapasiteit
• Respect: Decisions, needs, and • Respek: Besluite, behoeftes en
values require respect waardes vereis respek
• Intentionality: Individuals • Opsetlikheid: Individue kies
deliberately choose to participate in doelbewus om deel te neem aan
research navorsing
• Understanding: The participant must • Begrip: Die deelnemer moet die
fully understand benefits and voordele en gevolge van deelname
consequences of participating ten volle begryp/verstaan
• Coercion (to avoid): The participant • Dwang (moet vermy word): Die
must not be tricked or bribed into deelnemer moet nie mislei of
participating using excessive omgekoop word om deel te neem
monetary incentives or power deur die gebruik van buitensporige
relationships geldelike aansporings of
magsverhoudings nie
The Four Ethical Principles: Autonomy
Die Vier Etiese Beginsels: Outonomie
A researcher obtains permission for a CEO to conduct research on
employees. Which aspects of autonomy have been violated?
• The CEO decides all employees have to participate
• The researcher does not fully explain how the research will work
• The employees are informed that they could lose their job if they
do not participate

‘n Navorser verkry toestemming vir ‘n HUB om navorsing op

werknemers uit te voer. Watter aspekte van outonomie is oortree?
• Die VBO besluit dat alle werknemers moet deelneem
• Die navorser verduidelik nie ten volle hoe die navorsing gaan
werk nie
• Die werknemers word in kennis gestel dat hulle hulle werk kan
verloor as hulle nie deelneem nie
Principle 2: Beneficence
Beginsel 2: Weldadigheid
• Beneficence: Do good in some • Weldadigheid: Doen goed op ‘n
way manier
• Individual • Individueel
• Community • Gemeenskap
• Society • Samelewing
• General research community • Algemene navorsingsgemeenskap
• All research has both risks and • Alle navorsing hou beide risiko's
benefits en voordele in
• Benefits must outweigh the risks • Voordele moet groter as die
risiko's wees
• Doing good for a community
cannot override the rights of • Om goed te doen vir ‘n
individual participants (e.g., gemeenskap mag nie die regte
autonomy) van individuele deelnemers
oorheers nie (bv. outonomie)
• Potential benefits must not result
in coercion • Moontlike voordele mag nie in
dwang uitloop nie
Principle 3: Non-maleficence
Beginsel 3: Nie-kwaadwilligheid
• Do no harm • Moet geen kwaad aanrig nie
• Does not imply that beneficence • Impliseer nie dat weldadigheid
bereik is nie
is achieved
• Vermy pyn / lyding
• Avoid pain / suffering
• Dit is nie regverdigbaar om skade aan
• It is not justifiable to harm one group in een groep aan te rig om sodoende ‘n
ander groep te bevoordeel nie
order to benefit the other
• Skade kan plaasvind as ‘n gevolg van
• Harm can occur as a result of not iets nie ontvang wat dringend benodig
receiving something which is urgently word net vir die belang van navorsing
needed only for the sake of research nie (bv. ontneem mediese behandeling)
(e.g., taking away drug treatments) • Onopsetlike skade: Skade wat
plaasvind deur nie ‘n positiewe
• Inadvertent harm: Harm occurring by voordeel te voorsien nie
not providing a positive benefit • Kontrolegroepe moet ten volle
ingelig word
• Control groups must be fully
informed • Voordeel word eers na die studie
voorsien (sien ook “Geregtigheid”)
• Benefit provided after the study
(see also “Justice”)
The Four Ethical Principles: Beneficence & Non-maleficence
Die Vier Etiese Beginsels: Weldadigheid & Nie-
kwaadwilligheid
A researcher is testing a new drug for TB in an impoverished community: An
experimental and control group are used where the experimental group
receives the new drug, and the control group continues with the old treatment
plan
• How is beneficence upheld?
• Two types of harm could possibly occur unintentionally; which are they?
• There is such great benefit to trying the new drug that the community nurse
gives permission on behalf of all participants; what principle does this relate
to and is that principle broken?

‘n Navorser toets ‘n nuwe TB-medikasie in ‘n verarmde gemeenskap: ‘n

Eksperimentele- en kontrolegroep word gebruik waar die eksperimentele groep
die nuwe medikasie ontvang, en die kontrolegroep aanhou met die ou
behandelingsplan
• Hoe word weldadigheid gehandhaaf?
• Twee tipes skade kan moontlik onopsetlik berokken word; watter is hulle?
• Daar lê so ʼn groot voordeel in die toetsing van die nuwe medikasie dat die
gemeenskapsverpleegkundige toestemming gee namens alle deelnemers;
aan watter beginsel is dit verwant en hoe word daardie beginsel oortree?
Principle 4: Justice
Beginsel 4: Geregtigheid
• Justice: Benefits, risks, costs, and • Geregtigheid: Voordele, risiko's,
resources should be equally kostes en hulpbronne moet eweredig
distributed according to: versprei word volgens:
• Need: Certain groups require positive • Behoefte: Sekere groepe vereis
interventions more urgently positiewe intervensies meer dringend
• Effort: Participants putting in a lot of • Moeite: Deelnemers wat baie tyd insit
time should be reimbursed behoort vergoed te word
• Merit • Meriete
• Contribution: Significant contributions • Bydrae: Aansienlike bydrae tot die
to the research should be navorsing moet toepaslik erken word
appropriately acknowledged
• Elke deelnemer moet ‘n gelyke kans
• Every participant should have an staan om voor of na die navorsing
equal chance to benefit before or bevoordeel te word
after the research • As ‘n intervensie suksesvol is kan dit
• If an intervention is successful, it can aan die hele gemeenskap verskaf word
be provided to the entire community
• Finansiële kwessies is dikwels
• Financial issues are often significant aansienlike hindernisse tot die
barriers to ensuring justice versekering van geregtigheid
The Four Ethical Principles
Die Vier Etiese Beginsels
An NGO is researching whether a “lunch program” can
benefit learners’ academic performance in impoverished and
wealthy primary schools. Free lunches are provided to half
the schools in Gauteng and the other half are used as a
control group. How can justice be upheld according to:
• Need
• Beneficence after the study

‘n NRO vors na of ‘n “middagete-program” leerders se

akademiese prestasie kan bevorder in verarmde en ryk
laerskole. Gratis middagetes word voorsien aan die helfte
van die skole in Gauteng en die ander helfte word as
kontrolegroep gebruik. Hoe kan geregtigheid gehandhaaf
word volgens:
• Behoefte
• Weldadigheid nadat die studie voltooi is
The Health Professions Act
Die Wet op Gesondheidsprofessies
• The Health Professions Act • Die Wet op
is the legislative Gesondheidsprofessies is
requirement for die regsvereiste vir
psychologists and other sielkundiges en ander
researchers navorsers
• Upholds principles of • Handhaaf beginsels van
research in legal form navorsing in regsformaat
• There is a difference • Daar is ‘n verskil tussen
between being legal and wettig wees en eties wees
being ethical • Wettig: Moenie die reg
• Legal: Do not violate oortree nie
legislation • Eties: Handhaaf regte en die
• Ethical: Positively uphold vier beginsels positief terwyl
rights and the four principles wetgewing steeds
while still adhering to gehoorsaam word
legislation
Informed Consent
Ingeligte Toestemming
• Legal requirement; Upholds ethical • Regsvereiste; Handhaaf etiese beginsel
principle of autonomy van outonomie
• Participants must give permission to • Deelnemers moet toestemming verskaf
participate in the research om aan die navorsing deel te neem
• Guardians provide permission for • Voogde verskaf toestemming vir
children / minors and those who kinders / minderjariges en diegene
do not have sufficient cognitive wat nie voldoende kognitiewe
kapasiteit besit nie
capacity
• Inligting: Alle aktiwiteite moet verduidelik
• Information: All activities must be word
explained
• Risiko’s / Voordele moet begryp word
• Risks / Benefits must be understood
• Outonomie: Deelnemer moet in staat
• Autonomy: Participant must be free to wees om toestemming te weier / te
refuse or withdraw / revoke consent onttrek / terug te trek
• Informed consent must always be fully • Ingeligte toestemming met ten volle
understood by the participant – it verstaan word deur die deelnemer – dit
cannot be a paper/pencil exercise kan nie ‘n papier/potlood oefening wees
nie
Confidentiality
Vertroulikheid
• Legal principle; Principle of • Regsbeginsel; Beginsel van
respect respek
• Identities and personal • Identiteite en persoonlike
information must be inligting moet beskerm
protected word
• Researchers must ensure • Navorsers moet verseker
that records are secure with dat rekords veilig is met
limited access beperkte toegang daartoe
• May be limited in cases of • Mag beperk wees in gevalle
focus groups or community van fokusgroepe of
projects gemeenskapsprojekte
• Responsibility to ensure • Verantwoordelikheid om
confidentiality rests with vertroulikheid te verseker lê
the researcher by die navorser
Autonomy, Informed Consent, and Confidentiality
Outonomie, Ingeligte Toestemming en
Vertroulikheid
A researcher is collecting data on university students. The
researcher wants to use a correlational design to understand the
relationship between aptitude for mathematics and performance
on chemistry courses. Students are informed that participation in
the study is a course requirement. Each student signs a consent
document and completes the aptitude test with the researcher. The
results are stored securely and only the researcher has access.
Were autonomy, informed consent, and confidentiality upheld?

‘n Navorser samel data rakende universiteitstudente in. Die

navorser wil gebruik maak van ‘n korrelasionele ontwerp om die
verwantskap tussen aanleg vir wiskunde en prestasie in chemiese
kursusse te verstaan. Studente word ingelig dat deelname in die
studie ‘n kursusvereiste is. Elke student teken ‘n
toestemmingsdokument en voltooi die aanlegtoets saam met die
navorser. Die uitslae word veilig gestoor en net die navorser het
toegang daartoe. Was outonomie, ingeligte toestemming en
vertroulikheid gehandhaaf?
The Ethical Role of the Researcher
Die Etiese Rol van die Navorser
• Power relations: • Magsverhoudinge:
Researchers hold a position Navorsers beklee ‘n posisie
of power, particularly in van mag, veral in verarmde
impoverished communities gemeenskappe
• Participants often “blindly” • Deelnemers volg dikwels
follow instructions from “blindelings” instruksies
authority figures vanaf gesagsfigure
• The researcher upholds the • Die navorser handhaaf die
participant’s rights; the deelnemers se regte; die
participant must be aware deelnemer moet van hierdie
of these rights regte bewus wees
• Final responsibility for the • Finale verantwoordelikheid
study belongs to the vir die studie lê by die
researcher navorser
Ethical Approval of Research
Etiese Goedkeuring van Navorsing
• All research studies must obtain • Alle navorsingstudies moet etiese
ethical approval goedkeuring verkry
• University ethics boards • Universiteit Etiekrade
• National ethics boards • Nasionale Etiekrade
• International organizations • Internasionale organisasies
• Each country has unique • Elke land het unieke wetgewing
legislation which must be wat aan voldoen moet word
adhered to
• Etiek-komitees weeg relatiewe
• Ethics committees weigh relative risiko's / voordele op
risks / benefits • Wetenskaplike geldigheid is
• Scientific validity is important to belangrik om te regverdig dat
justify that the research is navorsing voordelig is; swak
beneficial; poor research does navorsing dra nie by nie
not contribute • Etiese goedkeuring kan nie verkry
• Ethical approval cannot be word nadat die studie reeds
obtained after the study has begin het nie
started
Disseminating Research Findings
Disseminasie van
Navorsingsbevindings
• Findings can be disseminated as: • Bevindinge kan dissemineer word
• Reports as:
• Scientific journal articles • Verslae
• Policy documents • Wetenskaplike joernaalartikels
• Advisories • Beleidsdokumente
• Intervention guidelines • Advies
• Intervensie-riglyne
• Type of dissemination depends
on the purpose of the study • Tipe disseminasie is afhanklik van
• Only general findings are die doel van die studie
disseminated • Net algemene bevindinge word
• Personal information is never dissemineer
included (confidentiality) • Persoonlike inligting word nooit
ingesluit nie (vertroulikheid)
• Information on the methodology
must be included so that • Inligting rakende die metodologie
integrity can be assessed moet ingesluit word sodat
integriteit geassesseer kan word
The upcoming case study slides
give an example of ethical issues
in the research process.
Conducting Ethical Research
Die Uitvoer van Etiese Navorsing
An NGO selects 5 impoverished schools in an area and
distributes free laptops to some of the children in order to find
out if those children’s learning is enhanced. The school gives
permission for the NGO to have school performance records
and to distribute them to the bodies sponsoring the research.
Consider the principles of justice and confidentiality.

‘n NRO kies 5 verarmde skole in ‘n area en versprei gratis

skootrekenaars aan sommige van die kinders om sodoende
vas te stel of daardie kinders se studies bevorder word. Die
skool gee toestemming aan die NRO om
skoolprestasierekords/rapporte te hê en om daardie rekords
te versprei aan die liggame wat die navorsing borg. Oorweeg
die beginsels van geregtigheid en vertroulikheid.
Conducting Ethical Research
Die Uitvoer van Etiese Navorsing

After the NGO concludes that the free laptops did

improve the children’s learning, they decide to roll out an
official nationwide study. In this case, ethical approval
from the university and Department of Education is not
required because the study was highly beneficial.

Nadat die NRO tot die gevolgtrekking gekom het dat die
gratis skootrekenaars wel die kinders se studies
bevoordeel het, besluit hulle om ‘n offisiële landswye
studie te loods. In hierdie geval word etiese goedkeuring
vanaf die universiteit en die Departement van Onderwys
nie vereis nie, omdat die studie hoogs voordelig was.
Conducting Ethical Research
Die Uitvoer van Etiese Navorsing
To obtain further funding for the nationwide study, the
NGO presents 3 case studies using specific participants
as examples. To ensure that everyone is familiar with
the cases, the NGO disseminates a report which
includes the background, methods, results, and specific
personal details and contact details of the participants.

Om verdere befondsing vir die landswye studie te

verkry, lê die NRO 3 gevallestudies voor wat spesifieke
deelnemers gebruik as voorbeelde. Om te verseker dat
almal bekend is met die gevalle, dissemineer die NRO
‘n verslag wat die agtergrond, metodes, uitslae en
spesifieke persoonlike details en kontakbesonderhede
van die deelnemers insluit.
Summary
Opsomming
• Researchers are responsible for • Navorsers is verantwoordelik vir die
upholding the ethical principles of handhawing van die etiese beginsels
autonomy, beneficence, non- outonomie, weldadigheid, nie-
maleficence, and justice kwaadwilligheid en geregtigheid
• Researchers must inform participants • Navorsers moet deelnemers inlig
of their rights, but it is the rakende hulle regte, maar dit is die
researcher’s responsibility to uphold verantwoordelikheid van die
those rights navorser om hierdie regte te
handhaaf
• The HPCSA and Health Professions
Act discuss informed consent, • Die HPCSA en die Wet op
confidentiality, and anonymity Gesondheidsprofessies bespreek
amongst other requirements ingeligte toestemming, vertroulikheid
en anonimiteit saam met ander
• All studies require ethical approval vereistes
prior to taking place
• Alle studies vereis etiese goedkeuring
• Researchers take final responsibility voordat hulle mag plaasvind
for ethics and dissemination of
findings • Navorsers dra die finale
verantwoordelikheid vir etiek en
disseminasie van bevindinge
No. 29079 GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, 4 AUGUST 2006
_________________________________________________________________________________________
FORM 223
GOVERNMENT NOTICE

DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH

No. R. 717 04 AUGUST 2006

HEALTH PROFESSIONS ACT, 1974 (ACT NO. 56 OF 1974)

ETHICAL RULES OF CONDUCT FOR PRACTITIONERS REGISTERED UNDER THE HEALTH

PROFESSIONS ACT, 1974

The Health Professions Council of South Africa has, in consultation with the professional boards and
with the approval of the Minister of Health, under section 49 read with section 61(2) and 61A (2) of the
Health Professions Act, 1974 (Act No. 56 of 1974), made the rules in the Schedule.

SCHEDULE

Definitions

1. In these rules, any word or expression to which a meaning has been assigned in the Act shall
bear such meaning and, unless the context indicates otherwise -

“Act” means the Health Professions Act, 1974(Act No. 56 of 1974);

“annexure” means an annexure to these rules;

“association” means a form of practising where two or more practitioners practise for their own
account, but share communal assets or facilities;

“board” means a professional board established in terms of section 15 of the Act;

“canvassing” means conduct which draws attention, either verbally or by means of printed or
electronic media, to one’s personal qualities, superior knowledge, quality of service, professional
guarantees or best practice;
 2
“close collaboration” means consultation by a practitioner at one stage or another in the
treatment of a patient with another practitioner and the furnishing by the latter practitioner, at the
end of such treatment, of a report on the treatment to the practitioner whom he or she consulted;

“dental specialist” means a dentist who has been registered as a specialist in a speciality or
subspeciality in dentistry in terms of the Regulations relating to the Specialities and
Subspecialities in Medicine and Dentistry, published under Government Notice No. R. 590 of 29
June 2001 as amended;

“dispensing optician” means a person registered as such in terms of the Act and the Rules for
the registration of Dispensing Opticians, published under Government Notice No. R. 2339 of 3
December 1976;

“impairment” means a mental or physical condition which affects the competence, attitude,
judgement or performance of professional acts by a registered practitioner;

“independent practice” means a practice where a registered health profession is conducted by

a health practitioner without the supervision of another health practitioner;

“itinerant practice” means a practice which a practitioner conducts on a regular basis at a

location other than at his or her resident practice address;

“medical scientist” means a person registered under the Act as a biomedical engineer, clinical
biochemist, genetic counsellor, medical biological scientist or medical physicist;

“medical specialist” means a medical practitioner who has been registered as a specialist in a
speciality or subspeciality in medicine in terms of the Regulations relating to the Specialities and
Subspecialities in Medicine and Dentistry, published under Government Notice No. R. 590 of 29
June 2001 as amended;

“optometrist” means a person registered as such under the Act;

“pharmaceutical concern” means a company registered as such under the Pharmacy Act,
1974 (Act No. 53 of 1974);
 3
“practitioner” means a person registered as such under the Act and, in the application of
rules 5, 6 and 9 of these rules, also a juristic person exempted from registration in terms of
section 54A of the Act;

“private practice” means the practice of a health practitioner who practises for his or her own
account, either in solus practice, or as a partner in a partnership, or as an associate in an
association with other practitioners, or as a director of a company established in terms of section
54A of the Act;

“public company” means a company registered as such under the Companies Act, 1973 (Act
No. 61 of 1973);

“public service” means a service rendered by the state at the national, provincial or local level
of government and includes organizations which function under its auspices or are largely
subsidized by the state or recognized by a board for the purposes of these rules;

“resident practice” means a place where a registered health practitioner conducts his or her
practice on a daily basis;

“section” means a section of the Act;

“specialist” means a practitioner who is registered as a specialist in a speciality or subspeciality

(if any) in terms of the Regulations relating to the Specialities and Subspecialities in Medicine
and Dentistry, published under Government Notice No. R. 590 of 29 June 2001as amended, and
who confines his or her practice to such speciality or subspeciality;

“supervision” means the acceptance of liability by a supervising practitioner for the acts of
another practitioner; and

“touting” means conduct which draws attention, either verbally or by means of printed or
electronic media, to one’s offers, guarantees or material benefits.

Interpretation and application

2. (1) Failure by a practitioner to comply with any conduct determined in these rules or an
annexure to these rules shall constitute an act or omission in respect of which the board
concerned may take disciplinary steps in terms of Chapter IV of the Act.
 4
(2) Conduct determined in these rules or an annexure to these rules shall not be deemed to
constitute a complete list of conduct and the board concerned may therefore inquire into
and deal with any complaint of unprofessional conduct which may be brought before such
board.
(3) At an inquiry referred to in subrule (2) the board concerned shall be guided by these rules,
annexures to these rules, ethical rulings or guidelines and policy statements which the
board concerned or council makes from time to time.

Advertising and canvassing or touting

3. (1) A practitioner shall be allowed to advertise his or her services or permit, sanction or
acquiesce to such advertisement: Provided that the advertisement is not unprofessional,
untruthful, deceptive or misleading or causes consumers unwarranted anxiety that they
may be suffering from any health condition.
(2) A practitioner shall not canvass or tout or allow canvassing or touting to be done for
patients on his or her behalf.

Information on professional stationery

4. (1) A practitioner shall print or have printed on letterheads, account forms and electronic
stationery information pertaining only to such practitioner’s –
(a) name;
(b) profession;
(c) registered category;
(d) speciality or subspeciality or field of professional practice (if any);
(e) registered qualifications or other academic qualifications or honorary degrees in
abbreviated form;
(f) registration number;
(g) addresses (including email address);
(h) telephone and fax numbers;
(i) practice or consultation hours;
(j) practice code number; and
(k) dispensing licence number (if any).
(2) A group of practitioners practising as a juristic person which is exempted from registration
in terms of section 54A of the Act or a group of practitioners practising in partnership, shall
print or have printed on letterheads, account forms and electronic stationery information
pertaining only to such juristic person or partnership practitioners’ -
 5
(a) name;
(b) profession;
(c) registered category;
(d) speciality or subspeciality or field of professional practice (if any);
(e) registered qualifications or other academic qualifications or honorary degrees in
abbreviated form;
(f) registration number;
(g) addresses (including email address);
(h) telephone and fax numbers;
(i) business hours;
(j) practice code number;
(k) exemption from registration in terms of section 54A of the Act; and
(l) dispensing licence number (if any).
(3) A practitioner shall not use prescription forms or envelopes on which the name or address
of a pharmacist is printed.

Naming of a practice

5. (1) A practitioner shall use his or her own name or the name of a registered practitioner or
practitioners with whom he or she is in partnership or with whom he or she practises as a
juristic person, as a name for his or her private practice.
(2) A practitioner referred to in subrule (1) may retain the name of such private practice even if
another practitioner, partner of such partnership or member of such juristic person is no
longer part of such private practice: Provided that the express consent of the past
practitioner or, in the case of a deceased practitioner the consent of the executor of his or
her estate or his or her next-of-kin, has been obtained.
(3) A practitioner shall not use, in the name of his or her private practice, the expression
“hospital”, “clinic” or “institute” or any other expression which may give the impression that
such private practice forms part of, or is in association with, a hospital, clinic or institute.

Itinerant practice

6. A practitioner may conduct a regularly recurring itinerant practice at a place where another
practitioner is established if, in such itinerant practice, such practitioner renders the same level of
service to patients, at the same fee as the service which he or she would render in the area in
which he or she is conducting a resident practice.
 6

7. Fees and commission

7. (1) A practitioner shall not accept commission or any material consideration, (monetary or
otherwise) from a person or from another practitioner or institution in return for the
purchase, sale or supply of any goods, substances or materials used by him or her in the
conduct of his or her professional practice.
(2) A practitioner shall not pay commission or offer any material consideration, (monetary or
otherwise) to any person for recommending patients.
(3) A practitioner shall not offer or accept any payment, benefit or material consideration
(monetary or otherwise) which is calculated to induce him or her to act or not to act in a
particular way not scientifically, professionally or medically indicated or to under-service,
over-service or over-charge patients.
(4) A practitioner shall not share fees with any person or with another practitioner who has not
taken a commensurate part in the services for which such fees are charged.
(5) A practitioner shall not charge or receive fees for services not personally rendered, except
for services rendered by another practitioner in his or her employment or with whom he or
she is associated as a partner, shareholder or locum tenens.

Partnership and juristic persons

8. (1) A practitioner shall practise only in partnership or association with or employ a practitioner
who is registered under the Act, and only in respect of the profession for which such
practitioner is registered under the Act.
(2) A practitioner shall practise in or as a juristic person who is exempted from registration in
terms of section 54A of the Act only if such juristic person complies with the conditions of
such exemption.
(3) A practitioner shall practise in a partnership, association or as a juristic person only within
the scope of the profession in respect of which he or she is registered under the Act.
(4) A practitioner shall not practise in any other form of practice which has inherent
requirements or conditions that violate or potentially may violate one or more of these rules
or an annexure to these rules.

Covering

9. (1) A practitioner shall employ as a professional assistant or locum tenens or in any other
contractual professional capacity for a period not exceeding six months, only a person -
 7
(a) who is registered under the Act;
(b) whose name currently appears on a register kept by the registrar under section 18 of
the Act; and
(c) who is not suspended from practising his or her profession.
(2) A practitioner shall help or support only a person registered under the Act, the Pharmacy
Act, 1974 (Act No. 53 of 1974), the Nursing Act, 1978 (Act No. 50 of 1978), the Social
Service Professions Act, 1978 (Act No. 110 of 1978), the Dental Technicians Act, 1979 (Act
No. 19 of 1979), or the Allied Health Professions Act, 1982 (Act No. 63 of 1982), if the
professional practice or conduct of such person is legal and within the scope of his or her
profession.

Supersession

10. A practitioner shall not supersede or take over a patient from another practitioner if he or she is
aware that such patient is in active treatment of another practitioner, unless he or she –
(a) takes reasonable steps to inform the other practitioner that he or she has taken over the
patient at such patient’s request; and
(b) establishes from the other practitioner what treatment such patient previously received,
especially what medication, if any, was prescribed to such patient and in such case the
other practitioner shall be obliged to provide such required information.

Impeding a patient

11. A practitioner shall not impede a patient, or in the case of a minor, the parent or guardian of such
minor, from obtaining the opinion of another practitioner or from being treated by another
practitioner.

Professional reputation of colleagues

12. A practitioner shall not cast reflections on the probity, professional reputation or skill of another
person registered under the Act or any other Health Act.

Professional confidentiality

13. (1) A practitioner shall divulge verbally or in writing information regarding a patient which he or
she ought to divulge only -
(a) in terms of a statutory provision;
 8
(b) at the instruction of a court of law; or
(c) where justified in the public interest.
(2) Any information other than the information referred to in subrule (1) shall be divulged by a
practitioner only -
(a) with the express consent of the patient;
(b) in the case of a minor under the age of 14 years, with the written consent of his or her
parent or guardian; or
(c) in the case of a deceased patient, with the written consent of his or her next-of-kin or
the executor of such deceased patient’s estate.

Retention of human organs

14. (1) A practitioner shall only for research, educational, training or prescribed purposes retain the
organs of a deceased person during an autopsy.
(2) The retention of organs referred to in subrule (1) shall be subject -
(a) to the express written consent given by the patient concerned during his or her
lifetime;
(b) in the case of a minor under the age of 14 years, to the written consent of such
minor’s parent or guardian; or
(c) in the case of a deceased patient who had not previously given such written consent,
to the written consent of his or her next-of-kin or the executor of his or her estate.

Signing of official documents

15. A student, intern or practitioner who, in the execution of his or her professional duties, signs
official documents relating to patient care, such as prescriptions, certificates (excluding death
certificates), patient records, hospital or other reports, shall do so by signing such document next
to his or her initials and surname printed in block letters.

Certificates and reports

16. (1) A practitioner shall grant a certificate of illness only if such certificate contains the following
information -
(a) the name, address and qualification of such practitioner;
(b) the name of the patient;
(c) the employment number of the patient (if applicable);
(d) the date and time of the examination;
 9
(e) whether the certificate is being issued as a result of personal observations by
such practitioner during an examination, or as a result of information which has been
received from the patient and which is based on acceptable medical grounds;
(f) a description of the illness, disorder or malady in layman’s terminology with the
informed consent of the patient: Provided that if such patient is not prepared to give
such consent, the practitioner shall merely specify that, in his or her opinion based on
an examination of such patient, such patient is unfit to work;
(g) whether the patient is totally indisposed for duty or whether such patient is able to
perform less strenuous duties in the work situation;
(h) the exact period of recommended sick leave;
(i) the date of issue of the certificate of illness; and
(j) the initial and surname in block letters and the registration number of the practitioner
who issued the certificate.
(2) A certificate of illness referred to in subrule (1) shall be signed by a practitioner next to his
or her initials and surname printed in block letters.
(3) If preprinted stationery is used, a practitioner shall delete words which are not applicable.
(4) A practitioner shall issue a brief factual report to a patient where such patient requires
information concerning himself or herself.

Issuing of prescriptions

17. (1) A practitioner authorized in terms of the Medicines and Related Substances Act, 1965 (Act
No. 101 of 1965), to prescribe medicines shall issue typewritten, handwritten, computer-
generated, pre-typed, pre-printed or standardized prescriptions for medicine scheduled in
Schedules I, 2, 3 and 4 of the Medicines and Related Substances Act, 1965 (Act No. 101 of
1965), subject thereto that such prescriptions may be issued only under his or her personal
and original signature.
(2) A practitioner authorized in terms of the Medicines and Related Substances Act, 1965 (Act
No. 101 of 1965), to prescribe medicines shall issue handwritten prescriptions for medicine
scheduled in Schedules 5, 6, 7 and 8 of the Medicines and Related Substances Act, 1965
(Act No. 101 of 1965), under his or her personal and original signature.
 10

Professional appointments

18. (1) A practitioner shall accept a professional appointment or employment from employers
approved by the council only in accordance with a written contract of appointment or
employment which is drawn up on a basis which is in the interest of the public and the
profession.

(2) A written contract of appointment or employment referred to in subrule (1) shall be made
available to the council at its request.

Secret remedies

19. A practitioner shall in the conduct and scope of his or her practice, use only –
(a) a form of treatment, apparatus or health technology which is not secret and which is not
claimed to be secret; and
(b) an apparatus or health technology which proves upon investigation to be capable of
fulfilling the claims made in regard to it.

Defeating or obstructing the council or board in the performance of its duties

20. A practitioner shall at all times cooperate and comply with any lawful instruction, directive or
process of the council, a board, a committee of such board or an official of council and in
particular, shall be required, where so directed to -
(a) respond to correspondence and instructions from the council, such board, a committee of
such board or an official of council within the stipulated time frames; and
(b) attend consultation at the time and place stipulated by the council, such board, a committee
of such board or an official of council.

Performance of professional acts

21. A practitioner shall perform, except in an emergency, only a professional act -

(a) for which he or she is adequately educated, trained and sufficiently experienced; and
(b) under proper conditions and in appropriate surroundings.
 11

Exploitation

22. A practitioner shall not permit himself or herself to be exploited in any manner.

Medicine

23. (1) A practitioner shall not participate in the manufacture for commercial purposes, or in the
sale, advertising or promotion of any medicine or in any other activity which amounts to
trading in medicine.
(2) A practitioner shall not engage in or advocate the preferential use or prescription of any
medicine, if any valuable consideration is derived from such preferential use or
prescription.
(3) The provisions of subrules (1) and (2) shall not prohibit a practitioner from -
(a) owning shares in a listed company;
(b) manufacturing or marketing medicines whilst employed by a pharmaceutical concern;
(c) whilst employed by a pharmaceutical concern in any particular capacity, performing
such duties as are normally in accordance with such employment; or
(d) dispensing in terms of a licence issued in terms of the Medicines and Related
Substances Act, 1965.
(4) A practitioner referred to in subrule (3) shall display a conspicuous notice in his or her
waiting room and also, if appropriate, verbally inform his or her patient about the fact that
he or she -
(a) owns shares in a listed public company which manufactures or markets the medicine
prescribed to such patient; or
(b) is in the employ of the pharmaceutical concern which manufactures such medication.
(5) A practitioner may prescribe or supply medication: Provided that such practitioner has
ascertained the diagnosis of the patient concerned through a personal examination of such
patient or by virtue of a report by another practitioner under whose treatment such patient
is or has been.
(6) In the case of a patient with a chronic disease the provision of subrule (5) shall not apply.
 12
Financial interest in hospitals

24. (1) A practitioner who has a financial interest in a private clinic or hospital shall refer a patient
to such clinic or hospital only if a conspicuous notice is displayed in his or her waiting room
indicating that he or she has a financial interest in such clinic or hospital and if such patient
is verbally informed about the fact that the said practitioner has an interest in such clinic or
hospital to which such patient is being referred.
(2) A practitioner referred to in subrule (1) shall not participate in the advertising or promotion
of any private clinic or hospital, or in any other activity which amounts to such advertising or
promotion for personal gain.
(3) A practitioner referred to in subrule (1) shall not engage in or advocate the preferential use
of any private clinic or hospital, if any valuable consideration is derived by such practitioner
from such preferential use.
(4) The provisions of subrule (3) shall not prohibit such practitioner from owning shares in a
listed public company.
(5) A practitioner referred to in subrule (4) shall display a conspicuous notice in his or her
waiting room and also verbally inform his or her patient about the fact that he or she -
(a) owns shares in a listed public company which manages such private clinic or hospital
to which he or she is referring such patient;
(b) is the owner or part owner of such private clinic or hospital; or
(c) is in the employ of such private clinic or hospital or the listed public company that
owns such private clinic or hospital.
(6) A practitioner may admit a patient to such private clinic or hospital: Provided that such
practitioner -
(a) has ascertained the diagnosis of the patient concerned through a personal
examination of such patient or by virtue of a report by another practitioner under
whose treatment such patient is or has been;
(b) has informed such patient that such admission in such private clinic or hospital was
necessary for his or her treatment; and
(c) has obtained such patient’s consent for admission to such private clinic or hospital.

Reporting of impairment or of unprofessional, illegal or unethical conduct

25. (1) A student, intern or practitioner shall -

(a) report impairment in another student, intern or practitioner to the board if he or she is
convinced that such student, intern or practitioner is impaired;
 13

(b) report his or her own impairment or suspected impairment to the board concerned if
he or she is aware of his or her own impairment or has been publicly informed, or has
been seriously advised by a colleague to act appropriately to obtain help in view of an
alleged or established impairment, and
(c) report any unprofessional, illegal or unethical conduct on the part of another student,
intern or practitioner.

Research, development and use of chemical, biological and nuclear capabilities

26. (1) A practitioner who is or becomes involved in research, development or use of defensive
chemical, biological or nuclear capabilities shall obtain prior written approval from the board
concerned to conduct such research, development or use.
(2) In applying for written approval referred to in subrule (1), such practitioner shall provide the
following information to the board concerned:
(a) Full particulars of the nature and scope of such research, development or use;
(b) whether the clinical trials pertaining to such research have been passed by a
professionally recognized research ethics committee;
(c) that such research, development or use is permitted in terms of the provisions of the
World Medical Association’s Declaration on Chemical and Biological Weapons; and
(d) that such research, development or use is permitted in terms of the provisions of the
applicable international treaties or conventions to which South Africa is a signatory.
Dual registration

27. A health practitioner who holds registration with more than one statutory council or professional
board shall at all times ensure that -
(a) no conflict of interest arises from such dual registration in the rendering of health
services to patients;
(b) patients are clearly informed at the start of the consultation of the profession in which
the practitioner is acting;
(c) informed consent regarding the profession referred to in paragraph (b) is obtained
from the said patient;
(d) patients are not consulted in a dual capacity or charged fees based on such dual
consultation; and
(e) the ethical rules applicable at a given moment to the profession in which the
practitioner is acting, are strictly adhered to.
 14
Repeal

28. The Rules Specifying the Acts or Omissions in respect of which Disciplinary Steps may be taken
by a Professional Board and the Council, published under Government Notice No. R. 2278 of 3
December 1976 and Government Notice No. R. 1379 of 12 August 1994, as amended by
Government Notice No. R. 1405 of 22 December 2000 are hereby repealed.

ME TSHABALALA-MSIMANG
MINISTER OF HEALTH
 15
ANNEXURE 12

PROFESSIONAL BOARD FOR PSYCHOLOGY

RULES OF CONDUCT PERTAINING SPECIFICALLY TO THE PROFESSION OF PSYCHOLOGY

A psychologist shall adhere to the following rules of conduct in addition to the rules of conduct referred to in rules 2
to 27. Failure by such psychologist to comply with the rules of conduct listed herein shall constitute an act or
omission in respect of which the board may take disciplinary steps in terms of Chapter IV of the Act.

Definitions

1. In these rules, any word or expression to which a meaning has been assigned in the Act shall bear such
meaning and, unless the context otherwise indicates –

“Act” means the Health Professions Act, 1974(Act No.56 of 1974);

“barter” means the acceptance of goods, services or other non-monetary remuneration from clients in
return for psychological services;

“board” means the Professional Board for Psychology established in terms of section15 of the Act;

“children” means persons 14 years and younger and the word “child” has a similar meaning;

“client” means a user of psychological services, irrespective of whether the recipient of such services is
an individual, a family, a group, an organisation or a community;

“competency” means the ability to conduct the psychological acts in which a psychologist was trained
and in which he obtained a qualification as prescribed in terms of the Act;

“confidential information” means any information conveyed in confidence to a psychologist by a

client, colleague, collateral source or another professional;

“health committee” means a committee established by the council in terms of section 10(1) and the
regulations made under section 51 of the Act;

“intern” means a person registered as an intern in psychology under the Act;

“psychological services” means the acts of psychological assessment, diagnosis and intervention
rendered to a client;
 16

"psychologist" includes a person registered under the Act as a psychologist, registered counsellor,
psychometrist, psycho-technician, intern in psychology or student in professional psychology;

“psychometrist” means a person registered as a psychometrist in terms of the Act;

“psycho-technician” means a person registered as a psycho-technician in terms of the Act;

“registered counsellor” means a person registered as a registered counsellor in terms of the Act;

“section” means a section of the Act;

“sexual harassment” means any act of sexual solicitation, physical advances, or verbal or non-verbal
conduct that is sexual in nature that is committed by a psychologist in the course of his or her
professional activities and that is unwelcome or offensive or creates an untenable situation in the
workplace or educational environment;

“student” means a person registered under the Act as a student in professional psychology;

“test data” means the test protocols, record forms, scores and notes regarding an individual’s
responses to test items in any medium;

“the code” means these rules.

CHAPTER 1
PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE

General

2. (1) A psychologist shall develop, maintain and encourage high standards of professional
competence to ensure that clients are protected from professional practices that fall short of
international and national best practice standards.
(2) A psychologist shall be accountable for professional actions in all domains of his or her
professional life.

Competency limits

3. (1) A psychologist shall limit his or her practice to areas within the boundaries of his or her
competency based on his or her formal education, training, supervised experience and/or
appropriate professional experience.
 17

(2) A psychologist shall ensure that his or her work is based on established scientific and
professional knowledge of the discipline of psychology.

Maintaining competency

4. A psychologist shall maintain up-to-date competency in his or her areas of practice through continued
professional development, consultation and/or other procedures in conformity with current standards of
scientific or professional knowledge.

Adding new competencies

5. (1) When a psychologist is developing competency in a psychological service or technique that is

either new to him or her or new to the profession, he or she shall engage in ongoing consultation
with other psychologists or relevant professions and shall seek and obtain appropriate education
and training in the new area.
(2) A psychologist shall inform a client of the innovative nature of and the known risks associated
with such new psychological services or techniques, so that the client may have freedom of
choice concerning such services or the application of such techniques.

Extraordinary circumstances

6. A psychologist may, when, in an emergency, he or she is asked to provide psychological services for
which he or she has not obtained the necessary competency, provide such services to ensure that the
client is not denied services.

Personal impairment

7. A psychologist who, in the opinion of the health committee, appears to be impaired as defined in the
Act–
(a) shall refrain from undertaking professional activities when there is the likelihood that his or her
personal circumstances (including mental, emotional or physiological conditions, or
pharmacological or substance abuse considerations) may prevent him or her from performing
such professional activities in a competent manner;
(b) shall be alert to signs of, and obtain appropriate professional assistance for, his or her personal
problems at an early stage in order to prevent impaired performance; and
(c) shall, if he or she becomes aware of personal circumstances that may interfere with his or her
performing his or her professional duties adequately, take appropriate measures, such as
consulting and obtaining the assistance of a professional as determined by the health
committee, to determine whether he or she should limit, suspend or terminate his or her
professional duties.
 18
Delegation of work

8. A psychologist who delegates work to an employee, supervisee, psychometrist, registered counsellor or

research or teaching assistant shall take all reasonable steps –
(a) to avoid delegating such work to a person who has a multiple relationship with the client that is
likely to lead to exploitation or loss of objectivity;
(b) to authorise only those responsibilities that such a person can be expected to perform
competently on the basis of his or her education, training and experience; and
(c) to ensure that such a person performs those services competently.

Use of interpreters

9. (1) When it is clear that a client is not fluent in the psychologist’s language, the psychologist shall
propose the use of an interpreter to that client.
(2) An interpreter engaged by a psychologist as contemplated in subrule (1) shall be fluent in at
least the two languages concerned and shall, in particular, be proficient in the client’s language
of preference.
(3) A psychologist who engages an interpreter as contemplated in subrule (1) shall take all
reasonable steps to ensure that –
(a) the interpreter does not have a multiple relationship with the client concerned that is likely to
lead to exploitation or loss of objectivity; and
(b) the interpreter performs the interpretation tasks competently.

CHAPTER 2
PROFESSIONAL RELATIONS

Respect for human rights and others

10. (1) A psychologist shall, in all his or her professional activities, respect the dignity and human
worth of a client and shall strive to preserve and protect the client's fundamental human rights.
(2) A psychologist shall respect the right of a client to hold values, attitudes, beliefs and opinions
that differ from his or her own.
(3) A psychologist shall recognise a client's inalienable human right to bodily and psychological
integrity, including security in and control over his or her body and person, and a client's right not
to be subjected to any procedure or experiment without his or her informed consent as referred
to in rule 11 and such consent shall be sought and given in a language that is easily
understood by the client.
 19

(4) A psychologist shall not coerce a client into agreeing that a psychological service be
rendered to him or her nor compel a client to give self-incriminating evidence through the
use of psychological techniques or otherwise.

Informed consent to professional procedures

11. (1) When a psychologist conducts research or provides assessment, psychotherapy, counselling or
consulting services in person or via electronic transmission or other forms of communication, he
or she shall obtain the written informed consent of the client concerned, using a language that is
reasonably understandable to such client.
(2) While the content of the written informed consent referred to in subrule (1) will vary depending
on the circumstances, informed consent ordinarily requires that a client –
(a) has the capacity to consent;
(b) has been provided with information concerning participation in the activity that might
reasonably be expected to affect his or her willingness to participate, including
exceptions to the requirement of confidentiality and monetary or other costs or
remuneration;
(c) is aware of the voluntary nature of participation and has freely and without undue
influence given his or her consent; and
(d) has had the opportunity to ask questions and be given answers regarding the activities
concerned:
Provided that, in the case of a client who is legally incapable of giving informed consent, a
psychologist shall nevertheless –
(i) provide an appropriate explanation;
(ii) seek the client’s assent;
(iii) consider such client’s preferences and best interests; and
(iv) obtain appropriate permission from a person legally authorised to give consent if such
substitute consent is permitted or required by law, but if consent by a legally authorised
person is not permitted or required by law, a psychologist shall take all reasonable steps
to protect the client’s rights and welfare.
(3) When psychological services are ordered by a court or required administratively or ordered
through mediation or arbitration, a psychologist shall –
(a) before proceeding, inform the individual concerned of the nature of the anticipated services,
including whether the services were ordered and whether there are any exceptions to the
requirement of confidentiality; and
(b) appropriately document written or oral consent, permission or assent.
 20
Unfair discrimination

12. (1) A psychologist shall not impose on a client, an employee, a research participant, student,
supervisee, trainee or any other person over whom he or she has or had authority any
stereotypes of behaviour, values or roles relating to age, belief, birth, conscience, colour,

culture, disability, disease, ethnic or social origin, gender, language, marital status, pregnancy,
race, religion, sexual orientation, socio-economic status or any other factor prohibited by law.
(2) A psychologist shall not unfairly discriminate on the basis of age, belief, birth, colour,
conscience, culture, disability, disease, ethnic or social origin, gender, language, marital status,
pregnancy, race, religion, sexual orientation, socio-economic status or any other factor
prohibited by law.
(3) A psychologist shall make every effort to ensure that language-appropriate and culture-
appropriate services are made available to a client and that acceptable standards of language
proficiency are met in rendering a service to a client whose primary language differs from that of
the psychologist.

Sexual harassment

13. A psychologist shall not be guilty of sexual harassment.

Other harassment

14. A psychologist shall not behave in a manner that is harassing or demeaning to persons with whom he or
she interacts in his or her work on the basis of factors such as those persons’ age, belief, birth, colour,
conscience, culture, disability, disease, ethnic or social origin, gender, language, marital status,
pregnancy, race, religion, sexual orientation or socio-economic status.

Avoiding harm

15. A psychologist shall take all reasonable steps to avoid harming a client, an employee, a research
participant, student, supervisee, trainee or other person with whom he or she works, including harm
through victimisation, harassment or coercion.

Conflict of interest

16. A psychologist shall refrain from assuming a professional role when personal, professional, legal,
scientific, financial or other interests or relationships could reasonably be expected to –
(a) impair his or her objectivity, competence or effectiveness in performing his or her functions as a
psychologist; or
 21
(b) expose the client concerned to harm or exploitation.

Third-party requests for service

17. (1) When a psychologist agrees to render a psychological service to a client at the request of a third
party, the psychologist shall clarify at the outset of such service the nature of the

relationship with each of the parties involved (whether individuals or organisations).

(2) The clarification referred to in subrule (1) shall cover the role of the psychologist (such as
therapist, consultant, diagnostician, expert witness), the probable uses of the psychological
service provided or the information obtained, and the fact that there may be exceptions to the
requirement of confidentiality.
(3) If there is a foreseeable risk of the psychologist’s being called upon to fulfil conflicting roles
because of the involvement of a third party, the psychologist shall clarify the nature of his or her
responsibilities, keep all parties properly informed as matters develop, and resolve the situation
in accordance with these rules.

Multiple relationships

18. (1) A multiple relationship occurs when a psychologist fulfils a professional role with respect to a
person or organisation and at the same time –
(a) fulfils or fulfilled another role with respect to the same person or organisation;
(b) is in a relationship with a person or organisation closely associated with or related to the
person or organisation with whom he or she has the professional relationship; or
(c) promises to enter into another relationship in the future with that person or organisation
or a person or organisation closely associated with or related to that person or
organisation.
(2) A psychologist shall refrain from entering into a multiple relationship if that multiple relationship
could reasonably be expected to impair the psychologist’s objectivity, competence or
effectiveness in performing his or her functions as psychologist or cause a risk of exploitation of
or harm to the person or organisation with whom the professional relationship exists.
(3) If a psychologist finds that, owing to unforeseen factors, a potentially harmful multiple
relationship has developed, he or she shall attempt to resolve the problem with due regard to
the best interests of the client concerned and maximum compliance with these rules.
(4) In the circumstances referred to in subrule (3), the psychologist shall assist the client in
obtaining the services of another professional, and shall not enter into any professional or other
relationship with such client until at least twenty-four months have elapsed after termination of
such multiple relationship: Provided that where a client is emotionally or cognitively vulnerable to
influencing by such psychologist, no such relationship shall be established between the
psychologist and the client.
 22

(5) When a psychologist is required by law, institutional policy or other circumstances to fulfil more
than one role in judicial or administrative proceedings, he or she shall, at the outset, clarify the
role expectations and any exceptions to the requirement of confidentiality.

Exploitative relationships

19. A psychologist shall not exploit a person over whom he or she has supervisory, evaluative, or other

authority, such as a client, employee, research participant, student, supervisee or trainee.

Cooperation with other professionals

20. Where indicated and professionally appropriate, a psychologist shall –

(a) cooperate with such professionals as approved by the board in order to serve his or her clients
effectively and appropriately; and
(b) arrange for appropriate consultations and referrals based on the best interests of his or her
clients, subject to such consent and other relevant considerations as may be appropriate,
including the applicable legal and contractual obligations.

Interruption of psychological services

21. A psychologist shall not abandon a client by terminating the professional relationship prematurely or
abruptly, but shall –
(a) make appropriate arrangements for another psychologist to deal with the needs of the client in
the event of an emergency during periods of foreseeable absence when the psychologist will not
be available; and
(b) make every reasonable effort to plan for continuity of service in the event that such service is
interrupted by factors such as the psychologist’s illness, death, unavailability or relocation or by
the client’s relocation or financial limitations.

Psychological services rendered to or through organisations

22. (1) A psychologist who renders psychological services to or through an organisation shall, in
advance, provide a client with information about –
(a) the nature and objectives of the psychological services concerned;
(b) the relationship between the psychologist and every individual affected by the
psychological services concerned;
(c) the uses to which the psychological information provided by a client will be put;
(d) the persons that will have access to the information referred to in paragraph (c); and
 23
(e) exceptions to the requirement of confidentiality.
(1) As soon as is feasible, a psychologist shall provide the appropriate persons with information
about the results and conclusions of the psychological service concerned and if the law or
organisational rules prohibit the psychologist from providing particular individuals or groups with
information, the psychologist shall so inform the individuals or groups concerned at the outset of
the psychological service.

Delegation and supervision of psychological services

23. (1) A psychologist shall not delegate professional responsibilities to any person who is not qualified
to assume such responsibilities.

(2) A psychologist may delegate to a supervisee, with the appropriate level of supervision, only
such professional responsibilities as the supervisee can reasonably be expected to perform
competently and ethically on the basis of that supervisee's education, training and experience.
(3) In order to perform the responsibilities contemplated in subrule (2), a supervisee shall have
education and training that was accredited by the board, including training in ethical issues.
(4) A psychologist shall be responsible for determining the competency of a supervisee and shall
not assign to such supervisee, or allow such supervisee to undertake, responsibilities beyond
the scope of that supervisee's training and/or competency.
(5) A psychologist shall be responsible for providing a supervisee with specific instructions
regarding the limits of his or her role as a supervisee.
(6) A supervisee shall fully inform a client receiving psychological services of his or her status as
supervisee and of the right of the client to confer with the supervising psychologist with regard to
any aspect of the psychological services being performed.
(7) When a clinical psychological service is rendered, a psychologist shall –
(a) take part in the psychological intake process;
(b) personally make a diagnosis when a diagnosis is required; and
(c) personally approve a treatment plan for each client.
(8) A psychologist shall, on a continuous and regular basis, personally meet with a supervisee
concerning each client and shall review the treatment record, including progress notes, on a regular
basis as appropriate to the task to be performed.
 24

CHAPTER 3
PRIVACY, CONFIDENTIALITY AND RECORDS

Rights to confidentiality

24. (1) A psychologist shall safeguard the confidential information obtained in the course of his or her
practice, teaching, research or other professional duties, subject only to such exceptions to the
requirement of confidentiality as may be determined by law or a court of law.
(2) A psychologist may disclose confidential information to other persons only with the written,
informed consent of the client concerned.

Discussing exceptions to the requirement of confidentiality

25. (1) A psychologist is obliged to discuss with persons and organisations with whom he or she
establishes a scientific or professional relationship (including, to the extent feasible, persons
who are legally incapable of giving informed consent and their legal representatives) the
exceptions to the requirement of confidentiality, including any such exceptions that may apply to
group, marital or family therapy or to organisational consulting and the foreseeable uses of the
information obtained.

(2) A psychologist shall, unless it is contraindicated, discuss confidentiality at the outset of the
relationship and thereafter as new circumstances warrant its discussion.
(3) A psychologist shall, prior to doing so, obtain permission from the client concerned to record
interviews electronically or to transmit information electronically and shall inform the client of the
risk of breach of privacy or confidentiality inherent in the electronic recording or transmission of
information.
(4) A psychologist shall, when engaging in electronically transmitted services, ensure that
confidentiality and privacy are maintained and shall inform a client of the measures taken to
maintain confidentiality.
(5) A psychologist shall not withhold information from a client who is entitled to that information,
provided it does not violate the right to confidentiality of any other person and provided the
information requested is required for the exercise or protection of any rights.

Limits on invasion of privacy

26. A psychologist may, in any written report, oral report or consultations with a third party, disclose only
such information as is relevant to the purpose for which that communication is made and may discuss
confidential information obtained in his or her work only for appropriate scientific or professional
purposes and then only with persons with a legitimate interest in such matters.
 25

Disclosures

27. (1) A psychologist may disclose confidential information –

(a) only with the permission of the client concerned;
(b) when permitted by law to do so for a legitimate purpose, such as providing a client with
the professional services required;
(c) to appropriate professionals and then for strictly professional purposes only;
(d) to protect a client or other persons from harm; or
(e) to obtain payment for a psychological service, in which instance disclosure is limited to
the minimum necessary to achieve that purpose.
(2) When required to do so by law or a court of law, a psychologist shall disclose the confidential
information so required.

Multiple clients

28. (1) When more than one client is provided with a psychological service during a joint session (for
example with a family or couple, or a parent and child, labour disputants, or a group), a
psychologist shall, at the beginning of the professional relationship, clarify to all parties the
manner in which confidentiality will be handled.
(2) All clients referred to in subrule (1) shall be given the opportunity to discuss with the
psychologist what information is to remain confidential and what information the psychologist is
obliged to disclose.

Legally dependent clients

29. (1) A psychologist shall bear in mind that a child’s best interest is of paramount importance in the
provision of psychological services that have bearing on the psychological well-being of such
child.
(2) A psychologist shall take special care when dealing with children of the age of 14 years or
younger.
(3) A psychologist shall, at the beginning of a professional relationship, inform a child or a client
who has a legal guardian or who is otherwise legally dependent, of the limits the law imposes on
that child's or client's right to confidentiality with respect to his or her communication with the
psychologist.
 26

Release of confidential information

30. A psychologist shall release confidential information when ordered to do so by a court of law or when
required to do so by law or when authorised to do so in writing by the client concerned or the parent or
legal guardian of a minor client.

Reporting abuse of children and vulnerable adults

31. A psychologist shall, in terms of any relevant law or by virtue of professional responsibility, report the
abuse of any child or vulnerable adult.

Professional consultations

32. (1) When a psychologist renders professional psychological services as part of a team or when he
or she interacts with other professionals concerning the welfare of a client, the psychologist
may share confidential information about that client with such team members or other
professionals: Provided that the psychologist take all reasonable steps to ensure that all
persons who receive such information are informed of its confidential nature and are bound by
the rule of professional confidentiality.

(2) When consulting with colleagues, a psychologist –

(a) shall not disclose confidential information that could reasonably be expected to lead to
the identification of a client, research participant or other person or organisation with
whom he or she has a confidential relationship unless –
(i) he or she has obtained the prior consent of the client, research participant,
person or organisation concerned; or
(ii) the disclosure cannot be avoided; and
(b) may disclose information only to the extent necessary to achieve the purposes of the
consultation.

Disguising confidential information used for didactic or other purposes

33. A psychologist shall not disclose in his or her writings or lectures or in any other public way confidential
information or information that can be linked to an identifiable person which he or she obtained in the
course of his or her work with a client, organisation, research participant, supervisee, student or other
recipient of his or her psychological services, unless –
(a) he or she has taken all reasonable steps to disguise the identity of such client, organisation,
research participant, supervisee, student or other recipient;
 27
(b) such client, organisation, research participant, supervisee, student or other recipient has
consented to such disclosure in writing; or
(c) there is other ethical or legal authorisation to do so.

Maintenance, dissemination and keeping of records

34. (1) A psychologist shall create, maintain, store, disseminate and retain records and data relating to
his or her scientific and professional work in order to –
(a) facilitate the efficacious provision of services by him or her or another professional;
(b) allow for replication of research design and analysis;
(c) meet institutional requirements;
(d) ensure accuracy of billing and payments;
(e) facilitate subsequent professional intervention or inquiry; and
(f) ensure compliance with all applicable legal provisions.
(2) A psychologist shall maintain confidentiality in creating, storing, accessing, transferring and
disposing of records under his or her control, whether these are kept in written, automated or
any other form.
(3) A psychologist shall, if confidential information concerning users of psychological services is
entered into a database or system of records available to persons whose access has not been
consented to by the user, use coding or other techniques to avoid the inclusion of personal
identifiers.

(4) A psychologist shall plan in advance to facilitate the appropriate transfer and to protect the
confidentiality of records and data in the event of his or her unavailability through factors such as
death, incapacity or withdrawal from practice.

CHAPTER 4
FEES AND FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS

Agreement about fees

35. Notwithstanding the provisions of rule 36, a psychologist and client or other user of the psychological
services concerned may negotiate a fee as early as is feasible in a professional or scientific relationship.

Overcharging

36. A psychologist shall not exploit users of psychological services or payers with regard to fees.
 28

Accuracy in billing

37. A psychologist shall not misrepresent his or her fees, nor bill for psychological services partially
rendered or not rendered at all.

Limitations

38. If limitations on the provision of psychological services are anticipated because of financial limitations, a
psychologist shall, as early as is feasible, discuss such limitations with the client or other user of the
psychological services concerned.

Collection of outstanding fees

39. (1) If a client does not pay for psychological services as agreed with the psychologist concerned,
and if the psychologist wishes to use a collection agency or take legal steps to collect any
outstanding fees, he or she shall first inform the client that such measures will be taken and
shall afford the client the opportunity to make prompt payment.
(2) A psychologist shall use only a collection agent who is reputable and registered in terms of the
Debt Collectors Act, 1998 (Act No. 114 of 1998), and who will not bring the profession of
psychology into disrepute.

Withholding information, reports or records owing to non-payment

40. A psychologist shall not, on the grounds of non-payment of fees, withhold information, reports or records
under his or her control which are required for the treatment of the client concerned or for any court
action.

Account itemisation

41. (1) A psychologist shall submit billing claims to third-party funders which clearly state the name of
the person who provided the psychological services.
(2) When a psychologist supervises another professional, including the intern, registered
counsellor, psychometrist, psycho-technician or student who primarily provided the
psychological services, the itemised bill and/or reimbursement form shall contain such
psychologist's signature as supervisor and the other professional's signature as service
provider. There may be no ambiguity as to who the direct service provider was.
 29

Barter with clients

42. A psychologist may barter only if –

(a) it is not professionally contraindicated;
(b) the resulting arrangement is not exploitative; and
(c) it is the client’s only mode of remuneration for the psychological service provided.

Withholding of emergency services

43. A psychologist shall not withhold emergency psychological services because the client is unable to
guarantee remuneration for such services.

CHAPTER 5
ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

Assessment in professional context

44. (1) A psychologist shall perform evaluations and diagnostic services only in the context of a
defined professional relationship.
(2) Assessments, recommendations, reports and psychological diagnostic or evaluative statements
by a psychologist shall be based on information and techniques sufficient to substantiate his or
her findings.
(3) A psychologist may provide an opinion of the psychological characteristics of a client only after
he or she has conducted an examination of such client that is professionally adequate to support
his or her findings.

(4) When, despite reasonable efforts, an examination referred to in subrule (3) is not practical, a
psychologist shall document the efforts made, and shall state the probable impact of his or her
limited information on the reliability and validity of his or her opinions, and limit the nature and
extent of his or her findings accordingly.
(5) When a group assessment is conducted, the psychologist concerned shall declare the limits to
his or her findings taking into account that “limits” implies that the score of a group has less
reliability and validity than an individually-derived score.
(6) When a psychologist conducts a review of records and the examination of a client is not
warranted or necessary to give an opinion, the psychologist shall declare the limits to his or her
findings taking into account that “limits” implies that the score of a group has less reliability and
validity than an individually-derived score.
(7) When any electronic, internet or other indirect means of assessment is used, the psychologist
concerned shall declare this and appropriately limit the nature and extent of his or her findings.
 30

Appropriate use of assessment methods

45. A psychologist who develops, administers, scores, interprets or otherwise uses psychological
assessment techniques, interviews, tests, instruments or other measures referred to in the Act shall –
(a) do so in a manner and for purposes that are appropriate in light of the research or evidence of
the usefulness and proper application of such assessment methods; and
(b) refrain from misusing assessment techniques, interventions, results and interpretations and take
all reasonable steps to prevent others from misusing the information such methods provide, and
such misuse includes releasing raw test results or raw data to persons, other than the clients
concerned, who are not qualified to use that information.

Informed consent in assessments

46. (1) A psychologist shall obtain the written, informed consent of a client for assessments, evaluations
or diagnostic services.
(2) The written, informed consent referred to in subrule (1) shall contain at least the following:
(a) Personal details of the client concerned;
(b) the exact nature of the psychological service(s) to be provided; and
(c) any limits inherent in providing psychological services to the client, for example –
(i) a client’s right to refuse participation;
(ii) exceptions to the requirement of confidentiality; or
(iii) any potential harmful effects inherent in providing the psychological services
concerned.
(3) Written, informed consent as contemplated in subrule (1) is not necessary when –
(a) testing is a legal requirement;
(b) informed consent is implied because testing is conducted as a routine educational,
institutional or organisational activity (as in job-interview testing); or
(c) the purpose of the testing by the psychologist is to evaluate decision-making and mental
incapacity.
(4) A psychologist shall inform a client with questionable capacity to consent or for whom testing is
required by law, of the nature and purpose of the proposed assessment services, using
language that is reasonably understandable to the client being assessed.
(5) (a) A psychologist shall, when using the services of an interpreter, obtain the informed
consent of a client to use the interpreter, and shall take all reasonable steps to ensure
that the confidentiality of test results and test security are maintained, and shall discuss
any limitations of the data obtained.
(b) A psychologist shall remain cognizant of the limits to data obtained via the use of an
interpreter and frame his or her conclusions and recommendations accordingly.
 31
(6) A psychologist shall, when conducting automated or internet-based testing, obtain the
informed consent of the client and shall –
(a) ensure that the confidentiality of test results and test security are maintained; and
(b) discuss with the client any limitations of the data obtained.

Test development

47. A psychologist who develops and conducts research with tests and other assessment methods shall use
scientific procedures and current professional knowledge for test design, standardisation, validation,
reduction or elimination of bias, and recommendations for use.

Cultural diversity

48. A psychologist who performs interventions or administers, scores, interprets or uses assessment
methods shall –
(a) be familiar with the reliability, validation and related standardisation or outcome studies and the
proper applications and uses of the methods he or she uses;
(b) recognise limits to the certainty with which diagnoses, findings or predictions can be made about
individuals, especially where there are linguistic, cultural and socio-economic variances; and
(c) make every effort to identify situations in which particular assessment methods or norms may
not be applicable or may require adjustment in administration, scoring and interpretation
because of factors such as age, belief, birth, colour, conscience, culture, disability, disease,
ethnic or social origin, gender, language, marital status, pregnancy, race, religion, sexual
orientation or socio-economic status.

Communication of results

49. A psychologist shall ensure that the communication of results of assessment procedures to a client,

parent, legal guardian or other person legally authorised to receive such results on behalf of the
client is accompanied by such adequate interpretative aids or explanations as may be necessary.

Information for professional users

50. (1) A psychologist who offers an assessment procedure or automated interpretation service to
another professional shall conduct such service in accordance with the best-practice guidelines
for psychometry applicable at the time.
(2) A psychologist shall explicitly state the purpose and application for which the procedure is
recommended and identify any special qualifications required to administer, score and interpret
it properly, and shall ensure that any advertisements for the assessment procedure or
interpretative service are factual and descriptive.
 32

Interpreting assessment results

51. (1) When a psychologist interprets assessment results, including automated interpretations, he or
she shall take into account the various test factors and characteristics of the client being
assessed, such as situational, personal, linguistic and cultural differences that might affect the
client’s judgements and reduce the validity of the psychologist’s interpretations.
(2) A psychologist shall indicate any significant reservations he or she may have about the accuracy
of his or her interpretation.

Explaining assessment results

52. (1) Unless the nature of the relationship is clearly explained in advance to the client being assessed
by the psychologist concerned and precludes providing an explanation of the results, for
instance in some organisational consulting, pre-employment or security screening and forensic
evaluations, the psychologist shall ensure that the explanation of the results is given in language
that is reasonably understandable to the client concerned or to another person legally
authorised to receive such explanation on behalf of the client.
(2) Regardless of whether the administration, scoring and interpretation of tests are done by a
psychologist or by others working with or under such psychologist, or by automated or other
outside services, the psychologist concerned shall take all reasonable steps to ensure that
appropriate explanations of results are given.

Test scoring and interpretation services

53. A psychologist who offers assessment or scoring procedures to other professionals shall –
(a) accurately describe the purpose, norms, validity, reliability and applications of the procedures
and any special qualifications applicable to their use: Provided that the

psychologist shall explicitly state the language, cultural and any other limitations of the norms;
(b) select scoring and interpretation services (including automated services) on the basis of
evidence of the validity and reliability of the programme and procedures, as well as other
appropriate considerations; and
(c) retain responsibility for the appropriate safety, administration, application, interpretation and use
of assessment instruments, whether he or she administers, scores and interprets such tests
himself or herself or uses automated or other services.
 33

Release of test data

54. (1) A psychologist may release test data to another psychologist or another qualified professional
by virtue of informed written consent by the client concerned.
(2) A psychologist shall not release test data to a person who is not qualified to use such
information, except –
(a) as required by law or a court order;
(b) by virtue of informed written consent by the client concerned; and
(c) to the client concerned; and
(3) A psychologist may refrain from releasing test data referred to in subparagraph (2) to protect his
or her client from harm.

Obsolete tests and outdated test results

55. A psychologist shall not base –

(a) his or her assessment or intervention decision or recommendation on data or test results that
are outdated for the current purpose; or
(b) such a decision or recommendation on tests and measures that are obsolete and not useful for
the current purpose, but shall ensure that tests used have been classified by the board and that
the provisions of any applicable legislation, such as the Employment Equity Act, 1998 (Act No.
55 of 1998), have been complied with.

Maintaining test security

56. A psychologist shall take all reasonable steps to maintain the integrity and security of tests and other
assessment techniques consistent with the law and the code.

CHAPTER 6
THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITIES

Informed consent to therapy

57. When obtaining informed consent to therapy as required in Standard Informed Consent Forms, a
psychologist shall, as early as is feasible in the therapeutic relationship, provide the client concerned
with appropriate information, including information about the nature and anticipated course of therapy,
the fees, the involvement of third parties and confidentiality, and when –
 34

(a) obtaining the informed consent of a client for treatment involving emerging areas in which
generally recognised techniques and procedures have not been established, the psychologist
shall inform the client of the developmental nature of the treatment, the potential risks involved,
alternative treatments that may be available, and the voluntary nature of the client’s
participation; and
(b) the psychologist is a trainee and the legal responsibility for the treatment provided resides with
the supervisor, the client shall, as part of the informed consent procedure, be informed that the
therapist is in training and is being supervised and the client shall be given the name of the
supervisor.

Couples or family therapy

58. (1) When a psychologist agrees to render psychological services to two or more persons who have a
relationship, such as spouses, parents or children, the psychologist –
(a) shall clarify at the outset which of the individuals are clients and the relationship such
psychologist will have with each person;
(b) may be called on to perform potentially conflicting roles such as a family therapist and
then as a witness in divorce proceedings; and
(c) shall clarify and modify or withdraw from roles when appropriate.
(2) The clarification referred to in subrule (1)(a) includes the psychologist’s role and the probable use
of the psychological services provided or the information obtained.

Group therapy

59. When a psychologist provides psychological services to several persons in a group setting, the
psychologist shall, at the outset, describe the roles and responsibilities of all parties and any exceptions
to the requirement of confidentiality.

Therapy for those served by others

60. (1) In deciding to render psychological services to those already receiving mental health services, a
psychologist shall carefully consider the treatment issues and the potential client’s welfare.
(2) A psychologist shall discuss the issues contemplated in subrule (1) with the potential client or
the legally authorised person of such client, for example parent, guardian, attorney or juristic
person in a correctional services or juvenile justice setting such as a reformatory, in order to
minimise the risk of confusion and conflict, consult with the other service providers when
appropriate and proceed with caution and sensitivity to the therapeutic issues.
 35

Sexual intimacies with current therapy clients

61. A psychologist shall not engage in sexual intimacies of any nature (whether verbal, physical or both) with
a current client.

Sexual intimacies with relatives or significant others of current clients or patients

62. (1) A psychologist shall not engage in sexual intimacies with an individual he or she knows to be the
parent, guardian, spouse, significant other, child or sibling of a current client.
(2) A psychologist shall not terminate therapy to circumvent the prohibition referred to in subrule (1).

Therapy for former sexual partners

63. A psychologist shall not accept as a client any person with whom he or she has engaged in
sexual intimacies.

Sexual intimacies with former clients

64. A psychologist shall not engage in sexual intimacies with a former client for at least 24 months after
termination of the professional relationship and the onus rests on a psychologist who enters into a
sexual relationship with a former client after such a period to demonstrate that there has been no
exploitation, bearing in mind all relevant factors, including –
(a) the period of time that has elapsed since the professional relationship was terminated;
(b) the nature, duration, and intensity of the professional relationship;
(c) the circumstances of the termination of the professional relationship;
(d) the client’s personal history;
(e) the client’s current mental status;
(f) the likelihood of an adverse effect on the client; and
(g) any statements made or actions taken by the psychologist in the course of the professional
relationship suggesting or inviting the possibility of a post-termination sexual or romantic
relationship with the client.

Interruption of professional services

65. When entering into employment or contractual relationships, or where third-party payers are involved, a
psychologist shall take all reasonable steps to provide for the orderly and appropriate resolution of his or
her responsibility for client care in the event that the employment or contractual relationship ends, with
paramount consideration given to the welfare of the client.
 36
Terminating professional services

66. (1) A psychologist shall terminate professional services inclusive of therapy for a client when it
becomes reasonably clear that the client no longer needs the psychological service concerned
or is not likely to benefit or is being harmed by continuing that psychological service.
(2) A psychologist may terminate psychological services when threatened or endangered in any
way by a client or another person with whom that client has a relationship, in which
circumstances careful thought shall be given to an appropriate referral or disposition plan.
(3) Except where precluded by the actions of a client or third-party payer, a psychologist shall, prior
to termination, provide pre-termination counselling and suggest alternative service providers, if
appropriate.

CHAPTER 7
PSYCHO-LEGAL ACTIVITIES

Competence

67. (1) A psychologist who performs psycho-legal (including forensic) functions, such as assessments,
interviews, consultations, reports or expert testimony, shall comply with all the provisions of
these rules to the extent that they apply to such activities.

(2) A psychologist shall base his or her psycho-legal work on appropriate knowledge of and
competence in the areas underlying such work, including specialised knowledge concerning
specific populations.

Basis for psycho-legal opinion

68. A psychologist shall ensure that psycho-legal assessments, recommendations and reports are based on
information and techniques sufficient to provide appropriate substantiation for the findings.

Qualified opinions

69. A psychologist may provide written or oral psycho-legal reports or testimony about the psychological
characteristics of a client only after he or she has conducted an examination of the client which is
adequate to support his or her findings: Provided that when, despite reasonable efforts, such an
examination is not feasible, the psychologist shall clarify the effect of his or her limited information on the
reliability and validity of his or her reports and testimony, and limit the nature and extent of his or her
findings accordingly.
 37

Truthfulness and candour

70. In psycho-legal testimony and reports, a psychologist shall –

(a) testify truthfully, honestly and candidly and in a manner consistent with the applicable legal
procedures; and
(b) describe fairly the basis for his or her testimony and conclusions.

Conflicting roles

71. (1) A psychologist shall avoid performing multiple and potentially conflicting roles in psycho-legal
matters.
(2) When a psychologist may be called on to serve in more than one role in legal proceedings, for
example as a consultant or expert for one party or for the court and as a witness on the facts, he or
she shall, in advance and to the extent feasible, clarify his or her role expectations and any
exceptions to the requirement of confidentiality in order to avoid compromising his or her
professional judgement and objectivity.

Maintenance of expert-witness role

72. A psychologist shall be aware of the conflicting demands made on him or her by the code and the
requirements of the court system, and shall attempt to resolve such conflict by making known his or her
commitment to these rules and by taking steps to resolve such conflict in a responsible manner.

Prior relationships

73. (1) A prior professional relationship with a client shall not preclude a psychologist from testifying as a
witness on the facts to the extent permitted by law.
(2) A psychologist shall take into account the ways in which a prior relationship might affect his or her
professional objectivity or opinion and disclose the potential conflict to the attorney or presiding
officer whether a client or not.

Role as witness on the facts

74. (1) When a psychologist is required by a court to appear as a witness on the facts, the psychologist is
legally obliged to present evidence.
(2) A psychologist may declare his or her reluctance to appear as a witness on the facts by appearing
as a witness under protest.
(3) Irrespective of whether a psychologist appears as a witness under protest or not, he or she shall be
a truthful and fully disclosing witness.
 38

CHAPTER 8
ACTIVITIES IN RESPECT OF ADVERTISING AND OTHER PUBLIC STATEMENTS

Accuracy in professional representation

75. (1) A psychologist shall not misrepresent in any manner his or her professional qualifications with
regard to education, experience or areas of competence.
(2) A psychologist shall not make false, deceptive or fraudulent statements concerning –
(a) his or her education and training, experience or competence;
(b) his or her academic or professional qualifications;
(c) his or her credentials;
(d) his or her institutional, association or professional society affiliations;
(e) the psychological services he or she provides;
(f) the clinical or scientific basis for or the results or degree of success of his or her
psychological services;
(g) his or her fees; or
(h) his or her publications or research findings.
(3) A psychologist may claim a qualification as a credential for his or her psychological services only if
such qualification –
(a) was obtained from a nationally accredited institution; or
(b) formed the basis for his or her registration with the board.

Statements by others

76. A psychologist who engages others to create or place a public statement that promotes his or her
professional practice, products or activities shall retain professional responsibility for such statements and
–
(a) shall not compensate employees of the press, radio, television or other communication medium in
return for publicity in a news item;
(b) if a paid advertisement pertaining to the psychological services rendered by that psychologist is
published, such services must be identified or be clearly recognisable unless such services are
already apparent from the context of that advertisement;

(c) when a psychologist provides advice or comment by means of a public lecture, demonstration, radio
or television programme, pre-recorded tape, printed article, mailed material, internet or other
electronic transmission, or any other media, he or she shall take all reasonable precautions to
ensure that –
(i) such advice or comment is based on appropriate psychological literature and practice and is
consistent with these rules; and
 39
(ii) the recipients of such advice or comment are not encouraged to infer that a personal
relationship has been established between the psychologist concerned and them;
(d) shall not solicit testimonials from a current client or any other person who, because of his or her
particular circumstances, is vulnerable to undue influence; and
(e) shall take immediate steps to correct any misrepresentation of himself or herself that may be made
by others in any media.

In-person solicitation

77. (1) A psychologist shall not engage, directly or through an agent, in uninvited in-person solicitation of
business from actual or potential clients or other persons who, because of their particular
circumstances, are vulnerable to undue influence.
(2) The prohibition contained in subrule (1) does not preclude a psychologist from –
(a) attempting to establish appropriate collateral contacts for the purpose of benefiting a client; or
(b) providing emergency, disaster or community outreach psychological services.

Description of workshops and educational programmes

78. (1) A psychologist associated with an announcement, flyer, brochure or advertisement which describes
a workshop, seminar or educational programme for non-degree purposes shall ensure that such
announcement, flyer, brochure or advertisement accurately describes –
(a) the audience for which such workshop, seminar or programme is intended;
(b) the educational objectives;
(c) the presenters;
(d) the fees involved; and
(e) the restrictions on practice namely that such workshop, seminar or programme does not
allow people to claim competencies beyond those provided by the workshop.
(2) A workshop, seminar or programme referred to in subrule (1) shall not create any impression with a
person not registered with the council as a psychologist that such workshop, course or programme
will lead to registration as a psychologist.
 40

CHAPTER 9
TEACHING, TRAINING AND SUPERVISION

Design of education and training programmes

79. A psychologist responsible for an education and training programme shall seek to ensure that such
programme is competently designed and provides for proper education and training and meets the
requirements for competency which it claims to provide and meet.

Descriptions of education and training programmes

80. (1) A psychologist responsible for an education and training programme shall provide a current and
accurate description of the programme content, training goals and objectives, and shall set
objective requirements that must be met for entrance into and satisfactory completion of that
programme.
(2) The psychologist concerned shall ensure that the description of the programme content, training
goals and objectives, and the objective requirements referred to in subrule (1) are readily available
to all interested parties.

Accuracy and objectivity in teaching

81. When engaged in teaching or training, a psychologist shall –

(a) present psychological information accurately and with a reasonable degree of objectivity; and
(b) recognise the power he or she holds over students, supervisees and trainees, and shall therefore
make every reasonable effort to avoid engaging in conduct that is demeaning to such persons and
shall ensure that the constitutional rights of such persons are upheld.

Student or trainee disclosures

82. A psychologist shall not require a student, supervisee or trainee to disclose, either orally or in writing,
personal information regarding his or her sexual history, history of abuse or neglect, psychological
treatment, or relationship with a parent, peer, or spouse, except if such information is necessary to
evaluate or obtain assistance for such student, supervisee or trainee whose personal problems could
reasonably be judged to be preventing him or her from performing his or her work-related activities in a
competent manner or posing a threat to himself or herself or others.
 41

Mandatory individual or group therapy or experiential activities

83. (1) A psychologist shall not impose individual or group therapy on any trainee student as a mandatory
programme requirement.

(2) Where individual or group therapy is recommended in a programme, the psychologist associated
with that programme shall allow a student, supervisee or trainee the option of –
(a) withdrawing from such therapy; or
(b) selecting similar therapy outside the programme.

Assessing performance

84. In an academic and supervisory relationship, a psychologist shall establish an appropriate process for
providing feedback to a student, supervisee or trainee, and the psychologist shall evaluate such student,
supervisee or trainee on the basis of his or her actual performance on relevant and established
programme requirements determined objectively by the psychologist.

Sexual intimacies with student, supervisee or trainee

85. A psychologist shall not engage in a sexual relationship with a student, supervisee or trainee who is in his
or her department, agency or training centre or over whom the psychologist has or is likely to have
evaluative authority.

CHAPTER 10
RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION

Compliance with law and standards

86. A psychologist shall plan and conduct research in a manner consistent with the law, and with
internationally acceptable standards for the conduct of research, in particular those national and
international standards for research with human participants and animal subjects.

Institutional approval

87. A psychologist shall –

(a) obtain written approval from the host institution or organisation concerned prior to conducting
research;
(b) provide the host institution or organisation with accurate information about his or her research
proposals; and
 42
(c) conduct the research in accordance with the research protocol approved by the institution or
organisation concerned.

Research responsibilities

88. Prior to conducting research (except research involving only anonymous surveys or naturalistic

observations, or similar research), a psychologist shall enter, with every participant, into an agreement
that sets out the nature of the research and the responsibilities of each party.

Informed consent to research

89. (1) A psychologist shall use language that is reasonably understandable to the research participant
concerned in obtaining his or her informed consent.
(2) Informed consent referred to in subrule (1) shall be appropriately documented, and in obtaining
such consent the psychologist shall –
(a) inform the participant of the nature of the research;
(b) inform the participant that he or she is free to participate or decline to participate in or to
withdraw from the research;
(c) explain the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing;
(d) inform the participant of significant factors that may be expected to influence his or her
willingness to participate (such as risks, discomfort, adverse effects or exceptions to the
requirement of confidentiality);
(e) explain any other matters about which the participant enquires;
(f) when conducting research with a research participant such as a student or subordinate, take
special care to protect such participant from the adverse consequences of declining or
withdrawing from participation;
(g) when research participation is a course requirement or opportunity for extra credit, give a
participant the choice of equitable alternative activities; and
(h) in the case of a person who is legally incapable of giving informed consent, nevertheless–
(i) provide an appropriate explanation;
(ii) obtain the participant's assent; and
(iii) obtain appropriate permission from a person legally authorised to give such
permission.
 43

Dispensing with informed consent

90. Before deciding that planned research (such as research involving only anonymous questionnaires,
naturalistic observations, or certain kinds of archival research) does not require the informed consent of a
participant, a psychologist shall consider the applicable regulations and institutional review board
requirements, and shall consult with colleagues as may be appropriate.

Informed consent in research filming or recording

91. A psychologist shall obtain the informed consent of the participant concerned prior to filming or recording
him or her in any way, unless the research simply involves naturalistic observations in public places and it
is not anticipated that the film or recording will be used in a manner that could cause the participant to be
identified or harmed.

Offering inducements to research participants

92. In offering professional psychological services as an inducement to obtain the participation of a person in
research, a psychologist shall –
(a) explain the nature of such services, as well as the risks, obligations and limitations involved; and
(b) not offer excessive or inappropriate financial or other inducements to obtain the person’s
participation, particularly when such inducement might tend to exert undue influence on that person
to participate.

Deception in research

93. (1) A psychologist shall not conduct a study involving deception unless he or she has established that
the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study's prospective scientific, educational or
applied value and that equally effective alternative procedures that do not use deception are not
feasible.
(2) A psychologist shall not deceive a research participant about significant matters that would affect
such participant’s willingness to participate, such as physical risks, discomfort or unpleasant
emotional experiences.
(3) Any other deception that is an integral feature of the design and conduct of an experiment shall be
explained by a psychologist to a research participant as early as is feasible, preferably at the
conclusion of that participant’s participation, but not later than at the conclusion of the research.
 44

Debriefing of research participants

94. A psychologist shall, without delay, afford a participant the opportunity to obtain appropriate information
about the nature, results and conclusions of the research, and the psychologist shall attempt to correct
any misconceptions that that participant may have and –
(a) if scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding such information, the psychologist shall
take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm; or
(b) when the psychologist becomes aware that research procedures have harmed the participant, he or
she shall take all reasonable steps to minimise the harm.

Care and use of animals in research

95. A psychologist who conducts research involving animals shall treat such animals humanely and according
to international standards.

Reporting research results

96. A psychologist shall not fabricate data or falsify results in any publication of research findings such as a
book, a journal article or an in-house professional report, and if he or she discovers significant errors

in any published data, he or she shall take all reasonable steps to correct those errors in a correction, a
retraction, an erratum or other appropriate means of publication.

Plagiarism

97. A psychologist shall not present substantial portions or elements of another person’s work or data as his
or her own, even if the other work or data source is cited occasionally.

Publication credit

98. (1) A psychologist may take responsibility and credit, including authorship credit, only for –
(a) work he or she has actually performed or to which he or she has contributed;
(b) principal authorship or other publication credits if these accurately reflect his or her relative
scientific or professional contribution to the publication concerned, regardless of his or her
relative status; or
(c) minor contributions to research or publications, which shall be appropriately acknowledged,
such as in footnotes or in an introductory statement.
(2) The mere holding of an institutional position, such as chairperson of a department, shall not entitle a
psychologist to any authorship credit.
 45
(3) A student shall be listed as principal author of any multiple-authored article if that article is
substantially based on such student's dissertation or thesis.

Publication of non-original data

99. (1) A psychologist shall not publish as original data, any data that have been published previously.
(2) Subrule (1) does not preclude the republication of data when such republication is accompanied by
proper acknowledgement of the original author.

Sharing data

100. After research results have been published, a psychologist shall not withhold the data on which his or her
conclusions are based from other competent professionals who seek to verify the substantive claims
through re-analysis and who intend to use such data only for that purpose: Provided that confidentiality
with respect to any research participant can be maintained and legal rights concerning proprietary data do
not preclude the release thereof.

Professional reviewers

101. A psychologist who reviews submissions submitted for a publication or a grant or as a research proposal
shall respect the confidentiality of and the proprietary rights in those submissions which are vested in
those who submitted such submissions.

CHAPTER 11
RESOLVING ETHICAL ISSUES

Uncertainty about ethical issues

102. When a psychologist is uncertain whether a particular situation or course of action would violate these
rules, he or she shall consult with another psychologist knowledgeable about ethical issues, with an
appropriate national psychology ethics committee, or with another appropriate authority in order to make
the proper decision.

Conflicts between ethics and law

103. (1) If a psychologist’s ethical responsibilities conflict with the law, such psychologist shall make known
his or her commitment to these rules and take steps to resolve the conflict.
(2) If the conflict referred to in subrule (1) cannot be resolved, the psychologist concerned shall comply
with the requirements of the law.
 46
Conflicts between ethics and organisational demands

104. If the demands of an organisation with which a psychologist is affiliated, conflict with these rules, the
psychologist shall clarify the nature of the conflict, shall make known his or her commitment to these rules
and shall, to the extent feasible, seek to resolve the conflict in a way that permits the fullest compliance
with these rules.

Informal resolution of ethical violations

105. When a psychologist believes that there may have been an ethical violation by another psychologist, he or
she shall attempt to resolve the issue by bringing it to the attention of that other psychologist if an informal
resolution appears appropriate and the intervention does not violate any confidentiality rights that may be
involved.

Reporting ethical violations

106. (1) If the informal resolution of an apparent ethical violation is not appropriate or if such a violation
cannot properly be resolved in that fashion, a psychologist shall take such further action as is
appropriate to the situation, unless that action conflicts with confidentiality rights in a manner that
cannot be resolved.
(2) Any action referred to in subrule (1) may include referral to an appropriate professional ethics
committee or colleague for arbitration, conciliation, or advice on a further course of action.

Reporting colleague impairment

107. (1) If a psychologist has a reasonable basis for suspecting that a colleague is professionally impaired
owing to a psychological disturbance, a physical illness or substance abuse, he or she shall
timeously inform the health committee of his or her concerns.
(2) Where a psychologist informs the health committee as contemplated in subrule (1), factual proof
shall not be required: Provided the psychologist has bona fide concerns.
(3) The health committee shall consider the matter and may initiate an investigation by the appropriate
organ of the board.

Co-operating with ethics committees

108. (1) A psychologist shall give his or her full cooperation with respect to an ethics investigation, any
proceedings or any related requirements of the board and shall, for purposes of such investigation,
proceedings or requirements, make a reasonable effort to resolve any issues relating to
confidentiality.
(2) Failure by a psychologist to cooperate as contemplated in subrule (1) shall in itself be an ethics
violation.
 47

Improper complaints

109. A psychologist shall not file or encourage the filing of an ethics complaint that is frivolous and is intended
to harm the psychologist against whom the complaint is brought rather than protect the public.

Discrimination against complainant or respondent

110. (1) A psychologist shall not deny any person treatment, employment, advancement, promotion or
admission to a training programme on the grounds of that person’s having made or having been the
subject of an ethics complaint.
(2) The prohibition contemplated in subrule (1) does not preclude a psychologist from taking action
based on the outcome of an inquiry held in terms of Chapter IV of the Act.

Disciplinary sanctions

111. (1) Behaviour by a psychologist that is unprofessional, immoral, unethical, negligent or deceptive or
that fails to meet the minimum reasonable standards of acceptable and prevailing psychology
practice shall include, but not be limited to, any act or practice that violates these rules, or the Act,
or any regulations that are made under the Act and that are applicable to a psychologist, or board
notices or board resolutions.
(2) The provisions of subrule (1) are applicable to a psychologist and to anyone under his or her
supervision.
(3) The board shall have the power to impose any sanction that is provided for in the Act.
 FORM 208

THE PROFESSIONAL BOARD FOR PSYCHOLOGY

THE HEALTH PROFESSIONS COUNCIL OF SOUTH AFRICA

POLICY ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF PSYCHOMETRIC

MEASURING DEVICES, INSTRUMENTS, METHODS AND
TECHNIQUES

Preamble

The history of development and use of psychometric measuring devices, instruments, methods and
techniques in South Africa have been tainted by the legacy of segregation which influenced certain
stereotypical attitudes and culturally insensitive and inappropriate interventions. As a result very few tests
are available that have been developed and applied with the necessary appreciation of cultural and other
diversity concerns with a view to standardizing same for all South Africans.

The Employment Equity Act, 1998 states that:

Psychometric testing and other similar assessments of an employee are prohibited unless the test or
assessment being used:
(a) has been scientifically shown to be valid and reliable;
(b) can be applied fairly to all employees; and
(c) is not biased against any employee or group.

The onus is thus on testers to not only be familiar with the broad domain of psychometric theory and
research regarding the use of tests and test results, but to also be familiar with and contribute to specific
empirical studies related to the psychometric properties of the tests they use.

In the view of this, it would be unwise for psychologists not to address the development and adaptation of
culturally appropriate measures as a matter of great urgency. With the expected upsurge in test development
and adaptation initiatives, it is important that test developers and users familiarise themselves with policies
regarding the use and classification of psychological tests, as outlined in this document (see note 1 at the end
of the document).

A. WHY DO WE CLASSIFY TESTS?

The use of a psychometric measuring device, test, questionnaire, technique or instrument that assesses
intellectual or cognitive ability or functioning, aptitude, interest, personality make-up or personality
functioning, is constituted as being a psychological act.This in view of possible harm and management
implications of persons who may be adversely affected by test outcomes, requires appropriate professional
qualifications, skills and experience. According to the Health Professions Act, Act 56 of 1974, only
registered psychologists are permitted to perform psychological acts which, in relation to evaluation, testing
and assessment:-

"(a) the evaluation of behaviour or mental processes or personality adjustments or adjustments of

individuals or groups of persons, through the interpretation of tests for the determination of
intellectual abilities, aptitude, interests, personality make-up or personality functioning, and the
diagnosis of personality and emotional functions and mental functioning deficiencies according to a
recognised scientific system for the classification of mental deficiencies;

(b) the use of any method or practice aimed at aiding persons or groups of persons in the adjustment of
personality, emotional or behavioural problems or at the promotion of positive personality change,
growth and development, and the identification and evaluation of personality dynamics and
personality functioning according to psychological scientific methods;
 2
(c) the evaluation of emotional, behavioural and cognitive processes or adjustment of personality of
individuals or groups of persons by the usage and interpretation of questionnaires, tests, projections
or other techniques or any apparatus, whether of South African origin or imported, for the
determination of intellectual abilities aptitude, personality make-up, personality functioning,
psychophysiological functioning or psychopathology;
(d) the exercising of control over prescribed questionnaires or tests or prescribed techniques, apparatus
or instruments for the determination of intellectual abilities, aptitude, personality make-up,
personality functioning, psychophysiological functioning or psychopathology;
(e) the development of and control over the development of questionnaires, tests, techniques, apparatus
or instruments for the determination of intellectual abilities, aptitude, personality make-up,
personality functioning, psychophysiological functioning or psychopathology".

Thus, according to the Health Professions Act, Act 56 of 1974, tests, measures, questionnaires, instruments,
etc. that tap psychological constructs must be used, interpreted, and controlled by psychologists. Certain
psychological tests (see note ii at the end of the document) can, however, be used by psychometrists,
psychotechnicians, registered counsellor, and other professionals (e.g., speech and occupational therapists)
provided that:

(a). the use of the test has been certified for that category of tester by the Psychometrics Committee of
the Professional Board for Psychology;

(b). the tester complies with whatever restrictions may be placed on the test's use relevant to the category
of test user that he/she is registered as. For example, a psychometrist may administer, score and
preliminary interpret certain psychological tests but not report on the results of such tests;

(c). the tester seeks mentoring from a psychologist where specialist input would enhance the testing
process and the understanding of the test results; and

(d). the tester has been appropriately trained and has achieved the minimum competencies required to
use the test.

In view of the specific conditions under which psychological tests may be used by people other than
registered psychologists, it is necessary to classify tests to facilitate the determination of the category of
tester who may use them. The Psychometrics Committee of the Professional Board for Psychology has been
mandated by the Board to, among other things:

"classify and advise on regular revision of any device, instrument, method, technique or test
aimed at aiding persons or groups of persons in the adjustment of personality, emotional or
behavioural problems or at the promotion of positive personality change, growth and
development or for the determination of intellectual abilities, personality make-up, personality
functioning, aptitude or interests.”

Classification of a test by the Psychometrics Committee of the Professional Board for Psychology does not
impose any new restrictions on a psychological test (the Health Professions Act, Act 56 of 1974, imposes
such restrictions). Instead, classification allows for the relaxing of conditions under which a test can be used,
which makes the test more freely available.

There are two general psychological test classification categories, namely:

1. Psychological Tests - which, although they can be used to varying extents by psychometrists and
psychotechnicians (see notes ii, iii and iv at the end of the document), need to be under the control of
psychologists as regards:

a. selecting the test

b. administering and scoring it
c. interpreting it
d. reporting on it.

2
 3
2. Prescribed Tests used by other Professionals. The Professional Board for Speech, Lanuage and
Hearing Professions, and Occupational Therapy and Medical Orthotics/Prosthetics, are in the process
of furnishing the Psychometrics Committee with lists of tests that may tap psychological constructs
which they use. The relevant Boards and the Psychometrics Committee will discuss these lists and
reach agreement on the prescribed list of tests for the various professionals as well as the nature of
the psychometrics and assessment training which trainees receive.

B. TEST CLASSIFICATION PROCESS

1. Procedure to be followed when developing a new measure or adapting an existing measure

It is recognised that while tests are being developed, or adapted for use in South Africa, a wide range of
standardisation and psychometric data need to be collected. In such instances, testers will find themselves in
the position of using a test that has not yet been classified. Consequently, the onus is on the test developer
to:

a. notify the Psychometrics Committee regarding:

i. the proposed name and purpose of the test,
ii. the time period during which it is envisaged that the standardisation and psychometric
data will be collected,
iii. when the test will probably be submitted for classification purposes; and

b. notify testers who will use the test for the purposes of collecting standardisation and psychometric
data regarding:

i. the fact that the test should be viewed as being in its development phase and that the
reliability and validity of the data obtained from it cannot yet be guaranteed,
ii. the time period during which it is envisaged that the standardisation and psychometric
data will be collected, and
iii. when the test will probably be submitted for classification purposes to the Psychometrics
Committee.

On receiving such notification, the Psychometrics Committee will:

i. record the name of the test in the Committee's annual publication, List of Tests Classified
as being Psychological Tests, under a separate heading: "Tests Currently being
Developed/Adapted"; and

ii. take note of the time period during which the test should remain listed as being in the
"Development Phase" and when it is anticipated that it will be submitted for classification
purposes.

Should the test not be submitted for classification purposes within a reasonable period of time, the
Psychometrics Committee reserves the right to remove it from the List of Tests Classified as being
Psychological Tests, pending the test developer not being able to convince the Committee that the test is still
either in the development phase or will shortly be submitted for classification purposes.

2. Information Required when submitting a Measure for Classification

Before a test can be classified, information needs to be obtained regarding:

a. the name of the test, name(s) of the test developer(s) and distributors, date when the test was
published;
b. the content domain(s) tapped by the test. This provides information on whether or not the test
measures a psychological construct;
c. its psychometric properties and the nature of the norm group(s), where appropriate;
3
 4
d. the context in which the test is used (e.g., assessment/ screening of normal/dysfunctional
behaviour);
e. whether it is administered in a group context or individually;
f. the nature of administration - standardised, dynamic or interactive, computerised;
g. the nature of the scoring - objective, non-objective, computerised;
h. the nature of the test interpretation - straightforward (cut-points), computer-generated, minor
decision-making required, high level decision-making and psychological expertise required;
i. the complexity of feedback and reporting - structured, semi-structured, requires high-level
integrative skills and expertise.

Using the above information, a classification can be made regarding whether or not it is a psychological test.

3. Process followed when Classifying a Measure

a. The process followed by the Psychometrics Committee when classifying and evaluating a test is as
follows:

i. Test developers/distributors submit 2 copies of all the test materials and manuals to the
Psychometrics Committee together with their proposed classification and an evaluation
fee of R10,000 per test.

ii. Independent reviewers review the test and submit a report to the Psychometrics
Committee regarding their evaluation and classification of the test. It is not the policy of
the Psychometrics Committee to appoint test developers as reviewers. In fact, should any
of the expert reviewers at any time feel that for whatever reason they are unable to
objectively and impartially review a test, it is their duty to inform the Psychometrics
Committee of this and to recuse themselves from the matter if needs be.

iii. The test developers are informed of the findings of the independent reviewers and are
given the opportunity to respond to this information and to attend to some of the
psychometric deficiencies pointed out if they so desire.

iv. The test developers are requested to send their test material for language editing and a
certificate from the langauge editors be sent together with the test.

iv. The Psychometrics Committee reaches an informed decision regarding the classification
of the test.

b. During the review process, tests are not only classified by the Psychometrics Committee, but are
also evaluated by them. To this end, psychological tests need to adhere to the following minimum
standards:

i. The construct(s) tapped by the test should be clearly delineated and evidence should be
provided to indicate that the test meets its intended purpose.
ii. There should be a test manual which details how to administer, score and interpret it, as well
as providing the necessary technical information (see points iii to viii).
iii. Its psychometric properties should be acceptable. In this regard it should be noted that the
validity and reliability of a test are inter-linked. Despite empirical evidence in support of its
validity, a test cannot be considered to be valid unless it is also reliable. Furthermore, the
reliability and certain aspects of a test's validity need to be established for each group and
purpose for which it is intended to be used.
iv. The process of developing the test should be documented.
v. If parallel language versions exist, their equivalence needs to be established and the
linguistic proficiency required by the test-takers should be stated.
vi. An indication as to whether the item content is culturally-reduced or culture specific in
nature should be provided.

4
 5
vii. Empirical evidence should be provided concerning the appropriateness of the tests for
groups of different cultural, ethnic, socio-economic or linguistic backgrounds who are likely
to be tested.
viii. The population(s) represented by any normative or comparison group(s), the dates the data
were gathered, and the process used to select the normative sample, should be indicated in
the manual.

C. Having classified and evaluated a test, the Psychometrics Committee issues a certificate which
contains the following information:

i. Name of test
ii. Classification
iii. Date on which classification decision was made
iv Points to be noted

It is mandatory for test developers to include the certificate on the first page of the test manual. By insisting
that the certificate be included in the manual, it is hoped that test developers and testers will take personal
responsibility for not developing or using tests that are not psychometrically sound.

D Notes:

i. The information in this document reflects the working position of the Psychometrics Committee of
the Professional Board for Psychology as regards test classification. Regular consultation with
stakeholders has informed and continues to inform the working position of the Committee.

ii. To enhance the ease of reading this document, the term "test" has been used in a generic sense.
Consequently, throughout the document where "test" is used, the reader should assume that terms
such as "psychometric measuring devices", "questionnaires", "instruments", "techniques",
"projections", "apparatus" are also meant to apply.

iii. Fair testing practices entail administering tests in the language in which the test-taker is sufficiently
competent. This is difficult to achieve at present as there are not sufficient psychologists,
psychometrists, and psychotechnicians in South Africa who are fluent in African languages. With
this in mind, a psychologist may wish to use an assistant who is fluent in an African language. The
onus is on the psychologist concerned to ensure that the assistant is suitably trained to be able to
assist with giving the test instructions, recording and subsequently translating verbal test responses,
and generally assisting during the test administration process.

iv. Only persons registered with the Professional Board for Psychology under the auspices of the
HPCSA may administer, score, interpret and give feedback on psychological tests. However,
interpretation and feedback are limited to registered psychologists, and psychometrists registered
in the category Independent/Private practice.

Psychometrists, irrespective of registration category, will not be permitted to use:

Projective techniques (for example TAT, CAT, Rorschach);

Specialist neuropsychoogical measures; and
Measures that are used for the diagnosis of psychopathology (for example MMPI-II).

v. it is not permissible to use the tests that are currently being developed or or in the process of
classification for clinical or selection purposes for financial enrichment.

Update: 7 July 2006-Exco

Updated: 01 June 2010
5
Journal of Chiropractic Medicine (2011) 10, 225–226

www.journalchiromed.com

News item

The 4 basic ethical principles that apply to forensic

activities are respect for autonomy, beneficence,
nonmaleficence, and justice

Respect for autonomy The principle of beneficence supports the following

moral rules or obligations:
Respect for autonomy is a norm that obliges us to
1. Protect and defend the rights of others.
respect the decisions (self-determination) of adults
2. Prevent harm from occurring to others.
who have decision-making capacity. Three conditions
3. Remove conditions that will cause harm.
must exist for autonomous action by those with
4. Help persons with disabilities.
capacity to choose:
5. Rescue persons in danger.
1. Intentionality
2. Understanding Nonmaleficence
3. Absence of controlling influences that determine
their action. The principle of nonmaleficence holds that there is
an obligation not to inflict harm on others. It is closely
The following moral rules or obligations are associated with the maxim primum non nocere (first do
derived from the application of the principle of no harm). The principle of nonmaleficence supports the
respect for autonomy: following rules:
1. Tell the truth. 1. Do not kill.
2. Respect the privacy of others. 2. Do not cause pain or suffering.
3. Protect confidential information. 3. Do not incapacitate.
4. Obtain consent for interventions with patients. 4. Do not cause offense.

Beneficence Justice
The principle of beneficence is a moral obligation The principle of justice obliges us to equitably distribute
to act for the benefit of others. There are 2 aspects benefits, risks, costs, and resources. The following
of beneficence: arguments (rules) are supported by the principle of justice:

1. Providing benefits 1. To each person an equal share

2. Balancing benefits and risks/harms. 2. To each person according to need

1556-3707/$ – see front matter

doi:10.1016/j.jcm.2011.08.004
226 News item

3. To each person according to effort lished ethical guidelines for their members with
4. To each person according to contribution respect to human dignity, confidentiality, privacy,
5. To each person according to merit. and patient rights.
To obtain a copy of the CFS Guideline of Conduct go
to http://www.forensic-sciences.org/cfs/guideline.htm.
Professional code of ethics
Warren T. Jahn DC, MPS
In addition to the 4 basic ethical principles, most CFS Educational Liaison, Cumming, GA 30041
professional societies or organizations have estab- E-mail address: drwjahn@ix.netcom.com