Military Institute of Science & Technology (MIST)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME 272

Fluid Mechanics Sessional

LEVEL-2, TERM-2
Contact Hr: 1.5, Credit Hr: 0.75

Name of the Experiments:

1. Verification of Bernoulli’s equation.

2. Study of flow through a Venturimeter.
3. Study of fluid friction in a pipe.
4. Introduction to Centrifugal Pump Characteristics.
5. Study of Propeller Turbine characteristics.

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 Experiment No. 1
VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

General
Energy is the ability to do work. It manifests in various forms and can change from one form to
another. The various forms of energy present in fluid flow are elevation, kinetic, pressure and
internal energies. Internal energies due to molecular agitation and manifested by temperature.
Heat energy may be added to or subtracted from a flowing fluid through the walls of the tube, or
mechanical energy may be added to or subtracted from the fluid by a pump or turbine. Daniel
Bernoulli in the year 1938 stated that in a steady flow system of frictionless (or non-viscous)
incompressible fluid, the sum of pressure, elevation and velocity heads remains constant at every
section, provided no energy is added to or taken out by an external source.

Figure: 2 tube manometers (static pressures), 3 water supply, 4 valve, 5 Venturi

nozzle, 6 water outlet, 7 valve for water outlet, 8 pitot tube, 9 single tube manometer (total
pressure)

Applications

Bernoulli's Energy Equation can be applied in practice for the construction of flow measuring
devices such as Venturi meter, flow nozzle, orifice meter and Pitot tube, Furthermore, it can be
applied to the problems of flow under a sluice gate, free liquid jet, radial flow and free vortex
motion. It can also be applied to real incompressible fluids with good results in situations where
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frictional effects are very small.
The relationship between the velocity and pressure exerted by a moving liquid is described by
the Bernoulli's Principle: as the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure exerted by that fluid
decreases. Airplanes get a part of their lift by taking advantage of Bernoulli's principle. Race cars
employ Bernoulli's principle to keep their rear wheels on the ground while traveling at high
speeds.

Figure: Illustration of Bernoulli’s Principle

Theory

Assuming frictionless flow, Bernoulli's Theorem states that, for a horizontal conduit

P1 V12 P2 V22 P3 V32 (1)

      .............
γ 2g γ 2g γ 2g
Where, P1,P2 = pressure of flowing fluid at sections 1 and 2
 = unit weight of fluid
V1,V2 = mean velocity of flow at sections 1 and 2
g = acceleration due to gravity.

The equipment can be used to demonstrate the validity of this theory after an appropriate
allowance has been made for friction losses.
For actual condition there must be some head loss in the direction of flow. So if the head loss
between section 1 and 2 is hL, Bernoulli’s theorem is modified to

P1 V12 P2 V22
    hL
γ 2g γ 2g
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Objectives

1. To plot the static head, velocity head and total head against the length of the passage in
one plain graph paper.
2. To plot the total head loss, hL against the inlet kinematic head, V2/2g, for different inflow
conditions in plain graph paper.

Apparatus

Bernoulli’s apparatus, hydraulic bench, stop watch etc.

Figure: Bernoulli’s Apparatus Figure: Stop Watch

Figure: Hydraulic Bench

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Procedure
-Arrange the experimentation setup on the hydraulic bench such that the discharge routes the
water into the channel.
- Make hose connection between hydraulic bench and unit.
- Open discharge of hydraulic bench. Set cap nut of probe compression glandsuch that slight
resistance is felt on moving probe.
- Open inlet and outlet ball cock.
- Close drain valve at bottom of single water pressure gauge.
- Switch on pump and slowly open main cock of hydraulic bench. Open vent valves on water
pressure gauges.
- Carefully close outlet cock until pressure gauges are flushed.
- By simultaneously setting inlet and outlet cock, regulate water level in pressure gauges such
that neither upper nor lower range limit is overshot or undershot.
- Record pressures at all measurement points. Then move overall pressure probe to
corresponding measurement level and note down overall pressure.
- Determine volumetric flow rate. To do so, use stopwatch to establish time t required for raising
the level in the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench from 20 to 30 litres.

Figure: Pressure curve in the Venturi nozzle: blue: total pressure, red: static
pressure, green: dynamic pressure; x pressure measuring points, p pressure

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Experimental Data Sheet
Name of the Experiment: Verification of Bernoulli’s equation.

Collection time = ______________

Volume of water = ______________
Discharge Q = ______________
.

Piezometer tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Hstat, P/

H total

Hdetum, Z

Hdyn = Htotal- (P/+ z)

Vmes = Q/A

Vcalc = √𝟐𝐠𝐇𝐝𝐲𝐧

Level / Term : Dept. :

ID No. : Section:
Group No. : Date :

____________________
Signature of the Teacher
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Assignment
1. What are the assumptions underlying the Bernoulli's energy equation?
2. Do you need any modification(s) of Eqn (1) when (a) the frictional head loss is to be
considered, and (b) the conduit is not horizontal?
3. What is the difference between energy line and energy grade line?

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
STUDY OF FLOW THROUGH A VENTURI METER

General
The converging tube is an efficient device for converting pressure head to velocity head, while
the diverging tube converts velocity head to pressure head. The two may be combined to form
Venturi tube. As there is a definite relation between the pressure differential and the rate of flow,
the tube may be made to serve as metering device. Venturi meter consists of a tube with a
constricted throat that produces an increased velocity accompanied by a reduction in pressure
followed by a gradual diverging portion in which velocity is transformed back into pressure with
slight friction loss.

Figure: Measuring principle of the Venturi tube: 1 divergent part, 2 narrowest cross-
section, 3 convergent part; A cross-sectional area, Pstat static pressure, P0 total
pressure, x1...x6 pressure measuring points

Applications

The Venturi meter is used for measuring the rate of flow of both compressible and
incompressible fluids.

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The Venturi meter provides an accurate means for measuring flow in pipelines. Aside from the
installation cost, the only disadvantage of the Venturi meter is that it introduces a permanent
frictional resistance in the pipelines.

Theory

Figure: Flow through a Venturi meter

Consider the Venturi meter shown in the above figure. Applying the Bernoulli's equation
between Point 1 at the inlet and Point 2 at the throat, we obtain
2 2
P1 + V 1 = P 2 + V 2 (1)
 2g  2g .....................................................................................................................................................................

Where P1 and V1 are the pressure and velocity at Point 1, P2 and V2 are the corresponding
quantities at Point 2,  is the specific weight of the fluid and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
From continuity equation, we have

A1V1 = A2V2............................................................................................................................ (2)

Where, A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas of the inlet and throat, respectively. Since

π 2 π
A1  D1 , A 2  D22
4 4

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From Equations (1) and (2), we have

V1 
2g P1  P2 
 D1 
4
γ
   1
 2
D

= K1H1/2........................................................................................................................... (3)

Where,

2g (P -P )
K1 = and, H = 1 2
( D1 )4 - 1 
D2

The head H is indicated by the piezometer tubes connected to the inlet and throat.

The theoretical discharge, Qt, is given by

Qt = A1V1

= KH1/2........................................................................................................................... (4)

Where,

K = K1 A1........................................................................................................................... (5)

Coefficient of discharge

Theoretical discharge is calculated from theoretical formula neglecting friction losses. For this
reason we introduce a coefficient named coefficient of discharge which is the ratio of actual
discharge to theoretical discharge.
Now, if Cd is the coefficient of discharge (also known as the meter coefficient) and Qa is the
actual discharge, then

Qa
Cd =
Qt

Qa= CdQt

= CdKH1/2

Qa = CHn................................................................................................................... (6)

The value of Cd may be assumed to be about 0.99 for large meter and about 0.97 or 0.98 for
small ones provided the flow is such as to give reasonably high Reynolds number.
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Calibration

One of the objectives of the experiment is to find the values of C and n for a particular meter so
that in future we can measure actual discharge only by measuring H. Here C and n are called
calibration parameters.
For five sets of actual discharge and H data we plot Qa vs. H in log-log paper and draw a best-fit
straight line. The equation of line
log Qa= log CHn
 log Qa= log C +n log H
Now from the plotting we take two points on the straight line say (H1, Qa1) and (H2, Qa2)
So from the equation (3) we get
logQa1= log C + n log H1
logQa2= log C + n log H2
Q a1
log
Qa 2
Solving, n=
H
log 1
H2

C= antilog [log Qa1-nlog H1]

So the calibration equation is Qa=CHn
Now C=CdK
=>Cd=C/K
Now from the calibration equation we can calculate actual discharge for a different H and plot on
a plain graph paper. In practice we can use the plot to find actual discharge for any H. Thus the
Venturi meter is calibrated.

Figure: 1. Iris diaphragm, 2. Pressure measuring point, 3. Venturi-shaped contour; 4. Venturi

tube
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Objectives

1. To find Cd for the Venturimeter

2. To plot Qa against H in log-log paper and to find (a) the exponent of H, and (b) Cd.
3. To calibrate the Venturi meter

3.5 Apparatus

1. Venturi meter

2. Stop watch

3. Hydraulic bench

Figure: Venturimeter Figure: Stop Watch

Figure: Hydraulic Bench

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Procedure
1. Measure the diameter of the Venturi tube.
2. Measure the piezometer reading of fluid friction apparatus.
3. After measure the piezometer reading collect required time to store 10 liter water
in hydraulic bench.
4. Repeat the procedure for different combinations of discharge.

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Experimental Data Sheet
Name of the Experiment: Study of flow through a Venturimeter.

d = ______________
A = ______________
Collection time = ______________
Volume of water = ______________
Discharge Q = ______________

Group Manometer Manometer H = 𝒉𝟏 -𝒉𝟐 Qa Qt Cd

No reading h1 reading h2

Level / Term : Dept. :

ID No. : Section:
Group No. : Date :
_____________________
Signature of the Teacher

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 3
STUDY OF PIPE FRICTION

General

Head loss in a pipe flow is mainly due to friction in pipes and again friction is due to roughness
of pipes. It has been proved that friction is dependent not only upon the size and shape of the
projection of roughness, but also upon their distribution or spacing.

Figure: Study of pipe friction

Practical application
In designing a pipe network, we may need minimum heads at different points of the network. For
attaining the minimum head we need to know the head loss from source to the point of interest
due to the friction along the pipe. This experiment gives an estimate of head loss due to friction
in the pipe per unit length of the pipe.

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Figure: Standard ductile Drinking water supply in Figure: Internal pipe roughness
the United Arab Emirates

Theory
If the head loss in a given length of uniform pipe is measured at different values of the velocity,
it will be found that, as long as the velocity is low enough to secure laminar flow, the head loss,
due to friction, will be directly proportional to the velocity. But with the increasing velocity, at
some point where the visual observation in a transparent tube would show that the flow changes
from laminar to turbulent, there will be an abrupt increase in the rate at which the head loss
varies. If the logarithms of those two variables are plotted on linear scales or if the values are
plotted directly on log-log paper, it will be found that, after a certain transition region has been
passed, lines will be obtained with slopes ranging from about 1.75 to 2.00.

Figure: Head loss due to friction in a Pipe

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It is thus understood that for laminar flow the drop in energy due to friction varies as V, while for
turbulent flow the friction varies as Vn, where n ranges from about 1.75 to 2.00. The lower value
of 1.75 for turbulent flow is found for pipes with very smooth walls; as the wail roughness, the
value of n increases up to its maximum value of 2.00.

However, velocity is not the only factor that determines whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
The criterion is Reynolds number. For a circular pipe the significant linear dimension L, is
usually taken as the diameter D, and thus

VD
Re =


Head loss, hL can be generalized with velocity, V by

hL α Vn

Where, n is the exponent of velocity.

Therefore, hL = KVn

Where, K is a constant.

Early experiment on the flow of water in long, straight, uniform circular pipes indicated that
head loss varied directly with velocity head and pipe length and inversely with pipe dia.

Darcy Weisbach proposed the formula for the turbulent flow,

L V2
h L = 4f
D 2g

D 2g
or, f  hL
4L V 2

Where, f = friction factor = φ (Re) = 0.079 Re-0.25

Friction factor also depends upon the relative roughness.

For laminar flow head loss (hL) given by Hagen-Poiseuille is

32 LV
hL =
g D 2

16
as f =
Re

Therefore, friction factor (f) can be related empirically as

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f = φ (Re) = CRem

Where m is the exponent of Reynolds number and C is a constant.

The striking feature of the equation is that it involves no empirical coefficient or experimental
factors of any kind, except for the physical properties of fluid such as, viscosity, and density.
From this it would appear that in laminar flow the friction is independent of the roughness of the
pipe wall.

Figure: Representation of the laminar and turbulent flow in the pipe

top: laminar flow; bottom: turbulent flow; blue flow, red velocity profile.

Objectives
1. To find the frictional loss
2. To plot hLvs velocity in log-log paper and determine the empirical relationship of the
form hL = KVn.
3. To plot f vs. Re in a log-log paper and find the empirical relation of the form f = CRem
4. To plot hLvs velocity for turbulent flow condition and obtain an average value of f.

Procedure
1. Measure the diameter of the pipe and distance between the two tappings.
2. Connect the test section pipe to the main water supply pipe.
3. Open flow control valve, priming test section and pipe work.
4. Open clips on water manometer, allowing water to circulate through the system until all
the air is expelled.
5. Close pipe clips.
6. To achieve maximum flow fully open flow control valve. Note levels in manometer and
measure flow rate. Repeat for different control valve position.

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Apparatus

Fluid frictions Apparatus, hydraulic bench, stop watch etc.

Figure: Fluid friction apparatus Figure: Stop Watch

Figure: Hydraulic Bench

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Experimental Data Sheet
Name of the Experiment: Fluid friction in a pipe.

Diameter of the pipe, D =

Area of the pipe, A=
0
Temperature = C, Q=

Group h1 h2 hL Q V Re f
No (m) (m) (m) (m3/s) (m/s)

Level / Term : Dept. :

ID No. : Section:
Group No. : Date :

_____________________
Signature of the Teacher

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 EXPERIMENT NO - 4

INTRODUCTION TO CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS

Objective
To obtain head, power and efficiency graphs for a centrifugal pump.

Method
By taking readings from a centrifugal pump and associated sensors across a range of flow rates
through the pump.

Equipment Required
 Centrifugal Pump Demonstration Unit

 Interface device (IFD)

 PC, with required software

Theory
The operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump may be described or illustrated by using
graphs of pump performance. The three most commonly used graphical representations of pump
performance are:

1. Change in total head produced by the pump, Ht

2. Power input to the pump, Pm
3. Pump efficiency, E

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 He = Change in elevation

Power Input
The mechanical power input to the pump may be calculated as:

Pm = rotational force x angular distance

= 2.π.n.t/60

Where, ‘n’ is the rotational speed of pump in revolutions per minute and ‘t’ is the shaft torque in
Nm.

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 .

Figure: Ht - Q curve with power input and pump efficiency.

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The Ht - Q curve shows the relationship between head and flow rate. The head decreases as flow
rate increases. This type of curve is referred to as a rising characteristic curve.

The Pm- Q curve shows the relationship between the power input to the pump and the change in
flow rate through the pump. Outside the optimum operating range of the pump this curve
flattens, so that a large change in pump power produces only a small change in flow velocity.

The E - Q curve shows the pump capacity at which the pump operates most efficiently. In the
example here, the optimum operating capacity is 0.7 dm³/s, which would give a head of 1.2m.

Equipment Setup
Ensure the drain valve is fully closed.

If necessary, fill the reservoir to within 20cm of the top rim.

Ensure the inlet valve and outlet gate valve are both fully open.

Ensure the equipment is connected to the IFD and the IFD is connected to a suitable PC. The red
and green indicator lights on the IFD should both be illuminated.

Ensure the IFD is connected to an appropriate mains supply, and switch on the supply.

Run the software. Check that ‘IFD: OK’ is displayed in the bottom right corner of the screen and
that there are values displayed in all the sensor display boxes on the mimic diagram.

Procedure
Switch on the IFD.

Switch on the pump within the software using the Power On/Standby button.

Using the software, set the speed to 80%. The interface will increase the pump speed until it
reaches the required setting. Allow water to circulate until all air has been flushed from the
system. Slightly closing and opening the inlet valve and gate valve a few times will help in
priming the system and eliminating any bubbles caught within the valve mechanism. Leave the
inlet valve fully open.

Close the gate valve to give a flow rate Q of 0. (Note that the pump will not run well with the
gate valve closed or nearly closed, as the back pressure produced is outside normal operating
parameters. The pump should begin to run more smoothly as the experiment progresses).

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Select the “GO” icon to record the sensor readings and pump settings on the results table of the
software.

Open a little to give a very low flow. Allow sufficient time for the sensor readings to stabilize
then select the “GO” icon to record the next set of data.

Increase the flow in small increments, allowing the sensor readings to stabilize then recording
the sensor and pump data each time.

Using the arrow buttons on the software display, reduce the pump speed to 0%. Select ‘Save’ or
‘Save As…’ from the ‘File’ menu and save the results with a suitable file name.

Switch off the system within the software using the Power On/Standby button.

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Experimental Data Sheet

Name of the Experiment: Introduction to centrifugal pump characteristics

Motor Torque =. . . . . . . . . . . . Nm

Motor Speed = . . . . . . . . . . . . rpm

Diameter of inlet pipe, din = 0.0235 m

Diameter of outlet pipe, dout = 0.0175 m

Vertical distance between inlet and outlet He = 0.075m

No of Temperat Flow Inlet Outlet Total Power Efficien

Observatio ure Rate Pressure Pressure Head, Input cy
n
T Q Pin Pout Ht Pm E

(◦C) (L/s) (kPa) (kPa) (m) (W) (%)

1.

2.

3.

Level / Term : Dept. :

ID No. : Section:
Group No. : Date :

_____________________
Signature of the Teacher

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Results
Plot a graph of Head against Flow Rate. On the secondary axis plot a graph of Mechanical Power
or/and of Efficiency against Flow Rate.

Conclusion
Examine and describe the shapes of the graphs obtained, relating this to the changing
performance of the pump as the flow rate changes. Locate the point of maximum efficiency and
determine the maximum efficiency and the flow rate at which it occurs.

Compare the shapes of the curves obtained to the example presented in Figure A1. Discuss any
similarities and differences in pump performance between the example presented and the pump
on the system.

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 EXPERIMENT NO -5

STUDY OF PROPELLER TURBINE CHARACTERISTICS

Objective

To obtain the characteristic curves for a propeller turbine operating at a range of fluid flow rates.

Theory

The best way to describe the operating characteristics of a turbine is through the use of its
characteristic curves (Figure A1). This figure shows the relationship between Torque T, Brake
Power Pb and Turbine Efficiency Et, against turbine Rotational Speed n, for a turbine running at
different but constant flow rates Qv1 to Qv3, where Qv1 is the highest flow rate.

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Equipment Setup

The system is connected to IFD, IFD connected to PC and sump tank filled with water.

Procedure

1. Start the software. Check that IFD-OK is displayed in the bottom right hand corner.

2. View the mimic diagram and check the value displayed for the Brake Force. If the value
displayed is not zero click the ‘Zero’ button in the software to reset the initial reading to zero.

3. Close the flow control valve then start the pump (pump motor started under minimum
load). Open the flow control valve fully and allow the water to circulate until all air bubbles have
dispersed. The turbine will spin freely under no load. Check that readings on the mimic diagram
are sensible.

4. Click ‘Brake on’ (‘1’ indicated) then increase the setting of the brake control until the
turbine just stops (the turbine is stalled).

5. View the mimic diagram and note the corresponding value of the brake force. Decide on
suitable increments in force to give adequate sample points.

6. Reduce the brake control setting back to 0 i.e. Fb = 0. When the measured readings as
indicated in the boxes on the schematic diagram are sufficiently steady, click ‘GO’. This
represents the first point on the characteristic curves.

7. Increase the brake control to give the first increment in force for the brake. When
readings are steady, click ‘GO’.

8. Repeat step 1 above for a gradually increasing values of force, i.e. increasing values of
torque. The final sample point will correspond with the turbine stalling.

9. Decrease the flow rate to a lower setting by closing the flow control valve then repeat the
taking of samples for gradually increasing values of force / torque, as above. Repeating this step
will produce a family of results.

10. From your results determine the value of Ht, Pb and N at maximum efficiency.

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Experimental data sheet: (Study of propeller turbine characteristics)

Flow Rate, Differential Brake Efficiency

Torque T Speed N
Q No of Pressure, Head, Ht Power
(Et )
Observation (m) (Nm) (rpm)
(L/min) ∆P (kPa) Pb (W)
(%)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

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Results

Plot the graph of Torque against turbine speed, Brake Power against turbine speed and
Efficiency against turbine speed for different flow rates.

Conclusion

Observe that the graph of torque Vs turbine speed is a straight line with maximum torque at
minimum speed falling linearly to zero torque at maximum speed.

Observe that the graphs of brake power Vs turbine speed and turbine efficiency Vs turbine speed
are both curves with the maximum occurring at mid turbine speed.

Where the turbine has been operated at different flow rates observe that the maximum torque,
maximum brake power and maximum efficiency reduce as the flow rate reduces but also note
that the peak brake power and peak efficiency occur at slightly lower turbine speed. Turbines are
frequently used for electrical power generation where it is necessary to maintain the generator at
constant speed to maintain a steady supply frequency. For this reason it is important to match the
peak efficiency of the turbine with the normal operating condition.

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