DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS-COLLEGE OF EDUCATION FOR PURE

SCIENCE-UNIVERSITY OF ANBAR

ON SEPARATION AXIOMS (T0, T1, T2, T3, , T4, AND T5)

AND RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THEM

A graduation project is submitted to the department of mathematics in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Mathematics

BY

SALMA SAADOUN AMIR

SUPERVISOR

ALAA MAHMOOD FARHAN AL-JUMAILI

IRAQ-ANBAR

2017-2018

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Definition (1-1) [1]
Let X be a non-empty set. Then the collection T of sub sets of X is called
Topology for X if T satisfies the following axioms:-

1- X and Ø ∈ T.
2- If A1 and A2 are any two sets in T. then A1 ∩ A2 ∈ T.
3- If {Aα: α ∈ ∆} be an arbitrary collection of sets in T then {Aα : α ∈ ∆} is in
T.

Remark (1-1) [6]

If T is topology on X. Then (X, T) is called Top-space.

Remark (1-2) [6]

In a topological space (X.T). The members of T are called open sets.

So: in a topological space (X.T):-

1- Ø. X
2- The intersection of finite collection of open sets is open.
3- Arbitrary (in finite) union of open sets is open.

Examples:
Let X = {a, b, c} consider the following collection of subset of X:

T1 = {Ø, X, {a}} and T2 = {Ø, X, {a}, {a, c}}.

It's clear that each one of above collections or families are topology or X

T3 = {Ø, X, {a}, {c}} not topology on X because {a} ∈ T3 and {c} ∈ T3 But
{a} {c} = {a, c}  T3.

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 Some types of topological space

First: Let X ≠Ø. The collection Ti = {Ø, X} is topology and it known indiscrete
topology.

The pair: (X, Ti) is called Top-sp

Second: X≠Ø and Td is collection of all possible subsets of X. then Td is topology

for X. (i. e) Td = {power (X) = {P(X)}

Third: Let X ≠Ø and T* = {U: X-U is finite} {Ø}

(i.e) T* consist of Ø and all non-empty subsets of X whose complement are finite.

Then (X , Tc) is called co-finite Top.

Fourth: Let X ≠ Ø and Tc = {U: X-U countable} {Ø}

Then (X, Tc) is called co-countable Topological space..

Fifth: Let X = R be all a real numbers and Let Tu be a family consisting of Ø and
all non-empty subsets G of R which have the following property:-

{∀ x ∈ G} open interval Ix such that X ∈ Ix ⊆ G, Then (X, Tu) is called usual

Topological space.

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 Comparison of Topologies

Definition (1-2) [6]

Let T1 and T2 be any two topologies for a set X ≠ Ø:-

1) If every open set in T1 is open set in T2 then we write T1⊂T2 and say :

T1 is coarser or weaker or smaller than T2 or T2 is finer or stronger or

longer than T1.

2) If either T1 ⊂ T2 or T2 ⊂ T1 we say that T1 and T2 comparable otherwise we

say not comparable.

Definition (1-3) [2]

Let (X, T) be a topology space a subset F of X is said to be closed if the
complement Fc ∈ T

Intersection and union of open and closed set

Theorem (1-1) [6]

1- The intersection of a finite collection of open sets is open .
2- The intersection of finite collection of open sets not necessarily open set.
3- The union of in finite the collection of open sets is open.

Theorem (1-2) [6]

1- The union of finite collection of closed sets is closed.
2- The union of in finite collection of closed sets not necessarily closed set.
3- The intersection of in finite collection of closed sets is closed.

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Definition (1-4) [6]
A topological space (X,T) is called door space . If every subset of X is either open
or closed.

Definition (1-5) [6]

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let x ∈ X . Then a subset N of X is said to be:-

T-neighborhood or neighborhood of x if there exists open set G such that x ∈ G

⊆ N.

Definition (1-6) [6]

The set of all neighborhoods of a point x ∈ X is called the neighborhood system of
x and denoted by Nx.

Definition (1-7) [3]

Let (X, T) be a topological space. Let x ∈ X and let Nx be the T – neighborhood
system of X. Then the sub family βX of Nx is called local base of x if for each N ∈
Nx ∃ B ⊆ Bx such that X ∈ B ⊆ N.

Definition (1-8) [6]

Let (X, T) be a topology space. a sub family β of T is said to be form a base for T
if for each open set G and each x ∈ G ∃ a member B in β such that x ∈ B ⊆ G .

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 Limit points and closure of sets

Definition (1-9) [4]

Let (X, T) be a topology space and let A ⊆ X A point x ∈ X is called adherent
point or contact point of A if every open set containing X. Contains at least one
point of A

Definition (1-10) [6]

A point x ∈ X is called a limit point or accumulation point of A or a cluster point
of A if and only if every open set containing x contains at least on point of A other
than x .

Remark (1-2) [6]

The set of all limit points of A is called the derived set of A and will denoted by À
or Dr (A)

Theorem (1-3) [5]

Let (X, T) be a topology space and let A ⊆ X . Then A is closed if and only if À ⊆
A . or D(A) ⊆ A .

Theorem ( 1-4) [5]

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A and B be any subset of X then:

1- = Ø or D(Ø) = Ø
2- If A ⊆ B ⇒ D(A) ⊆ D(B)
3- D ( A ∩ B) ⊆ D(A) ∩ D(B)
4- D ( A B )= D(A) D(B)

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Definition (1-11) [2]
Let (X,T) be a topological space and let A ⊆ X , then the intersection of all closed
sets of A is called the closure of A and denoted by Ā or C/(A).

Theorem (1-5) [2]

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊆ X. Then Ā is the smallest closed of A
{contains A}.

Theorem (1-6) [4]

Let (X, T) be topological space and let A ⊆ X then A is closed if and only
if Ā = A.

Theorem (1-7) [3]

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A and B be a subsets of X then:-

1- = Ø and = X and =
2- If A ⊆ B ⇒ ⊆
3- ( ⊆( )
4- ( ⊆( ).

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 Interior, Exterior and Boundary of sets

Definition (1-12) [6]

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊆ X, a point x ∈ A is said to be a
interior point of A if and only if A is a neighborhood of x.

Remark (1-3) [6]

The sets of all interior points of A is called the interior of A and denoted by int (A)
or Å .

Theorem (1-8) [1]

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊆ X , then:-

1- Å is the largest open subsets contained in A.

2- A is open if and only if and only if Å = A or int (A) = A.

Theorem (1-9) [5]

Let (X,T) be a topological space and let A and B be any subsets of X , then :-

1- Ø̊ = Ø , X̊ = X and (Å ) = Å .
2- If A ⊆ \b ⇒ Å ⊆ B̊ .
3- (A ∩ B) = Å ∩ B̊ .

Definition (1-13) [6]

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊆ X a point x ∈ X is called an exterior
point of A if and only if it is an interior point of Ac .

Remark (1-4) [6]

The set of all exterior points of A is called the exterior of A and denoted by ext (A).
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Definition (1-14) [6]
Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊆ X. A point x ∈ X is called boundary
point or frontier point of A if and only if :-

Every open set containing x intersects both A and Ac or A and cl (A).

Remark (1-5) [6]

The set of all boundary point is called the boundary of A written as bd (A) or Fr (A)

Definition (1-14) [2]

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊆ X, then A is said to be 1:

1- Everywhere dense if =X.

2- Nowhere dense if ext.(A) = x .
3- Dense in itself if ⊆ A (i.e.) every limit point of A is in A.
4- Dense relative to another set B , if B ⊆ .

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Definition (1-15) [2]
A topological space (X, T) is said to be separable if and only if there exists a
countable dense subset A of X.

Definition (1-16) [6]

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let Y ⊆ X, then The collection Ty = {G ∩ Y:
G ∈ T} is topology on X.

Definition (1-17) [6]

A property of topological space is called or said to be a hereditary property if it is
satisfied by every sub spaces of the given space

Definition (1-18) [6]

Let (X, T) and (Y,T) be a topological spaces and let F : X → Y , then F is said to be
continuous at a point x ∈ X if and only if for each T*- open set H containing F(x) ∃
a T-open set G containing X such that : F(G) ⊆ H.

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Remark (1-6) [6]
The mapping F is said to be continuous if and only if is continuous at each points of
X.

Theorem (1-10) [3]

Let (X, T) and (Y,T) be a topological spaces and let F: X → Y then F is continuous
if and only if the inverse image under F of every open set in Y is open in X.

Definition (1-19) [6]

Let (X, T) and (Y, T*) be a topological spaces and let F: X → Y, then F is said to be

1- Open mapping if and only if the image under F of every T-open set in X is T*
- open in Y.
2- Closed mapping if and only if the image under F of every T-closed set in X is
T*-closed in Y.
3- Bi-continuous mapping if and only If F is open and continuous.

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 SEPARATION AXIOMS (T0, T1, T2, T3, , T4, AND T5)

AND RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THEM

T0 property and spaces

A topological space X has the T0 property if there exists an open set which separates any two
distinct points: if x and y are distinct points of X, there exist an open set which contains one but
not the other. Let me be more explicit. A topological space X has the T0 property if, for any two
distinct points x and y in X, either there exists an open set M(x) containing x which does not
contain y, or there exists an open set N(y) containing y which does not contain x.

NOTE: that the space X is an open set containing x, but it contains y, and vice versa.

Here’s a picture of T0, showing an open set containing y that does not contain x. A T0 space is
sometimes, but rarely do I think, called Kolmogorov.

T0-Space

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 T1 property and spaces

A topological space X has the T1 property if x and y are distinct points of X, there exists an
open set M(x) which contains x but not y, and an open set N(y) which contains y but not x.

One crucial property of a T1 space is that points (singleton sets) are closed.

This time each point has an open set which contains it but not the other.

NOTE: that we did not assert that the two open sets do not intersect, merely that their
intersection contains neither x nor y. (That’s the next property.) Here’s a picture of T1, showing
open sets which intersect, but their intersection, as we require, does not contain x or y. A T1
space is sometimes, but again rarely, I think, called Frechet.

T1-spaces

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 T2 property and spaces

A topological space X has the T2 property if x and y are distinct points of X, there exist disjoint
open sets M(x) and N(y) containing x and y respectively. Here’s a picture of T2. A T2 space is
almost always, in my experience, called Hausdorff. One crucial property of a Hausdorff
space is that limit points are unique. (No, I haven’t defined a limit point. That’s another
interesting subject.)

T2-spaces

T3 and regular

Now we look at separating sets instead of points, still separating them by open sets of some
kind. First we separate a point and a closed set. (A set A in X is closed if its complement X – A
is open; the closure of A ( ), is the smallest closed set containing A.) A topological space X
has the T3 property if there exist disjoint open sets which contain any closed set and any point
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not in the set: for any closed set B and any point , there exist disjoint open sets containing
x and B respectively.

Here’s T3. This time I use uppercase (“B”) and color to denote the closed set.

T3-spaces

It is crucial that the following set and topology (shown earlier as “an intermediate
example”) is T3 but not T1 (the problem is that the point is not closed):

X = {a, b, c} .

This is why and where we need to combine properties in order to get especially worthwhile
topological spaces. (Yes, we can study T3, T4, and T5 spaces per se. it is more fruitful to study
T3 + T1, T4 + T1, and T5 + T1)

We say that a space is regular if it is T1 and T3.

(In fact, we can show that if a space is T0 and T3, then it is T2, hence T1, hence T1 and T3. this
means we could have defined a space as regular if it is T0 and T3. Of course, T1 and T3
immediately implies T0 and T3, so the two possible definitions of “regular” are equivalent.)

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Although I used “normal” and “T4” in the introductory discussion, the alternative terminology
appears here as well, It applies to all subscripts 3 and higher. Where I say that a topological
space is regular iff it is T1 and T3 other people use regular to refer to my T3 property, and say a
topological space is T3 iff T1 and regular. Whereas the progression of the earlier separation
axioms kept tightening the requirements on the open sets whose existence we asserted, here we
just replaced a point by a closed set. That would be a refinement of the earlier property if points
themselves were closed sets. But that’s T1, and that’s why we want to study spaces which are
both T1 and T3.

T4 and normal

Now we separate two closed sets instead of a point and a closed set. A topological space X has
the T4 property if there exist disjoint open sets which contain any two disjoint closed sets: for
any disjoint closed sets A and B, there exist disjoint open sets containing A and B respectively.

T4-spaces

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I should mention that a bad property of T4 spaces is that T4 is not hereditary: not every
subspace of T4 is T4. We say that a space is normal if it is T1 and T4. We still have the
analogous: not very subspace of a normal space is normal.

T5 and completely normal

Two subsets A and B of topological space are separated if .

A topological space X has the T5 property if there exist disjoint open sets which contain any
two separated sets: for any separated sets A and B, there exist disjoint open sets containing A
and B respectively.

T5-spaces

Should mention that an alternative equivalent definition of T5 is that: a space is T5 iff

every subspace is T4. It corrects the problem with T4.

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We say that a space is completely normal if it is T5 and T1. We have the analogous: a space
is completely normal iff every subspace is normal. It corrects the problem with normal, too.

Consider the two open intervals A = (0, 1/2) and B = (1/2, 1) with the usual topology of the real
line. The sets do not intersect: , but the closed intervals, their closures, do:

=[ ] and , Nevertheless, A and B are separated, because

A and B have the T5 property because A and B themselves are disjoint open sets. All of those
properties, T0 thru T5, asserted the existence of open sets, sometimes satisfying additional
conditions.

And Completely Regular

We have an intermediate property which is described differently.

Given two disjoint subsets A and B of a space X, a Urysohn function for A and B is a
continuous function such that f (A) = 0 and f (B) = 1.

Urysohn’s Lemma, then, says that if A and B are disjoint closed subsets of a T4 space, then
there exists a Urysohn function for A and B.

A topological space X has the property if there exist a real-valued continuous function

which separates an open set from any point not in it: (i.e.) for each open set ⊂ and each x
not in U, there exist a Urysohn function f for x and U.

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We say that a space is completely regular (or Tychonoff) if it is and T1.

Implications of the properties

At this point, thanks to adding T1 to the definitions, we can show (!)

Completely normal normal completely regular regular T2 T1 T0

The implications among the Ti properties (for i > ) are not so pretty.

Note that a Urysohn space was not in that list. Instead of the subsequence completely regular
regular

We could have written completely regular Urysohn .

But there is no inclusion relationship between Urysohn and regular. We have two beautiful
inclusions, if we omit either regular or Urysohn, but not if we include both.

This is the second reason why I decided to follow Steen & Seebach and use T’s for the
properties and names for the combinations. If we did it the other way, with names for the
properties and T’s for the combinations, we could write

T5 T4 T3 T2 T1 T0, or, more elegantly,

Ti Tj for i > j, with i, j in {0, 1, 2, , 3, , 4, 5}

But then we’ve left Urysohn spaces out in the cold. Since the theorem is no longer pretty, I
chose to use the shorter Ti to denote a property, and write, for example, normal = T1 + T4.

I first saw them the other way: T4 = normal + T1, etc.

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And it is possible that I would not have been so struck by them without the lovely Ti Tj for,
i > j. (Adamson emphasizes that he chooses this convention because of the simplicity of that
statement.) Nevertheless, I have presented them the other way. The fact is, if you’re studying
someone else’s work, you may have to adopt their terminology as long as you’re there.

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