COASTS

❖ Off-shore
❖ Nearshore
❖ Foreshore
❖ Backshore

Factors Affecting Coastal Environment

Waves Wave action → Wind energy
● As wind blows across surface of seas and oceans
● Energy from moving air is transferred to water surface to generate waves

Tides Tides are the daily alternate rising and falling of sea level along coasts
→ gravitational pull of the moon and sun on the earth
● Two low/high tides
● Changes every 6 hours
Significant impact → coastal erosion, sediment transport, sediment deposition process

Currents Currents are large-scale and continuous movements of water in seas/oceans

→ prevailing winds that blow in one direction
1. Distribute sediments
2. Regulate temperatures
3. Nearshore currents shape coastlines

Geology Geology is the arrangement and composition of rocks found in the area
● Rock composition determine hardness of rock & resistance to erosion
→ affects rate of change along coasts

Human Various human activities carried out near coastal areas can affect them
Activities ● Construct port facilities and marines
● Pollute coastal areas

Ecosystem Interaction of plants and animals with one another and environment can affect the coasts
● Mangroves & coral reefs can reduce impacts of wave → affect rate of change

Wavele

Wave

Factors Affecting Wave Energy

Fetch The greater the fetch, the greater the wave energy

Wind Duration The longer the wind blows, the larger the waves are - greater wave energy

Wind Speed The faster the wind blows, the greater the wave energy is

Amount of energy in waves depends on:

➔ Wave Steepness: Ratio of wave height to wavelength
➔ Wave Period: Time taken to travel through one wavelength
The higher the wave energy, the steeper the wave and shorter the wavelength become

Characteristics of waves when approaching coastlines

❏ Waves in open ocean have long wavelength and low wave height
❏ Water particles move in an orbit, motion that rapidly decreases with depth
 1. Near the coastline
➔ Shallow water → Waves interact with seabed → Waves start to change their shape at a depth half of their
wavelength
2. Nearer the coastline
➔ Friction causes base of wave to start slowing down → Wave height increases → Wavelength decreases
3. Nearest the coastline
➔ Base of waves stop → Wave crest becomes steeper and topples over → Waves break on coast

Swash: when water rushes

up a beach and carries
sediments to the shore
Loses energy due
to gravity and friction

Types of Waves
Constructive Waves ● Low energy , Low gradient , Low wave height , Long wavelength
“ Strong Swash, ● Strong swash and weak backwash → break gently over a long distance
Weak Backwash ” ● Deposit more sediments than remove
● Carry finer materials, forming gentler slopes → sandy beaches / sheltered coast

Destructive Waves ● Break violently on shore with high energy that can erode coast
“ Weak Swash, ● High energy , Steep gradient , Large,high waves , High wave height, Short wavelength
● Weak swash and strong backwash → break with great force over short distance
Strong Backwash ”
● More materials are removed than are deposited
● Transports finer materials away → Coarser materials left → forming steeper slopes → erode coasts

Wave Refraction: Waves change direction when they approach a coast

1. Waves converge on headlands → converge due to refraction with greater amount of energy
➢ Increased wave height → Greater erosive energy (wave energy concentrated) → More erosion at headlands

2. Waves bend into bays → diverge due to refraction with lesser amount of energy
➢ Decrease in height → Lower erosive energy (wave energy diffused) → More deposition in bays
Coastal Processes
Coastal Erosion Coastal erosion is the wearing away and breaking up of rock along the coast
1. Hydraulic Action Hydraulic Action:
2. Abrasion ● When waves strike against rock surface, waves trap air in rock joints
3. Attribution ● This exerts pressure on the joints
● As air is repeatedly compressed, joint weaken and rocks shatter
4. Solution

Abrasion:
● As waves break, sediments carried by waves (sand and rocks) are hurled against coast
● This weakens the surface and breaks down the coast

Attribution:
● Rock particles carried by waves rub or hit against one another
● They break down into smaller pieces → become smoother & more rounded over time

Solution:
● Sea water chemically reacts with water-soluble minerals in coastal rocks → dissolve them
○ Limestone rocks easily eroded by carbonic acid
○ Solution of minerals occur, rocks are weakened and eventually disintegrate

Sediment Transport Sediments transported along coasts through beach drift and longshore drift
1. Beach drift Result of waves approaching coasts at an angle
2. Longshore drift
Beach drift ● Waves approach coast at an angle
● Sediments move up the beach at angle → Swash
● Move perpendicularly down the beach → Backwash
● Zig-zag movement along the beach is called Beach Drift

Longshore Drift ● When waves approach a coast at an angle

● Generate longshore currents in nearshore zone to
transport sediments along the shore
Longshore currents: ocean currents flowing parallel to coast
● Combined effect of sediment transport → Longshore drift
Sediment Deposition Sediments eroded from coast are transported away and deposited elsewhere
● When wave energy decreases → waves are unable to carry these sediments
➔ Large sediments deposited first, followed by smaller sediments
● Results in variety of beaches

● Location of coasts influenced deposition of sediments

➔ Coasts sheltered from strong winds
→ destructive waves are less common
➔ Fine sediments are deposited → mangrove coasts
➔ Deep bays sheltered by headlands → sandy beaches
➔ More exposed bays → higher wave energy to remove fiber sediments
→ coarser sediments

Coastal Landforms and Features

Cliffed Coasts ● Cliffs and shore platform
● Headlands and bays
● Caves, arches and stacks

Depositional Coasts ● Spits and Tombolos

● Beaches

Cliff and Shore Platforms

● Hydraulic action and abrasion may erode crack or joint on rock surface → gradually enlarge rock or joint to form notch
● Notch further deepened to produce bigger hollow space called cave
● Further erosion cause roof of cave to collapse to form steep cliff
● As erosion continues, overhanging cliff is formed → collapse → material deposited at foot of cliff
➔ Over time, cliff retreats inland → gentle sloping platform appears at the base called shore platform

Headlands and Bays

● Coasts are made of alternate bands of rocks of different resistance arranged at right angles to the coast
➔ Less resistant rocks eroded faster than the more resistant rocks
● When less resistant rocks are eroded faster, bays are formed → wide indented coasts
● More resistant rocks gets eroded slower, forming headlands → which extend into the sea
Caves, Arches and Stacks
● Within headlands, some rocks may be less resistant to erosion than other rocks → eroded more quickly
(Hydraulic action and Abrasion)
● Waves attack lines of weakness (joints/faults) at the base of headland → undercut it → cave

● Caves may develop on each side of the headland

● Erosion may join caves together → form bridge of rock above opening called arch

● Roof of arch may collapse, leaving behind a stack

● Continuous erosion cause stack to collapse, forming stump

Beaches
● More constructive waves with stronger swash than backwash → locations with gentler offshore gradient
● When coarser materials are deposited by the swash, the backwash can hardly remove them → accumulation leads to
formation of beach
● Formed between the headlands, in front of a bay by process of wave refraction
○ When waves reach the bay, its energy would have been reduced → encourage deposition of sediments
● Process of longshore drift: sediments transported parallel to the coast may be trapped by groynes → formation of
beach in between series of groynes

Spit and Tombolos

Spit is a long, narrow ridge of sediments with one end attached to the land → longshore drift
Tombolo is formed when spit grows from mainland and continues to grow till it joins a neighbouring island
 ● Coast changes direction abruptly
→ longshore drift continue to transport materials in original direction for some time
● Materials deposited in ocean → accumulate till coastline changes direction
● Accumulated materials appear on surface of ocean
● Forms ridge of sediments from the point where coastline changes direction
➔ Hook or curve develop at the end of spit

● Spit may continue to extend until it connects the offshore island to the mainland -> Tombolo
● Tombolo can also join two islands together

Coastal Areas and Human Activities

Fisheries and
Agriculture
Elaboration/ ● Problems of overfishing → rear fish in fisheries
Explanation ➔ Fish are bred and raised to meet growing demand for fish
➔ Farming cages/ponds close to coasts/rivers/converted wetlands
➔ Breading fish in fisheries → aquaculture
● China, India, Vietnam,Thailand

Ca Mau, ● Southern part of Vietnam → nation’s shrimp production centre

Vietnam ● 60 000 hectares (600km2) of coastal mangroves cleared
→ building materials/medicinal herbs/shrimp farms
➔ Areas cleared from mangrove forest → favourable for shrimp
production → waterlogged (full of water)
➔ In Shrimp farms, ponds (mud/concrete) → hold water and shrimp
● Grown rapidly → US$800 million in 1990s to 2010

Problems:
● Clearing of mangroves → more vulnerable to erosion from storms/pollution

Organic farming
➔ Shrimps live in shade of mangroves → eat decay of mangrove leaves
➔ Strict regulations on management of waste and water waste → not
affect quality of fresh water for breeding

Housing and
Transportation
Elaboration/ ● Build houses on stilts above water
Explanation ➔ Connected by walkways
➔ Boats as a common mode of transport

Kukup, ● Air Masin: village in Kukup, Malaysia (stilt house community of 180)
West ● Sell fresh fish & other marine products
Malaysia ● Mode of Transportation
➔ Boats used by local fishermen which facilitate fishing
➔ Ferry services for tourist
● Attractive tourist destination

Tourism and
Recreation
Elaboration ● Linked with tourism and recreation → people can enjoy beach activities

Sentosa, Sentosa: former military island transformed into resort island

Singapore ● Offers many recreational activities:
➔ Two golf course , integrated resort , residential area

ONE°15 Marina Club → world-class marina facilities

➔ Harbour with wharfs
➔ Recreational boating facilities

Resorts World Sentosa

➔ Maximised waterfront → building hotel, museum and marine life park on
the coast
● 19 million visitors in 2011, 600％ increase from 2003
Coral Reef Ecosystem
Describe ● Found slightly below sea level on the sea bed
● Made up of thousands tiny animals: Coral polyps
➔ Secrete rock-like deposits of calcium carbonate to protect their soft and delicate bodies
➔ When coral polyps die → new polyps grow on them → calcium carbonate skeletons
accumulate as limestone

Distribution ● Majority of corals found between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn
*spread ● Within tropical areas
*location ● They are found in
➔ Southeast Asia : Malaysia and Philippines
➔ Caribbean islands : Cuba and Jamaica
➔ Australia : Great Barrier Reef

Environmental 1. Sea temperature → not lower than 17-18℃

Conditions 2. Amount of sunlight received
● Depth of water: 10m-60m → clear saline water sunlight to penetrate → algae photosynthesis
● Low turbidity of water → sunlight to pass through for algae to photosynthesis
3. Level of salinity and oxygen content
● Moderate amount of water movement → corals receives sufficient levels of oxygen
● Salinity levels: average → 34-37 parts per thousand

Value ● Crucial role in supporting natural ecosystem → support more than 25％ for marine fishes
● Provide food for larger creatures
● Above wave energy → protect adjacent land mass from erosion

Pressures on coral reef ecosystem

Pressure Activity Impact Examples

Overcollection ● Overcollection of corals for ● Weakens corals Philippines

of corals personal/commercial use ● Disrupt coral ecosystem
● Make them more vulnerable to
threats

Fishing Methods ● Dynamite blasting / Use of ● Coral reef habitat destroyed Philippines
cyanide to stun fish ● Selective depletion of fish population Indonesia
● Spearfishing disrupt ecosystem’s food chain
Belize
Bonaire,the
Netherlands

Recreational use ● Tourism activities: ● Sewage spillage & oil spills from Sri Lanka
of coasts ● Anchoring of boats boats pollute water
● Expansion of coastal resorts ● Stress corals
● Boat anchors damage corals

Coastal ● Reclamation / extension of land ● Coral reefs are suffocated and Japan
development → dumping rocks/sand onto reefs destroyed
● Expansion of coastal resorts / Florida
urban housing → more waste
deposited into sea

Climate Change ● Rapid changes in sea ● Coral bleaching: higher sea Seychelles
temperature/levels → difficult for temperature → loss of algae
coral reefs and associated life → coral reefs turns white
forms to adjust

Mangroves ecosystem
Describe ● Salt-tolerant tropical
● Grow in tidal mud or sheltered coast

Distribution ● Majority of mangroves located between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn
● Tropical regions between latitudes ___ and ___
● Coast of countries / tropical coastlines
● They are found in
➔ Southeast Asia : Malaysia and Borneo
➔ Northern Australia
➔ Sundarbans in India and Bangladesh

Environmental ● Halophyte → grows in saline environment

Conditions ● Sheltered and low-lying coasts with muddy and waterlogged land
● Constructive coast → mud and plant litter accumulate → mangroves thrive & take root

Adaptations: Roots, Mangrove Fruits and Mangroves

Aerial Roots Avicennia and Sonneratia
➔ Help mangroves breathe and take in oxygen
➔ Pencil-like shape
➔ Cope with waterlogged environment

Prop Roots Rhizophora

➔ Anchor tree firmly in soft muddy ground
➔ Not be uprooted / swept away by strong waves

Kneed Roots Bruguiera

➔ Trap soil between roots for plant growth

Javelin-shaped ● Pierce soft mud to germinate → grow into sapling immediately

Buoyant ● Float away and germinate in other coastal areas

● Increase chances of survival

Salt-tolerant ● Secrete excess salt through underside of leaf

Value
1 ● Stabilise shorelines (prop roots)
● Dense network of roots → absorb energy of waves → slow down flowing of water

2 ● Dense network of roots → allows sediments to be build up by mangroves

● Protect coastal areas from erosion (Tides, storm waves and tsunami)

3 ● Breeding ground and habitat for range of marine animals

4 ● Dense root system → Absorb force of storms

○ As approach due to wanting a coast → speed is reduced due to friction
→ reduce impact of storms on waves

Pressure
Pressure Activity Impact Examples

For fuel and wood ● Mangroves are cleared for fuel ● Fish breeding ground reduced Indonesia
and wood (particularly for less ● More open to storm waves
developed countries)

Conversion to to ● Thousand hectares of mangroves ● Mangroves become more vulnerable Vietnam

Other land uses converted into paddy and shrimp Thailand
farms

Coastal ● Mangroves cleared for land → ● Mangroves disappear from environment Caribbean
Development reclaimed for housing,industry ● Coastal water polluted as a result of Island
and recreational uses human activities

Rising sea level ● Rising sea levels + extreme storm ● Mangroves colonising areas further inland Gulf of
activity → due to climate change ● Competition with human activities Thailand

Laws and Regulation

Limit
Damaging Describe Limiting activities that interrupt functions of natural system
Activities ○ Blasting coral reefs
○ Clearing mangroves to convert into fish farms
○ Dumping waste out of convenience
○ Constructing facilities
➢ Not possible to band: costly & inefficient → limit

Example Port Philip. Dune Vegetation in Melbourne

➢ Sand Dunes → trampled on by people
➢ Destroyed → left exposed to wind erosion
➢ Houses behind are in danger of being partly buried by the sand

Advantages ➢ Allow recovery of dunes

○ Built access paths
○ Fenced off dunes

Limitation ➢ Less attractive

➢ Prevent people of access to every part of beach
Protect Coastal
resources
Describe ➢ Prevent resources from being exploited or depleted

Example Wakatobi National Park (Indonesia)

Goat Island Marine Reserve (New Zealand)
○ Marked off certain zones → prevent fishing activities
○ Protect marine ecosystem → allow fish/marine species to breed & thrive

Advantages ➢ Goat Island Marine Reserve → Tourist attraction → Plentiful fish

Limitation ➢ Fishermen see their access to coastal resources as valuable

➢ Fear that their livelihood affected with the establishment of marine reserves
➢ Afraid that major source of food is being denied

Restrict
development in
Describe Natural hazards → disastrous to natural environment & human activities
areas prone to
➢ Earthquake in Tohoku, Japan in March 2011
natural hazards
○ Tsunami of powerful sea waves
○ Death of over 20,000 people
○ Destruction of coastal towns/failure of nuclear power stations
○ Cost of rebuilding: US$300 billion

Elaboration People are still attracted to coast

➢ Provide natural resources → food and building materials
➢ Provide range of built services → docks/ports/housing/recreational facilities

Investors and residents

➢ Spend more in construction and maintenance
➢ Prepare for emergencies

Advantages ➢ Enforce laws and policies

○ Relocation of built structures away from areas prone to natural hazards
○ Avoidance of developments established on low lying coastal areas
○ Defence (nourishing beaches/building sea walls)
➢ Government implement management policies response to threats
➢ Management policies developed carefully

Disadvantages ➢ Expensive to construct and maintain structures

➢ Need to be alert and prepared at all times

Measures to protect the coast from erosion

soft engineering: Natural processes & does not involve construction of any physical structures
hard engineering: Construction of physical structures → Seawalls , Breakwater , Groynes , Tetrapods , Gabions

Soft Engineering Methods

Beach
Nourishment
Describe ➢ Using sand from external source to replenish sand on depleted beach

Advantages ➢ Transform coasts into wide, sandy beach that offers protection to immediate
inland area
➢ Slows down erosion of sand
➢ Aesthetically pleasing
➢ Restore depletion of beach

Disadvantages ➢ Expensive → not all countries can afford this measure and coastline of these
countries will still be subjected to erosion
➢ Time consuming
➢ Renourished beaches can be eroded again

Examples ➢ Coral reefs destroyed → sand used for beach nourishment was washed out to
the sea → suffocated the corals (Waikiki Beach, Hawaii, USA)

Planting
vegetation
Describe Planting vegetation (mangroves) can help trap sediments and stabilise coastlines
and stabilising
➢ Absorb wave energy through their dense root system
dunes
➢ Roots of grasses anchors sand → prevent erosion
➢ With matting, grasses become established → dunes more stable

Advantages ➢ Prevent erosion of coastlines

Disadvantages ➢ Take a number of years / very long

➢ May be vulnerable to storms or human elements
➢ Fences and paths needed to be built to prevent vegetated dunes from being
disturbed → Costly to maintain

Examples Coast along Triton Place, Western Australia

➢ Vegetated sand dunes and access fence

Encouraging
coral
Describe ➢ Coral reefs weaken wave energy
reef growth
➢ Breeding ground and nursery for fishes
➢ Act as artificial reefs → attract coral reefs and other marine animals →
colonise these materials → function as natural reef

Examples Maldives
➢ Operating coral-growing programme: curb severe beach erosion on its islands

Advantages ➢ Corals grow 3-5 times faster than normal

➢ Wide variety of corals / marine animals and organisms

Disadvantages ➢ Not easy

○ Sites need to be surveyed → ensure maximum opportunity for growth
➢ Slow process of coral growth → 20-30 years

Hard Engineering Methods

Seawalls
Describe ➢ Made of concrete
➢ Built parallel to the coast

Advantages ➢ Absorbs wave energy

Disadvantages ➢ Only absorb some wave energy

○ Powerful backlash of reflected waves washes away the beach materials
beneath the seawall
○ This undermines the base of the sea wall → collapse

Examples ➢ Drakes island in england collapsed due to erosion at base

Gabions
Describe ➢ Wire cages containing crushed rocks
➢ Built along shore or behind beach to weaken wave energy

Advantages ➢ Absorbs wave energy better than seawalls

○ Gaps between rocks allow water to filter through
○ Successful defences against high energy waves

Disadvantages ➢ Unsightly
➢ Costly → maintained regularly
➢ Easily corroded by seawater
➢ Easily damaged by excessive trampling or vandalism

Examples ➢ Andaman coast, Thailand successfully protect coast from erosion

Groynes
Describe ➢ Low walls built perpendicularly to the coast to retain sediments that might be
removed due to longshore drift

Advantages ➢ Absorb or reduce energy of waves

➢ Prevents materials carried away by longshore drift
➢ Encourages deposition on updrift side of the groynes
➢ Sustain or even extend beaches

Disadvantages ➢ Unsightly expensive to build & maintain → countries may not be able to afford
➢ No new materials → longshore drift erode unprotected part part of beach

Examples ➢ Large amounts of sediments eroded on downdrift side of a groyne along

Sandy Hook, New Jersey, in United States
Breakwater
Describe ➢ Made of granite
➢ Built parallel to the coast or one end attached to the coast

Advantages ➢ Create zone of calm water behind them → waves break before reaching coast
➢ Materials build up in this calm water zone to form beach

Disadvantages ➢ Aesthetically unappealing

➢ Costly to build
➢ Protect coast unevenly
➢ Materials deposited in zone behind breakwater → protected
➢ Zones away breakwater → subjected to wave action and erosion

Examples ➢ Portland harbour, England → Erosion and flooding problems

Tetrapods
Describe ➢ Four-pronged concrete structure helps to dissipate wave energy
➢ Stacked offshore in interlocking position

Advantages ➢ Allow water to pass around them rather than hit against them
➢ No powerful backwash reduces possibility of being damaged by waves
➢ Precasted → placed quickly compared to other structures
➢ Immediate protection to coastline

Disadvantages ➢ Aesthetically unappealing

➢ Alter ocean currents → beaches may not build up → disrupt natural cycles of
erosion → deposition that form sand → reshape coast
➢ Expensive to build → countries may not be able to afford
➢ Dangerous to swimmers surfers and boaters (for countries with a lot of
activities)

Examples ➢ Crescent city, Northern California used tetrapods to defend against coastal
erosion and reduced impact of tsunamis

Gabions Breakwater
Seawalls

Groynes Tetrapods