Galilean Relativity

1 m/s

3 m/s

Q. What is the women velocity?

A. With respect to whom?

Frames of Reference:
A frame of reference is a set of coordinates (for

example x, y & z axes) with respect to whom any physical

quantity can be determined.

Inertial Frames of Reference:

- The inertia of a body is the resistance of changing its

state of motion.

- Uniformly moving reference frames (e.g. those

considered at 'rest' or moving with constant velocity in a

straight line) are called inertial reference frames.

- Special relativity deals only with physics viewed from

inertial reference frames.

- If we can neglect the effect of the earth’s rotations, a

frame of reference fixed in the earth is an inertial

reference frame.

Galilean Coordinate Transformations:

For simplicity:

- Let coordinates in both references equal at (t = 0 ).

- Use Cartesian coordinate systems.

t1 = t2 = 0 t1 = t2
At ( t1 = t2 ) Galilean Coordinate Transformations are:

x 2 = x1 − vt 1 x1 = x 2 + vt 2
or
y 2 = y1 y1 = y 2
z 2 = z1 z1 = z 2

Recall v is constant, differentiation of above equations

gives Galilean velocity Transformations:

dx 2 d x1 dx 1 dx2
= −v = −v
dt 2 dt 1 dt 1 dt 2
dy 2 dy1 dy 1 dy2
= =
dt 2 dt 1 dt 1 dt 2
dz 2 dz1 dz 1 dz2
= and =
dt 2 dt 1 dt 1 dt 2
or

v x 2 = v x1 − v v x1 = v x 2 + v
and

Similarly, Galilean acceleration Transformations:

a 2 = a1
 Physics before Relativity
Classical physics was developed between about 1650 and
1900 based on:
* Idealized mechanical models that can be
subjected to mathematical analysis and tested against
observation.
* A vast amount of observational data concerning
electricity and magnetism that been built up.

Newtonian Mechanics
1- Newton’s Laws of Motion:
- Newton’s laws are only applicable at inertial reference
frames.
- According to Galilean transformations, Newton’s laws
are invariant at any inertial reference frame.
In other words, the mechanical movement of a particle is
exactly the same at two different reference frames, IF
both of them are inertial (i.e. one moves with constant
velocity w.r.t the other & vice versa).
- There is no mechanical experiment by which one can
distinguish whether a system is at rest or is moving with
a constant speed in a straight line (Galilean relativity).

2- Newton’s Law of Gravity:

Bodies close to the Earth's surface accelerate
downwards when released. Applying the first law of
motion Newton argued that this represented the
existence of a resultant force toward the Earth's
centre. The third law implied that a force of equal
magnitude but opposite direction would act on the Earth.
He assumed this arose from a mutual attraction between
the masses of the two bodies. He called this attraction
GRAVITY and assumed that any massive particle (m1)
exerts an attractive force (F) on any other massive
particle (m2) lies a distance (r) away, according to the
following relation:

Gm1m2
F =−
r2
Where G is called the universal gravitational constant
that = 6.67x10-11 N m2 kg-2

Useful Remarks:
1- Newton stated the existence of an

Absolute

Space Time Mass.

I.e. Absolute rest.

2- Newton used the word (Mass) in two apparently
different ways:

As the inertia of a body (i.e. resists moving)

Mass
As a measure of the gravitational force.
 Maxwell's Electromagnetism

Faraday & the Concept of Field:

The idea of an 'action-at-a-distance' was held until
Faraday introduced the concept of Field in (1861).
According to his model: charge A creates a field in the
space, and charge B - that placed at some point in space-
undergoes a force from the field at that point.
Maxwell's theory & Speed of Light:
* For the field theory to be really useful it must account
for all the known experimental laws of electromagnetism.
* In 1861 Maxwell succeeded in generating a set of four
equations which describe the behavior of fields in all
circumstances.
* In Maxwell's theory the electromagnetic field is

contains of rapid vibrations of both the electric and

magnetic fields. These electromagnetic waves travel at a

speed ( c = 1/(ε0μ0)1/2 ), where ε0 and μ0 are the

permittivity and permeability of free space respectively.

Using the data available at the time, Maxwell obtained a

velocity of 310,740,000 m/s.

* Maxwell found that the speed of propagation of an

electromagnetic field is approximately that of the speed
of light obtained by astronomical measurements. He
proposed then, that Light is one of a family of
electromagnetic waves. This was considered as one of
the great achievements of 19th century physics.
* The Ether was suggested as a medium in which
electromagnetic waves can propagate.
Between Mechanics & Electromagnetism
By 1900 the classical world-view was well established
through two main fields: Mechanics & Electromagnetism.
But..
All attempts to complete physics by unifying
electromagnetism and mechanics failed.
Why?
- According to the Galilean transformations, c is not
invariant. Hence, electromagnetic effects will not be the
same for different inertial observers.
I.e. Maxwell's equations are not conserved by the
Galilean transformations, although Newton's laws are.
This fact leads us to one of the followings:
1. Galilean relativity exists both for mechanics and for
electromagnetism, but the laws of electromagnetism as
given by Maxwell are not correct.

If this is 5: we must be able to perform

experiments show deviations from Maxwell's laws.

2. Galilean relativity exists only for mechanics, but not

for electromagnetic laws. That is, in electromagnetism
there is an absolute inertial frame ( the ether ).
 If this is 5: we would be able to locate the ether
frame experimentally.

3. Galilean relativity is suitable only for mechanical laws

but not for Maxwell's laws.

If this is 5: the correct transformation laws would

not be the Galilean ones, but some other ones which are
consistent with both mechanics and electromagnetism.

The Michelson-Morley Experiment

One of the experiments designed to measure the speed
of the earth through the ether (or to locate the absolute
frame) was performed by Michelson and Morley in 1887.
It has been done since with greater and greater accuracy
in many different versions, but the general agreement
was always the same.
The apparatus used in the Michelson-Morley experiment
was the Michelson interferometer. In this device,
monochromatic (one wavelength) light from a source is
split into two separate beams. These beams travel two
different optical paths and then come back together to
interfere either constructively or destructively.
If the earth were moving through the ether, the device
could be aligned with the source "upstream" as the ether
flowed by.
Ray I’ would move back and forth across the "ether
river" and ray I’’ would move downstream and upstream.
If the arms of the interferometer have equal optical
lengths L, the difference in times for rays I’ and I’’ will
be

2L c 2L c
ΔT = T ′′ − T ′ = −
(
1− v c
2 2
)
1 − v2 c2
This difference in times will cause a phase difference
and a certain interference pattern with light and dark
fringes. In other words if the delay can be measured it
will tell us the Earth‘s speed w.r.t the ether.
Since the actual direction of the Earth’s motion through
the ether was unknown, Michelson and Morley then
carefully rotated the device by 90o. This rotation should
change the times for rays I’ and I’’ and then change the
interference pattern. Although the expected change was
nearly 100 times the sensitivity of their apparatus, no
shift of the pattern (within experimental error) was
discovered.

Therefore:
The experimenters could not find the supposed ether.
And this led to an important fact about reference
frames:
There is no such thing as an absolute frame of
reference in our universe.
 Special Theory of Relativity

Special means that the theory applies only

to inertial reference frames.
Theory means that the concept has been
confirmed by many different experiments.
Relativity means there is no absolute frame
of reference and hence, any measured values must be
relative.

Einstein’s postulates
Einstein based his special theory of relativity on two
fundamental postulates:

X The principle of relativity:

Gone with the stationary ether was the idea of an
absolute frame of reference. All motion is relative, not
to any stationary system in the universe, but to selected
frames of reference.
Thus, for a passenger on a train with no windows, there
would be no way to determine whether the train is moving
with uniform velocity or is at rest.
This is the first of Einstein's postulates:

All laws of physics have the same mathematical form in

all inertial reference frames.

This means:
- There is no preferred frame of reference.
- There is no a physical experiment, mechanical,
electrical or optical can be performed to determine
our state of uniform motion.
- Galilean transformations are not correct for all laws
of physics.

Y The constancy of the speed of light:

Q- "What would a light beam look like if you traveled
along beside it?"
A- According to classical physics, the beam would be
at rest to such an observer.
The more Einstein thought about this, the more
convinced he became that one could not move with a
light beam. He finally came to the conclusion that no
matter how close a person comes to the speed of light,
he would still measure the light at c=3x108 m/s.
 This was the second postulate in his special theory of
relativity:

The speed of light in a vacuum has the same measured

value (c) in all inertial reference frames.

This means:
- The speed of light is invariant.
- The classical idea that space &
time are independent had to
be rejected. (I.e. there is should
be a relationship between space &
time).
- As a consequence of Einstein's
2nd postulate , is the concept of
Non-Simultaneity.
This concept states that:

Two events that are simultaneous

in one frame of reference need
not be simultaneous in a frame
moving relative to the first frame.
 Lorentz Transformations
- This transformation derives its name from the

Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz (1853-1928).

- Unlike Galilean transformations, Lorentz trans-

formations involve a change of spatial distance and a

change of time interval between two inertial systems.

I.e. they are space-time transformations.

- Suppose that the coordinate system S2 is moving

with constant velocity v along the x-axis of the

coordinate system S1 , where y2 = y1 and z2 = z1.

S1 S2

Ct1
Ct2

- Suppose that at t1 = t2 = 0 a point source of light at

the common origin sends out a spherical pulse of

light.
- Since c is a constant for all observers in both S1 and

S2 and is the same in all directions, all observers in

both frames of reference must detect a spherical

wavefront expanding from their origin.

- Since the equation of a sphere is x2 + y2 + z2 = r2 and

r, the radius, equals ct, we can write

x12 + y12 + z12 − c 2 t12 = 0

x 22 + y 22 + z 22 − c 2 t 22 = 0

- It is easy to see that Galilean transformations will

not satisfy both these equations (recall : x1 =x2 +vt ).

- Lorentz derived some formulas that can satisfy both

above equations. Those formulas known as Lorentz

transformations, and they are:

 x 2 = γ ( x1 − vt1 ) ⎫
y 2 = y1 ⎪ 1
⎪⎪ γ =
z 2 = z1 ⎬ 1− β 2
where
⎪
⎛ v ⎞⎪ β=
v
t 2 = γ ⎜ t1 − 2 x1 ⎟
⎠ ⎪⎭
c
⎝ c

Note that γ is always

greater than or equal

to 1 for β less than

or equal to 1.

The Correspondence Principle

The correspondence principle states that:

Any new theory in physics must reduce to its

corresponding well-established classical theory in the
situations for which the classical theory is valid.
Or, simply:
new theory + old one must correspond.

Since the physics of Galileo and Newton was

experimentally established for objects that moved at

speeds much less than the speed of light. We should then

find that the relativistic Lorentz transformations reduce

to the classical Galilean transformations as v/c =β

approaches zero. Applying such case into Lorentz

transformations shows that as:

β ⇒ 0, γ ⇒ 1
All transformations reduce to the classical Galilean ones.

Therefore, Lorentz transformations do indeed agree

with the correspondence principle.
 The Doppler Effect
What is Doppler Effect?
It is the change in the measured frequency of a source, due to

the motion of the source (and/or) the observer.

- The Doppler effect for sound waves travel in a medium,

depends on two velocities: the source velocity and the
observer velocity with respect to that medium.
- However, light and other electromagnetic waves require no
medium. Therefore the Doppler effect for electro-
magnetic waves depends on only one velocity: the relative
velocity between the source and the observer.

S1 S2
v

Suppose that there is a source of

frequency υo (and corresponding θ1

period To) at rest on the Y axis in S2 .

And the source is moving with constant velocity v along the x-
axis of the coordinate system S1.
If we are at rest at the origin of S1, we would measure the

frequency of the source to be

ν0 1− v2 / c2
ν = =ν 0 ……1
γ [1 + β cos θ 1 ] 1 + (v / c ) cos θ 1

In this relation, υo is measured in a coordinate system at rest

with respect to the source (zero relative speed, thus the
subscript zero). The observers measure the frequency υ, the
relative speed v, and the angle θ1 between the source position
vector r1 & + x-axis .

Some Special Cases

Equation 1 represents a general case, from which one may

derive expressions for some other special cases.
Assume that you are at the origin of S1, what the measured
frequency of the source would be:
1- If the source of light were moving directly away from you:
In this case θ1 = 0 , hence;

1− v / c
ν =ν0
1+ v / c
Note that the numerator is smaller than the denominator, giving
a lowered frequency when the source is moving away from you,
just as for SOUND waves. (However, the equation is different
for sound waves.)

2- If the source of light were moving directly toward you:

In this case θ1 = 180o , hence;

1+ v / c
ν =ν 0
1− v / c

The numerator now is larger than the denominator, giving the

expected increase in frequency when the source is moving
toward you.

3- If the source were moving perpendicular to a line from you:

In this case (which known as the transverse Doppler effect)
θ1 = 90o , At this angle there is no relative motion toward or
away from you, so the classical Doppler effect for mechanical
waves would give υ = υο.
However, the same is not true for electromagnetic waves. With
θ1 = 90o , Eq. (1) becomes;

ν = ν 0 1 − v2 / c2 = ν 0 / γ
The frequency decreases for this relativistic transverse
Doppler effect.
So…
Doppler shifts in the frequencies of electromagnetic waves
occur not only for relative motion toward or away from an
observer, but also for transverse motion.

Astronomical Doppler effect

According to the Doppler Effect, the radiation emitted by an

object moving toward an observer is squeezed; its frequency
appears to increase and is therefore said to be blueshifted. In
contrast, the radiation emitted by an object moving away is
stretched or redshifted. Blueshifts and redshifts exhibited by
stars, galaxies and gas clouds indicate their motions with
respect to the observer.
 Length Contraction

t1 t1`

x1 (t1) x1` (t1) x1 (t1) x1` (t1` )

If you want to measure the length of a penguin while it is

moving, you must mark the positions of its front and back
simultaneously (in your reference frame), as in (a), rather than
at different times, as in (b).
Applying the Lorentz transformations to our two distances, we
obtain;
x2 = γ (x1 – vt1) and x2` = γ (x1` – vt1)

Subtracting, we obtain;
(x2`- x2) = γ (x1`- x1)
Note that (x2`- x2) is the length as measured in S2 . Since the
object is at rest with respect to S2, let's call this length Lo.
This gives us
L0
L = L0 1 − v 2 / c 2 =
γ

Because the Lorentz factor γ is always greater than unity,

then L is always less than Lo.
I.e. The relative motion causes a length contraction.
Because γ increases with speed v, the length contraction also
increases with v.

Remember: that y2 = y1 and z2 = z1.

Therefore, any lengths measured perpendicular to the direction
of the motion will not be changed by the motion.
Length contraction occurs only along the direction of the
relative motion.

Time Dilation
Suppose we travel inside a spaceship and watch a light clock.
We will see the path of the light in simple up-and-down motion.
If, instead, we stand at some relative rest position and observe
the spaceship passing us by 0.5c . Because the light flash keeps
up with the horizontally moving light clock, we will see the flash
following a diagonal path.

I.e. according to us the flash travels

a longer distance than it does in the
reference frame of an observer riding
with the ship. Since the speed of light is the same in all
reference frames (Einstein's second postulate), the flash must
travel for a longer time between the mirrors in our frame than
in the reference frame of an observer on board.
2D
Δt 0 =
c
Δt 0
Δt =
2L Δt = = γΔ t 0
c 1− v2 / c2
L= ( 12 vΔt )2 + D 2
This stretching out of time is called time dilation.
Some numerical values:
* Assume that v = 0.5c ,then γ = 1.15, so T = 1.15 T0 .This means

that if we viewed a clock on a spaceship traveling at half the

speed of light, we would see the second hand take 1.15 minutes

to make a revolution, whereas if the spaceship were at rest, we

would see it take 1 minute.

* If the spaceship passes us at 87% the speed of light, γ = 2;

and T = 2 T0 . We would measure time events on the spaceship

taking twice the usual intervals. i.e. the hands of a clock on

the ship would turn only half as fast as those on our own clock.

* If it were possible to make a clock fly by us at the speed of

light, the clock would not appear to be running at all. We

would measure the interval between ticks to be infinite.

* Time dilation has been confirmed in the laboratory countless

times with particle accelerators. The lifetimes of fast-moving

radioactive particles increase as the speed goes up, and the

amount of increase is just what Einstein's equation predicts.

Example 4.6: (The Twin Paradox)
Jack and Jill are 25-year-old twins. Jack must stay on earth,
but the astronaut Jill travels at o. 98c to a star 24.5 light
years away and returns immediately. Ignoring the end-point
acceleration times, find the twins' ages when she returns.
(One light year = 1 C . yr, the distance light travels in one year.)

Jill

Jack

Solution:
From Jack earth-bound frame of reference;

Jill travels a total distance of 49 light years (out and back) at

0.98c. Thus; the total time of her journey as Jack measure it is;

TJack= 49 c . yrs / 0.98c. = 50 years

Therefore 50 years of earth time have passed, so Jack is (25 +

50) years = 75 years old. However, this 50 years is dilated time

for Jill's frame of reference.

Since γ = 5 for v = 0.98c,

TJill= 50 years / 5 = 10 years

Jill therefore is (25 + 10) years = 35 years old. She is 40 years

younger than her brother.

Question??

Since the choice of frame of reference is relative, why don't

we place Jill in S1? She then sees the earth move away and

return, and therefore it is Jack who has travelled out and back

at 0.98c. He should be the one who is 40 years younger.

Since they both can't be 40 years younger, this apparent

contradiction is called the twin paradox.

Answer:

n Recall that we are dealing with the special theory of

relativity, which refers to inertial reference frames. In

the twin paradox, the earth is an approximately inertial

 reference frame, but Jill's spaceship isn't. The choice of

frames of reference is relative in the special theory of

relativity only if the frames of reference are all inertial.

Therefore an attempt to use the special theory in a no

inertial frame of reference causes incorrect results. So,

Jack does age more rapidly than Jill.

o Experiments (such as the clocks in jetliners) confirm this

prediction.

p Length contraction can be used, as well, to solve this

problem:

According to Jill spaceship frame of reference;

Jill travels (out and back)a total distance of:

LJill= LJack /γ = 49 c . yrs /5 = 9.8 c. yrs

Since she travels at 0.98c. Thus; the total time of her journey

as she measure it is;

TJill= 9.8 c . yrs / 0.98c. = 10 years

Which confirm the previous prediction.
 The Relativity of Velocities
Suppose we wish to use the Lorentz transformation equations
to compare the velocities that two observers in different
inertial reference frames S1 and S2 would measure for the same
moving particle.
Let S2 moves with velocity v relative to S1, and there is a
particle in S1 moving with constant velocity v1x parallel to the x-
axis. If the particle position is ( x1,y1,z1 ) at the instant t1 , then
using Lorentz coordinate transformations :
⎛ v ⎞
x 2 = γ ( x1 − vt1 ) , y2 = y1 , z2 = z1 and t 2 = γ ⎜ t1 − 2 x1 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
Differentials of those equations are;
dx 2 = γ (dx 1 − vdt 1 ) ,

dy2 = dy1 , dz2 = dz1 and

⎛ v ⎞
dt 2 = γ ⎜ dt1 − 2 dx1 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠

Dividing dx2 , dy2 and dz2 by dt2 to obtain the velocity

components gives;
 v1 x − v
v2 x =
1 − v1x .v / c 2

v1 y
v2 y =
γ [1 − v1 x .v / c 2 ]

v1 z
v2 z =
γ [1 − v1 x .v / c 2 ]

These formulas are known as Lorntz velocity transformations.

Note:
1- Both v2y and v2z depend on v1x, because the time t2
depends on the x position of the particle.

2- At small v ( β ⇒ 0 ), and the relativistic velocity

transformations will reduce to the classical, or Galilean,
velocity transformations.

3- No Lorntz velocity transformations can give a speed

greater than c.
 Relativistic Mass & Momentum

• In classical physics when two bodies collide together, the

total mass, energy and momentum before and after the

collision are equal.

• Let us apply conservation laws to viewers from two

different inertial reference frames S1 and S2.

If someone in S1 throws a ball

S1 S2
with mass m0 to make an elastic
v

collision with the ground,then the m0

conservation law of momentum -v1y v1y -v2y

in his frame requires that:

ΔP1 y = 2m0 v1 y
For an observer in S2 the conservation law of momentum will

requires that:
(recall: v1x=0)
ΔP2 y = 2 mv 2 y = 2mv1 y 1 − v 2 / c 2

But the principle of relativity demands that the laws of

physics are the same in all inertial reference frames. Hence;

 ΔP1 y = ΔP2 y
m0 = m 1 − v 2 / c 2
or;

m = m0 / 1 − v 2 / c 2 = γ m0

This is the relativistic mass transformation.

Notes:
1- If v << c then m is effectively equal to the rest mass m0 (the

classical limit). When we refer to the mass of an electron as

9.1xlO-31 kg we mean its rest mass.

2- As the velocity of a body increases the relativistic mass

becomes significantly greater than the rest mass. The

relativistic mass of a body traveling at about 0.99c is roughly

seven times its rest mass.

3- As v c , the mass infinity. This huge increase in

inertia makes it impossible to accelerate bodies of non-zero

rest mass up to the velocity of light.

4- Since p = mv , the relativistic linear momentum can be

written as;
 p = m0 v / 1 − v 2 / c 2 = γ m0 v

Relativistic Force
We can use Newton's second law to define force by the relation

F = dp/dt. So we have;

d dm
F = mv = ma + v
dt dt
If the force is perpendicular to the velocity, the force can't do

any work on the particle, so the speed won't change. This

happens in uniform circular motion. The direction of v changes,

but the magnitude of v doesn't. Therefore m doesn't change

and dm/dt=0. Substituting for m = γm0, we have

F⊥ = γm0 a

However, if the force is parallel to the velocity, the particle

speed and mass will change. Then;

dm d m0
=
(
dt dt 1 − v 2 / c 2 )
1/ 2
and;

F = γ 3 m0 a

Notes:

1- F is much larger than F⊥ .

2- F increases rapidly as v gets close to c.

Fact:
To approach c we need an infinite force to accelerate an
infinite mass.
 Relativistic Energy
Work may be done on a body to increase its kinetic energy, KE.

What is the expression of KE in relativistic physics?

Let's start an object from rest with a net external force F in

the (+ve) x direction. Then the work done by F will be stored in

the form of kinetic energy.

That is,
KE = ∫ Fdx = ∫ m0 1 − v 2 / c 2 ( )−3 / 2
vdv

which integrates to

KE = m0 c 2
(1 − v 2
/c )
2 −1 / 2
− m 0 c 2 = γm 0 c 2 − m 0 c 2

or most simply;

KE = mc 2 − m0c 2 = Δmc 2 (1)

where Δm = m - mo is the relativistic mass increase.

Suppose a body with a rest energy of E0 undergoes a work that

increases its KE, then its total energy will be E = E0+KE , or;

KE = E − E 0 (2)
Comparing (1) & (2), we can say that:

E = mc 2 and E0 = m0 c 2 (3)

This famous equation states the equivalence of mass and energy.

Therefore, anything that has a mass m has an energy E =mc2,

and anything that has an energy E has a mass m =E/C2. That is;

Energy and mass are just two equivalent ways of describing

the same thing.

Using the relation of the relativistic mass along with (3), we

obtain
E = E0 / 1 − v 2 / c 2 = γE0 (4)

Equation (4) as other relativistic expressions shows that for

objects with a nonzero rest mass, c is the upper limiting speed.

This doesn't forbid the existence of particles that have zero

rest mass and which can only move at v = c.

Again starting with m = mo/(1 - v2/c2)1/2, if we square both sides

and rearrange terms recognizing mv as the magnitude of the

linear momentum p, we get;

 E 2 = p 2 c 2 + E 02 (5)

a) Eq. (5)

b) when v<<c

c) when v c

The unit conversions:

Since it's easier to determine the work done and thus KE in

electron volts for charged atomic and subatomic particles, eV-

based units are most often used as following;

1- When a particle is described as a 1-MeV particle. This means

that the kinetic energy of this particle is 1-MeV.

2- According to (E/c2=m) we can use the units of eV/c2, KeV/c2,

MeV/c2,ect to specify the mass units.

3- According to (5) we can use the units of eV/c, KeV/c,

MeV/c,ect to specify the momentum units.

 General Theory of Relativity
Introduction:
* In introductory physics we learn that:

- The acceleration of an object of mass m is inversely

proportional to m; 1
a = Fnet
mi
(Newton’s 2nd law)

- The gravitational force acting on an object of mass m is

( )
proportional to m; Fgrav = 9.8 m / s 2 × m g

(Newton's universal law of gravitation)

* On the face of it, these two properties of the mass m are

totally different. I.e. there is no a clear link between the

property governing how hard gravity pulls on the object (mg)

and the property governing its reluctance to accelerate (mi).

* Although this link was hidden into Galileo old statement: “in

the absence of friction, all falling bodies accelerate at the

same rate”, no one could read it correctly and get used of it.
* Albert Einstein was the first to discover the surprising

results that arise by postulating that mg and mi are the same.

Principle of Equivalence:
General relativity is a theory of gravitation developed between
the years 1907–1915. It began with the principle of
equivalence introduced by Einstein in 1907.
* Suppose that you are in a small closed room. You drop an
object in a vacuum from rest and you find that its acceleration
toward the floor is 9.8 m/s2. Where is your room?

One possible answer: your room is at rest on the surface of the

earth, where all freely falling bodies accelerate downward at g
= 9.8 m/s2.
Another possible answer: your room is in outer space (in a
region where g=0), but your room is accelerating "upward" at a
constant 9.8 m/s2.

* If special relativity begins with Einstein's simple postulate

that the speed of light is the same in all frames.

General relativity begins with another of Einstein's "simple"
postulates which is:

Inertial mass mi and gravitational mass mg are the same.

* In particular, if mg = mi, it would be impossible to determine

whether we are in an inertial frame passed through by a

uniform gravitational field, or in a frame which accelerates at a

constant rate but there is no field.

Also, no mechanical

experiment would be able to

distinguish a frame that is

accelerating in "free-fall" in a

uniform gravitational field

from one that is inertial and

without a gravitational field.

An observer in the inertial frame would see all objects floating

or moving at constant velocity, because no forces act.

An observer in the free-falling frame would also see objects

seemingly moving at constant velocity because the gravitational

force (mgg ) is exactly canceled by the inertial force (-mia).

Similarly, no optical
experiment would be
able to distinguish
between a uniform
gravitational field, and
a frame which
accelerates at a
constant rate but there is no field
The point is that there is no way of deciding from your

experiment whether your closed room is at rest in the earth's

gravitational field or accelerating in distant space.
This is the basis of Einstein's principle of equivalence:

No experiment can distinguish between a uniform

gravitational field and an equivalent uniform acceleration.

This means:

 Free fall (acceleration inside a gravitational field ) is an

inertial motion.

 Inertial mass mi and gravitational mass mg are the same.

 If all accelerated systems are equivalent, then Euclidean

geometry cannot hold in all of them. Thus the equivalence

principle led Einstein to search for a gravitational theory which

involves curved space-time.
 Space-Time in the General Relativity
‰ The Curvature of Spacetime:
* Recall: The equations of special relativity follow the rules

of a flat spacetime, (i.e. Euclidean geometry).

* If all accelerated systems are equivalent, then Euclidean

geometry cannot hold in all of them. In fact, the equivalence
principle led Einstein to search for a gravitational theory
which involves curved spacetime.

But, what do we mean by a curved spacetime?

* A Flat spacetime can be recognized by some basic

Euclidean rules such as:

The shortest distance

between two points is a

straight line, parallel

lines can not meet at

any point, the angles of

a triangle add to 180o,

and the ratio of the

circumference to diameter of a circle is equal to π.

* The rules of Euclidean geometry are only valid in flat

spacetime, but if we

draw these figures on a

curved surface like a

sphere object, the

Euclidean rules no longer

hold. In this case, a

curved line is the shortest distance between two points, lines

parallel at the equator meet at the poles, the angles of a

triangle add to more than 180o, and the ratio of the

circumference to diameter of a circle is less than π.

* If we draw these figures on a curved surface like a

saddle-shaped object, different results will be obtained.

* In general, if we measure the sum of the angles for a

triangle in a space-time we call that space:

(a) Flat if the sum is equal to 180o.

(b) Spherelike or positively curved if it is larger than 180o.

(c) Saddlelike or negatively curved if it is less than 180°.

‰ Our Universe & Curved Spacetime:

In general relativity massive objects do not directly impart a

force on other massive objects as hypothesized in Newton's

action at a distance idea. Instead objects respond to how

the massive object curves space-time.

The curvature

of space-time

can be viewed

in the following

way. Placing a

heavy object

such as a bowling ball on a rubber mat will produce a ' cavity '

in that mat.
This is analogous to a large mass such as the Earth causing

the local space-time geometry to curve. The larger the

mass, the bigger the amount of curvature. A relatively

light object, such as a ping-pong ball, placed in the vicinity of

the ' cavity ', will accelerate towards the bowling ball in a

manner governed by the ' cavity '. This is analogous to the

Moon orbiting the Earth.

‰ The New Laws of Curved Spacetime:

Now we need to know first the rules for the behavior of a

particle in a curved spacetime, and second the rules to

determine the curvature itself.

1- Motion of a particle & (Geodesics):

The "straightest" or shortest distances between two points

on the curved surface are called

geodesic lines or simply geodesics.

Objects that were initially traveling

in parallel paths through flat space-

time come to travel in a non-parallel

fashion through curved spacetime.

This effect is called geodesic deviation, and it is used in

general relativity as an alternative to

gravity.

For example, two balls initially at rest with

respect to and above the surface of the

Earth come to have a converging component

of relative velocity as both accelerate

towards the center of the Earth due to

their free-fall.

2-The shape of spacetime & Einstein field equations (EFE):

The Einstein field equations (EFE) describe how stress-

energy causes curvature of spacetime and are usually written

in tensor form:

Rij − 12 g ij R = κTij
where Rij is the curvature tensor, R the scalar curvature, gij

the metric tensor and Tij the stress-energy tensor. The

constant κ is called the Einstein constant of gravitation,

which equals to
8πG
κ=−
c4
where G & c are the universal gravitational constant and the

speed of light respectively. One can write the EFE in a more

compact form by defining the Einstein tensor

Gij = Rij − 12 g ij R
Then, EFE can then be written as

8πG
Gij = − Tij
c4
* Each subscript i or j stands for one of the 4 coordinates of

space-time; and have the range 1 to 4. Therefore, what looks

like one equation is actually 4 x 4 = 16 equations. But since

some are repeated there are really 10 equations.

* EFE relates the curvature of space-time (Gij) to the

stress-energy (Tij), which is the source of the gravitational

field. The tensor Tij includes stress, momentum, and energy

( i.e, it includes mass the source for Newtonian gravity).

* A brief description of the field equations was given by the

physicist John Wheeler;

Mass tells spacetime how to curve, and spacetime tells mass

how to move.
‰ Solutions of Einstein's equations & Metrics:
Indeed, EFE are amongst the most difficult equations in

science. However, some exact solutions have been found to

get use of them.

* Each solution of Einstein's equations is called a metric, and

it is a formula that allows us to compute the spacetime

interval between any two nearby points (i.e, geodesic).

If we know the, metric at every point, we know everything
about the space, including its curvature.

* In rectangular coordinates, the distance between the

points (x, y, z) and (x+dx, y+dy, z+dz) is given by

ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2
The set of coefficients of ds2 can be written in the form of a
matrix. These numbers define the metric (g)for rectangular
coordinates in three dimensions;

⎡ g xx g xy g xz ⎤ ⎡1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
g = ⎢ g yx g yy g yz ⎥ = ⎢⎢0 1 0⎥⎥
⎢ g zx g zy g zz ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 1⎥⎦
⎣
*The form of the metric for
a given space is not unique,
in polar coordinates, for
example, the distance between
the points (r, θ, φ) and
(r+dr, θ+dθ, φ+dφ) is

ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2dθ2 + r 2 sin2 θ dφ2

And hence the metric is;

⎡1 0 0 ⎤
g = ⎢⎢0 r 2 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣0 0 r 2 sin 2 θ⎥⎦

* The form of the metric determines the properties of the

space. The space-time of relativity is a four-dimensional
vector space in which the " points " are "events " .

* The distance between the events whose coordinates are (x,

y, z, ct) and (x+dx, y+dy, z+dz, ct+cdt) is given by
 ds 2 = cdt 2 − dx 2 − dy 2 − dz 2
Because of those minus signs, the space-time of special
relativity is not quite Euclidian; it is sometimes called
pseudo-Euclidian.

* In 4D-spacetime the metric is a symmetric 16 component

tensor as ;

⎡ g11 g12 g13 g14 ⎤

⎢g g 22 g 23 g 24 ⎥⎥
g ij = ⎢ 21
⎢ g 31 g 32 g 33 g 34 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ g 41 g 42 g 43 g 44 ⎦

But since some are repeated there are really 10 equations;

ds 2 = g11dx12 + g 22 dx22 + g33dx32 + g 44 dx42 + 2 g12 dx1 dx2 + 2 g13dx1 dx3

+ 2 g14 dx1 dx4 + 2 g 23dx2 dx3 + 2 g 24 dx2 dx4 + 2 g34 dx3 dx4

‰The Schwarzschild metric:

* A German scientist Karl Schwarzschild found the first

exact solution of Einstein's equations in 1916, just months

after the publication of these equations.

The metric found by Schwarzschild is

2
(
ds = 1 −
rs
r
) c dt −
2 2 dr 2
1 − rrs
− r 2
d θ 2
− r 2
sin 2
θ dφ 2

Where rs is the Schwarzschild radius (in meters) of the

massive body, which is related to its mass M by;

2GM
rs =
c2
where G is the gravitational constant.

* This metric describes the gravitational field outside a

spherical, non-rotating mass such as a (non-rotating) star,
planet, or black hole. It is also a good approximation to the
gravitational field of a slowly rotating body like the Earth or
Sun.

* The Schwarzschild solution appears to have singularities at

r = 0 and r = rs; such solutions are now believed to exist and
are termed black holes.
‰ Fundamental Principles:

* General relativity states that the laws of physics must be

the same for all observers (accelerated or not).

* General relativity is a metric theory of gravitation. The

main defining feature is the concept of gravitational

'force' being replaced by spacetime geometry. Phenomena

that in classical mechanics are ascribed to the action of the

force of gravity (such as free-fall, orbital motion, and

spacecraft trajectories) are taken in general relativity to

represent inertial motion within a curved geometry of

spacetime.

* Finally, the curvature of spacetime and its energy-

momentum content are related, this relationship is

determined by the Einstein field equations.

 Some of General Relativity Predictions
(1) Gravitational red-shift:
Suppose we measure time with three identical clocks, one

placed on the center of a rotating disk, a second placed on the

rim of the disk, and the third at rest on the ground.

* From the laws of special relativity we know that the clock

attached to the center, since it is not moving with respect to

the ground, should run at the same rate as the clock on the

ground-but not at the same rate as the clock attached to the

rim of the disk.

* An observer on the rotating disk and an observer at rest on

the ground both see the clock on the rim run more slowly than

their own clocks. However, explanations of the difference for

the two observers are not the same.

* To the observer on the ground, the slower rate of the clock

on the rim is due to its motion. The observer on the disk is

likely to conclude that the centrifugal force has something to

do with the slowing of time. He notices that as he moves in the

direction of the centrifugal force, outward from the center to

the edge of the disk, time is slowed.

* By applying the principle of equivalence, which says that any

effect of acceleration can be duplicated by gravity, we must

conclude that:

As we move in the direction that a gravitational force acts, time

will slow down.
* An executive working on the ground floor of

a tall city skyscraper will age more slowly

than her twin sister working on the top floor.

The difference is very very small.

* For larger differences in gravitation,

like between the surface of the sun and

the surface of the earth,

the differences in time are larger.

A clock at the surface of the sun should run measurably slower
than a clock at the surface of the earth.
* Similarly, light emitted at one point in a gravitational field will

have a different frequency if observed at a different point.

I.e. an atom on the sun should emit light of a lower frequency

(slower vibration) than light emitted by the same kind of atom

on the earth. This effect is called the gravitational red shift.

* The gravitational red shift is observed in light from the sun,

but some disturbing influences prevent accurate measurements

of this tiny effect. It wasn't until 1960 when the gravitational

slowing of time was confirmed using gamma rays from

radioactive atoms.

* Conclusion:

Measurements of time depend not only on relative motion, as we

learned in special relativity, but also on the gravity (i.e. on the
location of one point in a gravitational field relative to the
other one).
(2) The precession of the perihelion of Mercury:
* The orbits of the planets about the Sun are not exactly

circular, but slightly elliptical. At one point in its orbit, called

aphelion, a planet will be slightly farther than average from the

Sun, and at another, called perihelion, slightly closer.

* As long as a system is simply

one object orbiting another, it is

a direct prediction of classical

Newtonian gravitation that the

same path in space is repeated

for ever.

* But if anything interferes with that simple interaction, the

orbit will precess, (i.e. the points of aphelion and perihelion

gradually creep around in a circular fashion).

* Newtonian measurements of the rate of Mercury’s precession

did not agree exactly with observation. There is still 43 seconds

of arc per century missing.

* Using general relativity, a correction to the classically

expected precession rate of Mercury can be calculated. The

result of 43 s of arc per century is in good agreement with

observation.

(3) The deflection of light by the sun:

* Since a laterally moving light beam would appear to curve

toward the floor in a rocket-powered cabinet, applying the

principle of equivalence, it must curve toward the floor in an

Earth-bound cabinet.
* In other words, if light is deflected by acceleration, it must

be deflected by gravity.

But how can gravity bend light which is massless?

Einstein's first answer was that:” Gravity pulls on the energy of

light because energy is equivalent to mass”.

Later he gave a deeper explanation, that light bends when it

travels in a space-time geometry that is bent (as we shall see

later).

* Einstein predicted that

starlight passing close to the

sun would be deflected by an

angle of 1.75 s of arc, which is

large enough to be measured.

* Although stars are not visible

when the sun is in the sky, the

deflection of starlight can be

observed during an eclipse of

the sun. A photograph taken of

the darkened sky around the eclipsed sun reveals the presence
of the nearby bright stars. The positions of the stars are

compared with those in other photographs of the same area

taken at other times in the night with the same telescope. In

every instance, the deflection of starlight has supported

Einstein's prediction.

* On the other hand, it is theoretically possible for an object to

be so dense that light simply cannot escape its gravitational

potential energy at all. Such objects are known as black holes.

 BLACK HOLES

‰What is a Black Hole?

* A black hole is a region of spacetime that has so much mass
concentrated in it that nothing can escape its gravitational pull,
even light.
* The name 'black hole' was
invented by John Wheeler in
1967. Before that it was called
‘Frozen Star’.

* When a large star has burnt all

its fuel it explodes into a
supernova. The stuff that is left collapses down to an
extremely dense object known as a neutron star. If the
neutron star is too large, the gravitational forces overcome the
pressure gradients and collapse cannot be stopped. The neutron
star continues to shrink until it finally becomes a black hole.

‰ Escape Velocity & Schwarzschild ∗ Radius:

The speed with which you need to throw a rock in order that it
just escapes the Earth's gravity is called the "escape velocity."

∗
Pronounced “ SHVARTZshilt”
The escape velocity from the surface of a star depends upon
the size and mass of the star. The Newtonian expression for
escape velocity is:
2GM
v esc =
R
where R is the radius and M the mass of the star. If light is
retarded by gravity then it will just fail to escape from the
surface when the escape velocity equals the speed of light.

2GM
c=
R
This can be rearranged to give expressions for the radius
inside which a particular mass must be compressed to form a
black hole, as;
2GM
Rs =
c2
Rs is the Schwarzschild radius, it is used to represent this
radius since Newtonian theory gives the same result as the
general relativistic analysis carried out by Schwarzschild in
1916.
Hence, the critical density ρc of spherically distributed
matter that will collapse to form a black hole, is;
 3M 3c 6
ρc = =
4 πRs 32 G 3 M 2 π
3

The significant point about the density equation is that critical

density is inversely proportional to the square of the mass
of the collapsing object. This means that, whilst objects of
relatively low mass like the Earth or Sun would need to reach
incredibly high densities to form black holes, much larger
bodies like galaxies or clusters have a much lower critical
density.

The Earth A galaxy

Mass (kg) 6×1024 1042
Radius ( m) 6.4×106 1021
ρc ( kg.m-3) 2×1030 7×10-5
Rs ( m) 8.9×10-3 1.5×1015
Remarks The Earth must be ρc is less than the density
compressed into a sphere of air by 4 orders of
of radius less than 1 cm to magnitude.
be a black hole.

‰ Event horizon:
The spherical surface that marks the boundary of the black
hole is called as 'event horizon’.
* This horizon is moving out at the speed of light. Thus, in
order to escape back across it, you would have to travel faster
than light. You can't go faster than light, and so you can't
escape from the black hole
* If a black hole existed, would it suck up all the matter in
the Universe?
The answer is, NO. If you cross the "horizon" of the black hole,
you eventually will hit the singularity. But as long as you stay
outside of the horizon, you can avoid getting sucked in.

* Light will escape from any star with radius r greater than 1.5
Rs. This is the radius of the photon sphere, and light emitted
tangentially at this radius will orbit the star. If r is between
the photon sphere and the Schwarzschild radius there will be a
limited exit cone for escaping light, rays outside this cone fall
back to the surface of the star. No light can escape from a star
that has collapsed inside its own Schwarzschild radius.
‰ Is there any evidence that black holes exist?
Yes. You can't see a black hole directly, of course, since light
can't get past the horizon.
* However, if a black hole passes through a cloud of interstellar
matter, it can suck matter into itself. As the matter falls or is
pulled towards the black hole, it gains kinetic energy and heats
up. The heat ionizes the atoms,
and when the atoms reach a few
million degrees Kelvin, they emit
X-rays. The X-rays are sent off
into space before the matter
crosses the Schwarzschild radius
and crashes into the singularity.
Thus we can see this X-ray emission.

* The Hubble Space Telescope has now provided almost

conclusive evidence for the existence of black holes:
- In 1994 it found one in the heart of galaxy M87, fifty
million light years from our solar system.
- In December 1995 the HST produced images of a huge disc
of gas whirling around a black hole in NGC4261. It is thought to
contain 1.2 billion times more matter than the Sun.