VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN FUNCTIONING:

 Variability is a fact of nature.

Physical Characteristics
 Humans vary in terms of
Psychological Dimensions

 Each one of us is unique and has a typical combination of various traits.

 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES: Refer to distinctiveness and variations among
people’s characteristics and behaviour patterns.

BEHAVIOURS

Influenced by personal traits. Influenced by situations

SITUATIONALISM

Situations and circumstances in which

one is placed influence ones behaviour.

Views behaviour as a result of external

factors.

1
  ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES:

 Psychological attributes can be assessed.

 Assessment is the first step in understanding a psychological
attribute.

ASSESSMENT

Psychological assessment uses

Refers to the measurement systematic testing procedures to
of psychological attributes evaluate abilities, behaviours and
of individuals and their personal qualities of individuals.
evaluation, often using
multiple methods in terms
of comparision.

Formal: objective, Informal: subjective

standardized, organized.

 Once assessment is done, behaviour can be predicted.

 If predicted behaviour is not what we want, we can intervene to affect a change in
behaviour.
 The attribute chosen for assessment depends on our purpose.

2
 Values are enduring beliefs
about an ideal mode of
behaviour.

Intelligence is the global capacity

to understand the world, think Personality refers to relatively
rationally, and use available enduring characteristics of a
resources effectively when faced SOME DOMAINS IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL person that make her or him
with challenges.
ATTRIBUTES distinct from others.

Interest is an individual’s preference

Aptitude refers to an individual’s for engaging in one or more specific
underlying potential for acquiring skills. activities relative to others.

Values: dominant values of a person

Personality:
Intelligence: WHAT DO THE TESTS OF  Individual’s unique
 Global measure of VARIOUS PYCHOLOGICAL characteristics.
a persons general ATTRIBUTES MEASURE  Explain individual’s
cognitive behaviour.
competence.
 Predict future
 Ability to profit
behaviour.
from schooling.

Aptitude: Interest:
 Predict what an  Helps to decide subjects/
individual will be able courses
to do given proper  Making choices that
environment and promote life satisfaction,
training. enhance performance on
3 jobs.
 Self-Report is a method in which a
person provides factual information
about herself/himself and/or opinions,
beliefs, etc. that s/he holds.

Observation involves
employing systematic,
Psychological test is an
organised, and objective
objective and standardised ASSESSMENT procedures to record
measure of an individual’s
METHODS behavioural phenomena
mental and/or behavioural
occurring naturally in real
characteristics.
time.

Interview involves Case Study is an in-depth

seeking information study of the individual in
from a person on a terms of her/his
one-to-one basis. psychological attributes,
psychological history in
the context of her/his
psychosocial and physical
environment.

Robert Sternberg:
The ability to adapt, to shape
and select environment to
Oxford dictionary: accomplish ones goals and
Power of perceiving, those of ones society and
learning, understanding culture.
and knowing. INTELLIGENCE
(DEFINITIONS)

Alfred Binet: Wechsler:

the ability to judge the global and aggregate
well, understand well, capacity of an individual to
and reason well. think rationally, act
purposefully, and to deal
effectively with her/his
environment.

4
  THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE:

PSYCHOMETRIC INFORMATION PROCESSING

1) Considers intelligence as an aggregate of 1) Describes the processes people use in
abilities. intellectual reasoning and problem solving.
2) Focuses on the structure of intelligence 2) Focuses on how an intelligent person
and its underlying dimensions. acts.
3) Expresses the individual’s performance 3) Studies cognitive functions underlying
in terms of a single set of cognitive intelligent behaviour.
abilities.

Structure of Intellect Model :( 1988) Hierarchical Model

 Classifies intellectual traits among 3 of Intelligence:
dimensions:  Arthur Jensen
Unifactor Theory: 1) Operations: what the respondent does.  Consists of
 Alfred Binet 2) Contents: nature of materials or abilities operating at
 Was a simple theory information on which intellectual two levels:
which arose from his interest operations are performed. 1) Level I:
in differentiating more 3) Products: form in which info is associative learning
intelligent individuals from processed by the respondent. in which input is
less intelligent ones.  This classification includes 6x5x6 more or less similar
 He conceptualized categories = 180 cells. to output.
intelligence as consisting of  Each cell is expected to have at least 2) Level II : cognitive
one similar set of abilities one factor or ability. competence which
which can be used for solving involves higher
any or every problem in an order skills as they
individual’s environment. transform the input
 This theory came to be PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH
to produce an
disputed when psychologists effective output.
started analysing data of
individuals, which was
collected using Binet’s test Theory of Primary Mental
Abilities:
 Louis Thurstone
Two Factor Theory: (1927)
 Intelligence consists
 Charles Spearman
of 7 primary abilities
 Employed factor
 Each of these is
analysis
relatively independent from
 Showed that others.
intelligence consisted of:
 These include:
1) General factors-
1) verbal comprehension
mental operations
2) numerical abilities
which are primary and
3) spatial relations
common to all
4) perceptual speed
performances.
5) word fluency
2) Specific factors- allow
5 6) memory
individuals to excel in
7) inductive reasoning
their specific field.
  Proposed by Howard Gardener. He defined 8 types of intelligences all independent of each other.

Naturalistic Intrapersonal
Interpersonal

THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES Bodily Kinesthetic

Linguistic

Logical Musical
Spatial

 Proposed by Robert Sternberg in 1985.

 Views intelligence as the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to
accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture.
 3 basic types of intelligence;

Contextual/ Practical
intelligence:
 Ability to deal
Componential/ Analytical with environmental
Intelligence:
demands encountered on
 Analysis of a daily basis.
information to solve
 ‘street smartness’
problems.
TRIARCHIC THEORY OF or ‘business sense’
 3 components:
INTELLIGENCE  Easily adapt to
1) Knowledge
the given environment
Acquisition
 Select a more
2) Meta or higher order
favourable environment
3) Performance
Experiential/ Creative intelligence:  Modify the
 Using past experiences to creatively environment to fit their
solve problems. needs.
 Reflected in creative performance
 Integrate different experiences in an
original way to make new discoveries and
inventions.
 Quickly find out which information is
6 crucial in a given situation.
  Developed by JP Das , Jack Naglieri and Kirby in 1994.
 Intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of 3 neurological
systems aka the function units of the brain.
 Operates on a knowledge base developed either formally or informally from the
environment.
 Processes are interactive and dynamic in nature.
 Each has its own distinctive function.

Planning:
 Essential
Arousal/attention: feature of
 State of arousal is intelligence
basic to any behavior.  Allows us to
 It helps in attending think of possible
to stimuli courses of action,
 Enables to process PASS MODEL implement them and
information. evaluate their
 Optimal level of effectiveness.
arousal focuses our attention  If the plan
to relevant aspects of the fails it can be
problem. modified.
 Too much or too little Simultaneous and Successive Processing:
interferes with attention.  Information can be integrated into the
knowledge system:
1) simultaneously
2) successively

Das and Naglieri have developed a battery of test known as the Cognitive
Assessment System (CAS):
1) Verbal and non verbal tasks to measure cognitive functions presumed to
be independent of schooling.
2) 15-18 years
3) Test results can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of children with
learning problems.

7
 INDIVIDUAL INFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE

Evidence comes from studies on twins and adopted children

HERIDITY ENVIRONMENT

As children grow with age

their intelligence levels
tend to move to that of
their adoptive parents
Intelligence of identical INTELIGENCE: Interplay of
twins reared apart – 0.72 NATURE and NURTURE
Children adopted from
disadvantaged homes into
Intelligence of families with higher socio-
fraternal twins = 0.60 economic statuses exhibit a
large increase in intelligence

Intelligence of brothers Environmental

and sisters = 0.50 deprivation lowers
intelligence
Siblings reared
apart = 0.25

Rich nutrition, good family

Studies on adopted children background and quality of
show that their intelligence schooling increases
is similar to their biological intelligence
parents

8
  There is a general consensus amongst psychologists that intelligence is the
product of complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)
 Heredity- something that sets a range within which an individual’s development is
actually shaped by the support and opportunities in the environment.

In 1905
ALFRED
BINET
&THEODORE
SIMON ASSESMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

First
successfully
measured
intelligence
Bright child =
MA> CA
In 1908 scale Dull child =
revised – gave MA < CA
concept of Retardation is
Mental age= MA being 2 MA years
Measure of a below the CA
person’s
intellectual
development
relative to people
of his/her age
group. In 1912 William Stern devised the
Chronological concept of IQ
age= CA IQ= MA/CA x 100
Biological age
from birth. 100 is used as the multiplier to
avoid a decimal point.

9
 INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT Very few people have
either a very high IQ or a
very low IQ.

 IQ below 70 – mental
retardation These 2 groups deviate
 IQ above 130 – considerably from the
exceptionally talented normal population in
respect of their cognitive,
emotional and
motivational In the population IQ scores
 IQ scores between 90 of most people tend to fall
and 110 – intelligent characteristics.
in the middle range of the
 Mean of IQ is 100 distribution.

Normal curve is a type of symmetrical

distribution around a central value.

No. of
persons

IQ scores
The frequency distribution for the IQ
scores approximates a bell shaped
curve.

10
 VARIATIONS IN INTELLIGENS

Intellectual Deficiency Intellectual Giftedness

1). American Association of 1). Show higher performance –

Mental deficiency – mental outstanding potentialities.
Retardation- significantly sub 2). Study of gifted individuals
average general intellectual began in 1925 by Louis Terman -
functioning existing he followed lives of 1500
concurrently with deficits in children with IQ >= 130. He
adaptive behavior and examined how intelligence was
manifested during the related to occupational success
developmental period. and life adjustment.

2). According to the definition 3). Talent Giftedness

3 features of mentally
retarded are given: narrow term exceptional ability
refers to remark- shown in superior
(i). Significantly sub average able ability in a performance in a
mental functioning. specific field. wide variety of
IQ below 60. areas.

(ii). Deficits in adaptive The highly talented

behavior – persons capacity are called
to be independent and deal prodigies.
effectively with ones
environment.

(iii). During the developmental From a teacher’s point of view

period 0-18 years of age Giftedness

increased increased
ability increased commitment
creativity

11
 CHARECTERISTICS OF
Intellectually Deficient Intellectually Gifted

1). Individuals show significant variations in

their abilities from those who can be
taught to work and function with special
attention to those who cannot be trained
and require special attention throughout 1). Show early signs of intellectual
their lives. superiority.
2). Different levels of mental retardation 2). During infancy and childhood:
are: Large attention span.
i). mild retardation (IQ 55-69) Good recognition memory.
development is typically slower than Preference for novelty.
peers. Sensitivity to environmental changes.
Can hold jobs and families Early appearance of language skills.
3). Giftedness id not the same as brilliant
ii). Moderate retardation (IQ 40-50) academic performance.
lag behind their peers in language and 4). Important characteristics.
motor skills Advanced logical thinking, questioning
can be trained in self care, simple social and problem solving behaviour.
and communication skills Advanced logical thinking, questioning
moderate degree of supervision in and problem solving behaviour.
everyday tasks. • High speed in processing information.
• Super ior general isat ion and discr i -
iii). Profound retardation(IQ 25-39) and mination ability.
severe retardation (IQ below 25) • Advanced level of original and creative
incapable of managing life thinking.
needs constant care throughout their • High level of intrinsic motivation and
lives. self-esteem.
• Independent and non-conformist
thinking.
• Preference for solitary academic
activities for long periods.
5). Identifying gifted
Teachers judgment.
School achievement records.
Parent’s interviewing.
Intelligence tests.
Peer and self ratings.
6). To reach full potential require special
attention.
Life and environment programs
Different education programs

12
 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS
Individual Group Verbal, Culture fair or
An individual A group nonverbal and culture biased
intelligence test intelligence test performance Intelligence
is one which can be An intelligence tests can be
can be administered to test may be fully culture-fair or
administered to several persons verbal, fully culture-biased.
one person at a simultaneously. non-verbal or Many
time. Requires Seek answers fully intelligence tests
the test usually in a performance show a bias to
administrator to multiple choice based, or it may the culture in
form a rapport format. consist of a which they are
with the subject mixture of items developed. Tests
and their from each developed in
feelings, category. Verbal America and
emotions and tests require Europe
consideration. subjects to give represents an
Allow people to verbal responses urban and
answer the test either orally or middle class
orally or in a in a written cultural ethos.
written form or form. Therefore, Hence, educated
manipulate the verbal tests can middle class
objects be administered white subjects
according to the only to literate generally
‘testies’ people. The perform well on
instructions. non-verbal tests those tests. The
use pictures or items do not
illustrations as respect the
test items. cultural
Performance perspectives of
tests require Asia and Africa.
subjects to The norms for
manipulate these tests are
objects and also drawn from
other materials western cultural
to perform a groups.
task.

13
 NLEPT has brought out the handbooks in
the area of intelligence, aptitude,
personality, attitudes, and interests. Critical reviews of Indian tests are
published in the form of handbooks.

The National Library

of Educational and
Psychological Tests
(NLEPT) at the
SM Mohsin made INTELLIGENCE TESTING IN INDIA NCERT has
an attempt at documented Indian
constructing an tests
intelligence test in
Sanskrit in 1930 Since then, a number
of tests have either
Long and Mehta been developed or
At about the same adapted from western
prepared a
time, Mahalanobis cultures.
Mental
CH Rice attempted to attempted to
Measurement
standardize Binet’s standardise
Handbook listing
test in urdu and Binet’s test in
out 103 tests of
Punjabi. Bengali.
intelligence in
India that were
available in
various languages.
Attempts were also made
by Indian researchers to
develop Indian norms for
some western tests
including RPM, WAIS,
Alexander’s Passalong,
Cube Construction, and
Kohs’ Block Design.

14
 NLEPT has brought out
the handbooks in the area While elementary functions are
of intelligence, aptitude, universal. Higher mental functions like Cultures have a life of
personality, attitudes, and problem solving and thinking are largely their own. They grow
interests. culturally produced and change and in the
process specify what
CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE will be the end product
of successful intellectual
The cultural
development.
environment
provides a Many theorists have
context for regarded intelligence VYGOTSKY
intelligence as attributes specific
to develop. to the person without
regard to their
Culture provides a
cultural background.
social context in which
people live, grow and
understand the world
The unique features of culture around them.
now find some representation in
culture is a collective system of theories of intelligence.
customs, beliefs, attitudes, and Sternberg’s notion of contextual
achievements in art and or practical intelligence implies
literature. A person’s that intelligence is a product of
intelligence is likely to be tuned culture.
by these cultural parameters.

15
 Technologically advanced societies
adopt child rearing practices that foster
skills of generalisation and abstraction,
speed, minimal moves, and mental
manipulation among children.
Some non-western societies value self-reflection
and collectivistic orientation as opposed to personal
achievement and individualistic orientation.

TECHNOLOGICAL INTELLIGENCE In addition to

In these societies,
persons are well- cognitive
versed in skills of competence that is
attention, very specific to the
observation, individual, the non-
Technological intelligence is
analysis, western cultures
not so valued in many Asian
performance, speed, look for skills to
and African societies.
and achievement relate to others in the
orientation. society.
The qualities and skills regarded as
intelligent actions in non-western cultures
are sharply different, though the
boundaries are gradually vanishing under
Intelligence tests developed in the influence of western cultures.
western cultures look precisely for
these skills in an individual.

16
 Intelligence in the Indian tradition
can be termed as integral
intelligence.

Views intelligence
from a holistic INTELLIGENCE IN THE
perspective where INDIAN TRADITON
equal attention is paid
to cognitive and non-
cognitive processes as
well as their
integration

The Sanskrit word ‘buddhi’

which is often used to represent
intelligence is far more
pervasive in scope than the
western concept of intelligence.
Buddhi, according to J.P. Das,
includes such skills as mental
effort, determined action,
feelings, and opinions along
with cognitive competence such
as knowledge, discrimination,
and understanding.

FACETS OF INTELLIGENCE IN THE INDIAN

TRADITION

Cognitive capacity:
sensitivity to context,
understanding,
discrimination, problem
solving, and effective
communication.
Emotional competence: self-
regulation and self-monitoring of
emotions, honesty, politeness, good Entrepreneurial
Social competence: respect conduct, and self-evaluation. competence:
for social order, commitment commitment,
to elders, the young and the persistence, patience,
needy, concern about others, hard work, vigilance,
recognising others’ and goal-directed
perspectives. behaviours.

17
Programmes aimed at improving students’
emotional intelligence have beneficial effects on
their academic achievement. They encourage
cooperative behaviour and reduce their antisocial
activities. These programmes are very useful in It is receiving increasing attention of
preparing students to face the challenges of life educators for dealing with students who
outside the classroom. are affected by stresses and challenges of
the outside world.
In simpler terms it refers to
the ability to process
Emotional intelligence broadens the emotional information
concept of intelligence beyond the
intellectual sphere/domain.
accurately and efficiently

Emotional quotient is
It considers that EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
intelligence consists
used to express
of emotions. emotional
intelligence.

It builds on the concept of

intelligence in the Indian
tradition. It is a set of skills that The concept was first
underlie accurate introduced by Salovey
appraisal, expression,
and Mayer. They
and regulation of
emotions. It is the considered emotional
feeling side of intelligence as ‘the
intelligence. ability to monitor one’s
own and others
emotions, to
discriminate among
them and to use the
information to guide
one’s thinking and
actions.

18
Aptitude refers to special
abilities in a particular
field of activity. It is a Interest is a preference for
combination of
APTITUDE: NATURE
a particular activity;
characteristics that AND MEASUREMENT Aptitude is the potentially
indicates an individual’s to perform that activity.
capacity to acquire some
specific knowledge or
skill after training.
Psychologists have found that
people with similar
intelligence differed widely in
The knowledge of aptitude can
acquiring certain knowledge
help us to predict an
or skills. In order to be successful in a
individual’s future
particular field, a person must
performance.
have both aptitude and
intelligence.

19
 They are available in two forms:
Examples of independent  Independent Aptitude Tests
aptitude tests:  Multiple Aptitude Tests Multiple aptitude tests exist
Clerical aptitude, mechanical, in the form of test batteries,
aptitude, numerical aptitude, which measure aptitude in
typing aptitude. several separate but
homogeneous areas.

APTITUDE TESTS
Examples of test batteries:
 Differential Aptitude
tests (DAT)
 General Aptitude
Tests Battery
(GATB)
 Armed Services
vocational Aptitude
Battery(ASVAB)
DAT – most commonly used in educational settings
 Consists of 8 independent subjects
1). Verbal reasoning
2). Numerical reasoning
3). Clerical speed and accuracy
4). Mechanical reasoning
5). Spatial relations
6). Abstract reasoning
7). Spelling
8). Language usage
 JM Ojha has developed the Indian adaptation of the DAT

20