Chapter 5_1_Introduction to Rock deformation reason

2/8/2016
Rock deformation and reasons

• When the value of applied force or stress
Introduction to Rock exceeds the rock strength then the fractures
deformation reason and effect appears.
• If the rock behaves in ductile manner then the
rock bend.
• Stress is define force (F) per unit area (A).
Types of stress Geologic Structures

• Compression – convergent plate boundaries Fold forms due to
• Crumpled, thickening vertically and shortening laterally Compressional Stress.
• Creates folds, reverse and thrust faults
• Himalayas, NW coast of N.A, Appalachians etc.
• Tension-divergent plate boundaries
• Extends crust, thins vertically and lengthen laterally
• Creates basins, normal faults, grabens
• Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East pacific Rise
• Shear-opposing forces along a plane
• Forms parallel blocks, pull-part basins, transform faults, folds and
rotational structure.
• Gulf of California, Sand Andres fault system…
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Causes of Deformation STAGES OF DEFORMATION

•Rocks change their shape and volume when they are
subjected to stress. Stresses are caused by forces that are
exerted on the edges or interior of a material. A wide variety
of physical processes exert stresses on rocks. Elastic Deformation:
the strain is reversible
•Gravity constantly exerts downward stress on all rocks.
Ductile Deformation:
•Temperature changes cause thermal expansion and the strain is irreversible
contraction that can cause rocks to fracture.
Fracture:
• Wetting and drying similarly can induce or enhance rock irreversible strain, the
fractures. material breaks
• On a large scale, horizontal plate movement exerts lateral

(horizontal) and vertical stresses on rocks.
Structural planes
• Plane: a flat surface; it has the property that a
Plunge
line joining any two points lies wholly on its The verticle angle measured downward between a line
surface. Two intersecting lines define a plane.
and the horizontal.
• Attitude: the general term for the orientation of a
plane or line in space, usually related to
geographical coordinates and the horizontal. Both
trend and inclination are components of attitude.
• Trend: the direction of a horizontal line specified
by its bearing or azimuth.
• Bearing: the horizontal angle measured east or
west from true north or south.
• Azimuth: the horizontal angle measured
clockwise from true north.
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Strike Dip
The inclination of the line of greatest slope on an
The trend of a horizontal line on an inclined inclined plane. It is measured perpendicular to
plane. It is marked by the line of intersection the strike.
with a horizontal plane.
Measurement of Dip and Strike

Types of Dip
(Brunton Compass)
• True dip: the inclination of the steepest line
on a plane; it is measured perpendicular to
the strike direction.
• Apparent dip: the inclination of an oblique
line on a plane; it is always less than true dip.
a. Measurment of Strike b. Measurment of Dip
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Geological structures Primary sedimentary structures

• Primary structures • Strata, or beds (most characteristic of
– Primary structures are original features of sedimentary sedimentary rocks)
or igneous rocks resulting from deposition or
emplacement • Bedding planes that separate strata
– It gives an ultimate goal to understand the total history • Cross-bedding
of a deformed rock and not just its deformational
history. • Graded bedding
– It also help to understand that the processes of
deposition and deformation are not necessarily isolated • Ripple marks
in time • Mud cracks
• Secondary structures • Convolute bedding
– Secondary structures are formed after the formation of
rock due to different types of stresses.
Bedding Mudcracks
It is a distinct layer of sediment or rock that may differ in a • Mudcracks (also called desiccation or shrinkage cracks) form in
variety of ways from overlying and underlying layers. fine-grain Sediment as shrinkage occurs during drying.
Genetically, the base of a bed represents an abrupt change in
depositional conditions or sediment supply; the bed • These are normally orthogonal that occur in a great variety of
represents more or less uniform conditions; and the top marine and non-marine deposits. Polygons are generally
curved concave upward.
represents another abrupt change.
Top
Bottom
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Raindrop imprints Cross

CrossBedding
Bedding
Shallow pits, with slightly raised rims, are attributed to raindrops • Cross bedding is produced by migration of bed-
or hailstones falling on damp mud. forms, mainly ripples, mega-ripples and sand waves,
in response to current action
Flow Direction
Flow Direction
Younging
Direction
(A) Tangential and (B) Planar foresets
Graded bedding
Ripple Marks
The term “grading,”
applied to individual
beds or laminae, is
used to describe a
progressive change
in grain size from
the base to the top
of a sedimentation
unit.
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Pebble Imbrication
• Pebble imbrication in conglomerate. Current direction is from left to right.

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2/8/2016

Rock deformation and reasons

Types of stress Geologic Structures

Causes of Deformation STAGES OF DEFORMATION

• On a large scale, horizontal plate movement exerts lateral

Measurement of Dip and Strike

a. Measurment of Strike b. Measurment of Dip

Geological structures Primary sedimentary structures

Raindrop imprints Cross

(A) Tangential and (B) Planar foresets

• Pebble imbrication in conglomerate. Current direction is from left to right.

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