Chapter-1 Early history

Pre-History, Proto-History, and History.

Pre-history -before writing was invented. 3 Stone Ages

Proto-history- knowledge of writing but scripts not deciphered. Ex-Harappan script
History-after writing invented

1)Prehistoric period
 Old stone age/palaeolithic
 Late Stone Age/Mesolithic
 New Stone Age/Neolithic
 Metal age
Techniques used – carbon dating, dendro-chronology(no of tree rings in wood)

1. Paleolithic(3.3 million to 10000 bp)

 1st use of stone tools by hominins(ancestor of sapiens)+evolved in africa
 earliest human ancestor species to migrate out of Africa was Homo erectus
 features-near water sources, hunter-gatherers, live in caves & rock shelter
 unpolished stone tools of quartzite(quartzite men )
 3 phases-
Lower(homo erectus) Middle(homo sapiens) Upper(modern human)
 Sites- soan valley(pb,pk);  first identified by H.D. Sites- patna,Bhopal,Bhimbetka,
belan valley(up); humgsi Sankalia on the Pravara Kurnool, Godavari,kr
valley,isampur(kr),bhimbetka River(mh)  Lifestyle-caves+open air
,pallavaram,  Hunter-gatherers lived in space
athirampakkam(tn open-air, cave, rock shelter  Evidence of art-
 Hunter gather  Sites- Narmada, Godavari, paintings(green color-
 Sign lang, tools- hand axes, Krishna, and Yamuna areas bhimbetka),beads,ornamnts
choppers, cleavers=physical and south of the  Tools- blade, bone +
symmetry Tungabhadra River, Soan microliths intro
 sohan valley trad-only River Valley
choppers tools  Tools- became smaller;flaxe
 Archeulian trad.-hand industry- scapers,pointrs
axes,cleavers near- central ,cleaver
&se india  material used- chert, jasper
,chalcedony ,quartz

2).Mesolithic(10,000-1,000 BC)
 Pre-agricultural times
 Freshwater lakes known to exist at Didwana (west rj)
 Sites: Paisra (Bihar); Langhnaj (Gj); Baghor II, Chopani Mando, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha, Rock shelter sites are
found in Lekhakia & Baghai Khor in UP; Adamgarh & Bhimbetka in MP. Coastal sites -Mumbai; teri sites (a
coastal landscape caused by sand dunes) of Thoothukudy in TN
 Lifestyle-hunting-gathering-use of bow & arrow+from big to small animal, used fire& roasted food,
domesticated animals,highly mobile,Oval& circular huts, bgn to settle
 burial system –dead with goods
o Camel bones-kanewal
 Microlithic tools

3).neolithic
  beginning of agriculture ,animal domestication,Large villages came to exist, alongwith dev of pottery , building of
permanent residences.
 Tools: Polished stone, stone axes, microlith blades.
 Rice cultivation-6th millennium BC
 later Neolithic settlers were agriculturists who lived in +rect houses made of mud ,reed, leading settled life
 sites- mehrgarh-1st cultural phase (7000-5500 BC) - cultivated crops-wheat,barley,domesticated animals, but
did not use pottery,
o 2nd phase (5500-4800 BC)+ 3rd phase (4800-3500 BC) - practised long-distance trade. Early Dentistry in
the Neolithic Mehrgarh

Vindhyas in Belan Valley all 3phases of Palaeolithic, followed by Mesolithic,Neolithic phases found.
4). CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD (2600-1200 BC)
 1st metal-copper(Proficiency in copper smelting ,1st to use painted pottery for cooking, eating, and
storage.;Founded 1st village & surplus food production; Bronze-tools -absent)
 Pre-Harappan cultures are earliest Chalcolithic cultures
 Tools-small,weapons, stone blade industry,copper obj, stone axes
 Sites-Jorwe (evidence of flat ,rect copper axes), Ahar (absence of stone axes or blades), Gilund (Stone-blade
industry) and Ganeshwar( principally supplied copper objects to Harappa [UPSC 2021].
 Pottery-black &red ware- wheel-based, and painted with white linear designs
 Ochre Coloured Pottery Ware culture (2600-1200 BC)- n-India= Indo-Gangetic plain
o known as “copper hoard culture.”
o rural culture, evidence of agriculture & animal rearing +wattle & daub houses.
o used copper ,terracotta ornaments
 Domestication of Animals(but no clear evidence of horses)
 Food Grains-E-India- rice, W-India –barley,wheat, Deccan India-cotton in black soil ;lower Deccan-ragi,
bajra,other millets.
 Houses-sedentary/semi-sedentary
o Mud brick, wattle& daub, thatched houses on stone foundation
o Inamgaon, large mud houses and circular pit houses were discovered.
o Jorwe culture (near the Pravara River, Maharashtra)-cluster of houses of varying shapes, highlighting
village settlements. Settlements like Inamgaon, Eran, and Kayatha had fortifications and moats, but
urban civilization was absent
o Silos (well-prepared pits) -for storage of grains
 Art & craft- stonework,coppersmith,cloth manufacturing
 Burial practices-n to s positin in mh(complete/extended burial found);
o e to w in south; post extraction/fractional burial in WB
 Religion-mother goddess,bull
 Society-emergence of social inequalities

IRON AGE(1100-800 bc)

 N-india- PGW pottery +nbpw culture; agri & pastoral culture
 South-black ware only in burial pits not in human habitat; end of megalithic burial practices 2-3rd ce

Indus Valley Civilization-3rdmillenium bc

 Harappan culture, n-w side of india, 1 phase of urbanization
st

 phase  imp site  features

Early Harappan/Regionalisation (3300- 2600BC). Harappa, Kot Diji, Amri Fortification, grid planning, dev of incipient
trade network , craft specialisation
Transitional Phase Kunal, Dholavira, Harappa increasing craft specialisation,orgnsd irrigation
system, partly standardized pottery designs
&forms
Mature Harappan/Integration (2600- 1800 BC) Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Full-scale urbanisation, emergence of writing ,
Kalibangan, Dholavira uniformity in artefacts, full-fledged trade
Late Harappan/Localisation (Post 1800- 1300BC) Cemetery at Harappa, Siswal, Decline &abandonment of some sites, rise of
Rojdi, Rangpur pastoral mode
 geolocational=north-shortugai(afg);south-daimabad(mh); east-alamgirpur(up); west- sutkagendor(pak-iran)
core areas were in Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Haryana
 site  features
st
Harappa River- Ravi)-PAK 1 archaeological site dis.
2 rows of 6 granaries,male torso(red standstone),lingam& yoni, mother goddess,dice
Mohenjo-daro ,River - Indus Largest site; planned town-citadel & lower town
Post cremation burial, Great Granary, Great Bath (largest building), Seal with Pashupathi
&mother goddess, Bronze statue of dancing girl, Bronze buffalo, bearded man
Chanhu-daro ,River - Indus craft production,terracotta model of bullock,bronze toy cart
Kot-Diji ,River-indus Fortification of mud bricks & stone. ‘Wellfired red& buff wares’ pottery with motifs -
horned deity, pipal leaves ,fish scales executed in black.
Amri ,River - Sindh Pre-Harappan settlement; Transitional culture b/w pre & post ; actual remains of
rhinoceros.
Suktagendor ,River - Dasht River Ash-filled pot, copper axe, earthen bangles & pottery.Originally a port later cut off from
sea due to coastal upliftment; had trade links with Babylon.
Lothal,Confluence of Bhogava&Sabarmati naval trade site,Port ,Dockyard, Granaries, Rice culti, Double burial (male,female 2gthr).
GUJ Citadel- not walled but at height; entire settlement was fortified&sections within town
separated by walls.
Dholavira River - Luni UNESCO World Heritage Site.
water harvesting system ; stormwater drainage system, Megalithic stone circle,
specialised drill, giant water reservoirs [UPSC 2021]
Stone used in construction.
ancient signboard had been found with letters engraved on it.
Only site-divided into 3 parts (Citadel, Middle town and Lower town).
entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by
walls.
Surkotada Oval grave, Pot burials.
Rangpur ,River - Madar Remains of both pre& mature Harappan culture; Yellow &grey colour pots of pre-
Harappan,rice culti
Daimabad, River – Pravara(MH) Bronze images (charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant and rhinoceros).
Kalibangan,River – Luni(RJ) Bangle factory, Ploughed field surface, Camel bones, Fire altars, bronze bull, houses with
wells
Banawali, River – Rangoi(HR) All 3 phases ;Oval-shaped settlement, Barley grains, Lapis Lazuli (blue gem), Fire altars.
Lack of systematic drainage ; only city with Radial streets.
Rakhi Garhi Largest Indian IVC site;all 3phases
Ropar, River – Sutlej(PB) 1st site excavated after indpndce.Dog buried with human; oval pit burials;copper axe
Alamgirpur, River – Hindon(UP) Late phase;broken copper blade;impression of cloth on trough

ARCHAEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS
 Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seals. (1st surveyor (1861)
 1921-M.S. Vats begins excavations at Harappa but R.E.M. Wheeler excavates in 1946
 1955-S.R. Rao begins excavations at Lothal
 1960-B.B. Lal and B.K. Thapar began excavations at Kalibangan
 1990-R.S. Bisht begins excavations at Dholavira
TOWN PLANNING AND STRUCTURES
Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Surkotada, Kalibangan, Banawali, and Rakhigarhi - major cities
 Lower Part – common citizenry lived ;carried their professional lives
o Grid pattern, right angle, used burnt bricks(1:2:4-thck:width:lngth)for drainage, mud bricks-houses &
stones
o Bathroom with burnt bricks + drains; house size varied-1/2 manzil,5-6 rooms, central courtyard
 Citadel or Acropolis/Raised Part –public buildings-great bath, granaries, essential workshops.
o mud-brick platform , physically separated from Lower Town through a wall.
o occupied by members of ruling class

Drainage System
Every house connected to street drains. main channels made of bricks set in mortar covered with loose bricks/limestone
that could be removed for cleaning. House drains 1st emptied into sump/cesspit into which solid matter settled while
wastewater flowed out into street drains. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for
cleaning.

RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
 secular; No temples; worship from statues ,figurines
 Earth-fertility goddess
 ‘Pasupati Mahadeva’ (Proto-Shiva). -male deity on a seal with 3heads, 3horns represented in sitting posture of
yogi surrounded by elephants, tigers, rhinoceros, buffalo,deer on feet
 Yoni worship, Phallic (lingam) worship, zoolatry (animal worship), use of fire altar and tree worship (especially
pipal tree).
 Amulets found in large numbers to ward off ghosts, evil forces

HARAPPAN SCRIPt
right to left

Weights - made of chert stone generally cubical with no markings.

Units of weight -multiples of 16;
used binary numbering system
Society-urban, mainly comprising the middle classes.
Burials-
Lifestyle-separate attire, Cinnabar as cosmetic,facepaint, lipstick &collyrium (eyeliner)
gold jewellery found at Harappn
agriculture-Terracotta models of ploughs -Cholistan ,Banawali.
ploughed field -Kalibangan had 2 sets of furrows at right angles, suggesting 2 diff crops (double
cropping system) grown together
rice cultivation-Lothal (1800 BC) ,Rangpur (Gujarat)
canal and well irrigation
Cereals received as taxes from peasants and stored in granaries for wage payments

Animal domestication-Harappan cattle – Zebu; Horse, lion not known

Trade-“Meluha (land of seafarers in Mesopotamian text)”, referring to Indus region

2intermediate trading stations-Dilmun (Bahrain),Makan (Makran coast),
imports-Gold-Afghanistan, Iran, Kolar (S-India);Bitumen: Balochistan, Mesopotamia
Copper: Khetri (Rajasthan) and Oman.
Tin: Afghanistan, Iran; Lead: South India
Lapis lazuli: Shortughai (Afghanistan) ; Jade: Pamir
Steatite: Tapi Chahya (Iran) ;Turquoise: Iran
 Art & craft
Carnelian -Lothal ; Shell -Nageshwar and Balakot; Steatite -South Rajasthan ;Lapis lazuli (blue stone) Shortughai
;Copper -Rajasthan and Oman; Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and South India (for gold).

Sculptures of stone, bronze, or terracotta were found

2male fig made of stone—1 torso-red sandstone (Harappa); 2-bust of bearded man in soapstone
(Mohenjodaro).

Seals made of steatite;occasionally of agate, ivory, chert, copper, faience, terracotta

Pottery-Plain pottery made of red clay more common than painted ware. Pottery was well-fired and had a deep red
slip and black paintings. Motifs on pottery include pipal leaves, fish-scale design, intersecting circles, zigzag lines,
horizontal bands and geometrical motifs with floral and faunal patterns

Beads and ornaments made of carnelian, jasper, crystal, steatite, metals like copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience,
terracotta, or burnt clay.
The red colour of Carnelian was obtained by firing the yellowish raw material (Chalcedony)

belongs to Bronze Age civilisation, and Harappans knew how to make copper bronze tools.
Bronze Casting was practised on a wide scale using the ‘lost wax’ or Cire Perdue technique.
statue of Dancing Girl (Mohenjo-daro) ;Bronze fig of bull kalibangan
did not have knowledge of iron.

Vedic age(1500-600 bc)

 Late bronze/early iron age; b/w end ofurban IVC & 2nd urbanization in gangetic plains due to surplus agri
 Early Vedic (1500-1000 BC); Later Vedic Periods (1000-600 BC).
 Sources-
o vedic texts-Early: Rig Veda; Later Texts: Sama, Yajur,Atharva,other
o Zend Avesta (Iranian text, 14cent BC)- suggest early Aryans originated outside India
o Iliad and Odyssey by Homer, 8thcent BC
 Inscriptions-Kassite inscriptions (1600 BC);Mitanni inscrptn (1400 BC)-Iraq-Syria suggest branch of Aryans
moved from Iran
o Boghazkoi Inscription: oldest inscrptn with names of Vedic Gods discovered in Turkey-Syria
 Archeological Sources: Andronovo culture (2000–1150 BC) of Southern Siberia

Early vedic(1500-1000bc) Later (1000-600)- PGW Culture of Iron age

Site- Indus region/ Saptasindhu- Jhelum (Vatista), Beas (Vipasa), geo expansion- Aryans moved to eastern areas (up to Bengal)
Chenab (Askini), Ravi (Purushni), Sutlej (Sutudri), Saraswati most Kurus (Bharatas+ Purus) lived b/w Saraswati & Drishadvati river
holy river(Ghaggar/Hakra),Indus (Sindhu).
3divisions of India: Aryavarta (N-India), Madhyadesa (Central
Saraswati Valley-Brhmavarta,Himalayas-Himavant,HinduKush- India), Dakshinapatha (S-India)
Munjavant pol structure- Kurus, Panchalas, Vashas,Ushinaras-tribal kngdom
Pol- Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus-tribal kingdm  Rig Vedic tribal asmbles: imp diminished with incrsd
 TribalChief/Rajan/gopati/gopa-protector of tribe+cattle, royal pwr. Vidatha completely disappeared
leading wars,performing religious duties on behalf of  Janas (kin-based) evolved to Janapadas (territory-based)
tribe.  Nagara-commercial quarters found in later Vedic texts
 Queen-Mahisi ; king’s position hereditary King-Rajana auth. more evident &assumed titles: Rajavisvajanan,
 Tribal assemblies-Sabha,Samiti,Vidatha,Gana-mil/reli rol Ahilabhuvanapathi (lord of all earth), Ekrat/Samrat (sole ruler).
  Women attend sabha +vidatha.  concepts of Samrat/ Samrajya dev.
 Sabha-Assmbly of elders/elites Gana-clan org  Hereditary kingship emerging, but traces of election of
 Samiti-people assembly Vidatha-assembly of tribe king appeared in Later Vedic Texts.
 Govt-Formal judicial system absent  terms such as rashtra-territory;rajya-sovereign power
Purohita-tribal chiefs,praised their deeds in return for rewards in appeared.
cows, slaves.  Local matters handled by village assemblies under
Senani - Skilled in weaponry;chief of army control of dominant clan chiefs.
Vrajapati - Incharge of pasture grnds/controlled territory; Army:no standing army but tribal units
further, they led “Kulapas” (heads of families)  Wars fought not for cows but for territories as society
”Gramanis” (leaders of fighting units) into battle became agricultural.
 Military-no standing army ,relied on tribal units- Vrat,  Rajasuya, Ashvamedha, Vajapeya, Srauta sacrifices
Gana, Grama, Sardha Society- mostly rural, Social stratification through varna system
 Bharatas, led by Sudas, defeated coalition of 10rulers ( more estb.
mix of Aryan,non-Aryan) in Battle of 10Kings Chandala-grp within Panchamas, untouchable class (5th varna-
(Dashrajana) on banks of Parushni (Ravi) river. excluded)
Bharatas+Puru joined= Kurus  brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha mentioned,
 Dasa &Dasyu conquered by Aryans chief- trasadayu sannyasa not dev
were treated as slaves and sudras.  concept of Dvija,Upanayana was limited to upper sec
o Dasas seem-branch of early Aryans, Family structure-
o Dasyus original inhabitants/non-aryan/ Avrata  Patriarchal/hierarchical/polygyny
(nonfollowers of divine ordinances) and Akratu  Atranjikhera ,Ahichchhtra reveal communal food prep
(nonperformers of sacrifices)  idea of gotra emerged
 Indo-Aryans introd chariots into West Asia,India ;used  Chandrayana-penance for men marrying wmn same
better arms ,coats of mail called Varman gotra.
Society-on basis Varna/colour: Aryans (fair-skinned), nonAryans  household became more structured/org
(darker,spoke diff lang). Status of women
 egalitarian not caste-driven; occupations weren’t  Not attend assemblies/rituals
determined by birth;absence of strict social hierarchy.  Sati,child marriage thi
 Slavery thi- women domestic kaam k liy  Daughters labelled as source of sorrow (Aitreya
 Varna system end me suru hua rig vedic age k Brahmana). However, Gargi and Maitreyi excelled in
Family structure-kula- primary unit headed by kulapa domain of knowledge
 Basic unit- family/griha-headed by grihapati & wife- Economy
sapatni(joint+patrilineal family)  Agriculture- Few agri tools of iron found, but wooden
 Vis/clan-several familes+ divided into grama/smaller plough was extensively used
tribal unitsfor fighting  use of rice, rather wheat noticed in vedic rituals.
 jana/largest unit-several vis  Mixed farming (combination of cultivation+herding)
 No janapada  Land owned by community over which ‘vish’ (clan) had
Marriage-monogamous +polygyny/polyandry participatory rights.
Status of women-upananaya sanskar,edu, selecting  “Nishka” - gold or silver ornament used in barter
partner,widow remarriage  Shreni-grp of traders/merchants/artisans headed by
 Notable poet-Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa, and Lopamudra. Shreshthi.
 child marriage, sati ,purdah absent  Taxation: collecting taxes,tributes-mandatory, primarily
 marriageable age - 16 to 17 from Vaishyas by Sangrihitri (tax collector).
Economy-pastoral; cow=wealth; barter system (me cow) Knowledge of Metals -Use of iron was started around 1200 BC,
 Primitive agriculture-use fire-clearing tech,wooden & termed Krishna Ayas/Shyama Ayas
ploughs (langala and sura).  Glass manufacturing, copper, tin, gold, bronze ,lead are
 ‘sita’-furrow created by ploughing. mentioned
 cultivated Barley (yavam) ;wheat (godhuma) Art & craft- 4 main types of pottery prevalent: (1) PGW; (2) Black
 Siri/yarn, indicating spinning/ Takshan done by women, and Red Ware; (3) Black-slipped Ware; (4) Red Ware
carpenters  Burnt bricks not known
 Land ownership as private property, didn’t exist  Kulala-potters ; Urna sutra- wool
Taxation &Exchanges - eco depended on voluntary/compulsory Religion- emergence of idolatry
contribution (Bali) from people (vis); Social exchange involved  Rig Vedic Gods replaced by Prajapati (creator), Vishnu
gift redistribution, extending courtesies, offering hospitality, and (preserver&protector), Rudra (god of rituals)
providing military aid  Satapatha Brahmana lists names of Rudra -
Pasunampatih, Sarva, Bhava, Bahikas.
Metal(Ayas0-either Copper or Bronze was known.  Imp of animal sacrifices shadowed imp of prayers
 Karmara/smith mentioned in Rig Veda.  Rituals-more complex, req more resources,took longer
 Rigveda has mentioned Hiranya-oldest Sanskrit word for time.
gold  Each varna-own deities i.e societal divisions ex- pushan
Religion- natural forces -earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, god of shudra
primarily through yajnas.  Dev of Vedic texts, imp given to pronunciation, grammar
 Henotheism/Kathenotheism, where each hymn elevated and oral transmission
a specific deity to supreme status temporarily  Upanishads(Vedanta) were composed during this period
 No Magic/omens but Meat consumption,sacrificial  teacher-pupil relationship was cultivated through
killing of animals were there person-oriented training
 Indra god- Purandhar (Breaker of forts), Urvarajit lute, flute and drum are mntiond in texts.
(winner of fertile fields), Maghavan (bounteous), and Use of silk, ornaments of metal, gold and copper is found
Vritrahan (Slayer of Vritra, chaos)
 Agni- intermediary b/w gods and men.
 Varun- resp for maintaining cosmic order(reet)
 Soma- God of plants-inspires poets to compose hymns
 Ashvinis (Twin Gods of war and fertility).
 Savitri (Solar deity, Gayatri Mantra is attributed to her
 Sinivali (Goddess of Fertility)
 Aditi (Goddess of Eternity, Mother of Gods)
 Demi-gods- Gandharvas (Divine musicians) Vishwadevas
(Intermediate deities) Apasaras (Mistress of Gods)
Aryaman (Guardian of compacts and marriages)

Vedic lit- :
 Brahmanas-prose texts-elucidate mantras ,describe sacrificial rituals./rules of prfrmnce
 Aranyakas (forest treatises- oppose sacrifices, deal with mysticism, emphasise meditation
 Upanishads (sit near someone)-appendices to Brahmanas (known as-Vedanta/end of Veda/obj of veda, focusing
on philosophical discussions.
Ttl 108- Mandukyopanishad-largest + mentions“Satyamev Jayate ”. [UPSC 2014]
Chhandogya Upanishad – Refers to first 3 ashrams.
Dara Shukoh(Mughal prince) translated Upanishads into Persian in 1657
Jabala Upanishad mentions a 4-fold ashram (stages) for 4 Purusharthas (goals). not applicable-women/Shudras.
 Vedanga- ‘limbs of Vedas,’ serving as supplementary texts to aid in proper recitation,comprehension of Vedas.
considered to be of human origin
 Ttl 6 Siksha: Pronunciation of words-education;Nirukta: Origin of words; Chhanda: Metrics used in Sanskrit
verses. Jyotish: Astrology; Vyakaran: Sanskrit grammar; Kalpa: Knowledge of rituals (Dharma sutras)
 Rig veda- Origin of Universe
o 10 mandals/books- 1,10 later additions, incorporating Purusashukta explains concept of varnas.
o Book 8– related to Kanva’s family. Book9-compilation of Soma hymns
 Sama veda-music ex- Dhrupada raga, later sung by Tansen
 Yajurveda- sacrifices and rituals, composed in prose and poetry.
o divided into:Shukla Yajur Veda/White/Vajasaneya (only Mantras)-contains Madhyandina & Kanva
recensions.
o Krishna Yajur Veda/Black(contains both mantra& prose explanations/ commentary
 Atharva Veda: contains magic, charms, omens, agriculture, industry/craft, cattle rearing, cure for diseases.
 vedas upaveda brahmna upanishad aranyakas mantra priest
Rig veda Ayurveda/medi Aitareya, Aitareya, Aitareya, 1028 Hotri/hotar
Kaushi-Tiki/ Kaushitiki Kaushitiki
Sankhyana
Sam Gandharva Panchvimsh/ Kena, Jaiminiya, 1810 Udgatar
Veda (Music) Tandya, Chandogya Chandogya
Jaiminiya
Yajur Dhanurveda Taittiriya, Taittiriya, Taittiriya, - adhvaryu
(Warfare) Shatapatha KathaIsa,
Brihadaranyaka
athrva Sthapatya Gopatha Mandukya, 6000
Veda/ Shilp Mundaka
Veda Prashan
(Architecture)
Terms used in vedic period
Govikartana Forest chief Vap To sow Madhyamasi Mediator in
disputes
Gavyuti Measure of Gojit Winner of cow Soma/sura Daaru
distance
Duhitri Daughter (one Srini Sickle Sthapati Chief judge
who milks
cow)
Godhuli Dusk Sabhavti Wmn who Nishka Gold/silver
attend coin
assemble
Takshan Carpenter Spasa Spy Ghrita Ghee
Gana Troops Dhanya Cerreals Gavisthi War for cows
Varthaka Business Akshvapa Accountant Kshata Keeper of
people kings
household
Gauri Buffalo Panis Trader Niyoga Widow
remarriage
gaun Place where Suta Charioteer Goghna Guest
cattle kept
Jivagribha & Police officers bhagadugha Tax collector palgala Messenger
ugra

Rise of mahajanapada
Sources-Later vedic time-jana to janapada(clan sets foot/settle)
Buddhist text -anguttara nikaya(sutta pitaka) lists 16 mahajanapads
Jain text-bhagawati sutra
Archaeological- nbpw; vedic text
Map-?

state capital Rulers

Magadha-bihar rajagriha Haryanka dynasty
Anga-bihar Champa(ganga&champa r) Commercial centre, merchants
came frm survarnabhumi(se
asia)
Vajji- n.bihar Vaishali Chetak
 Mallas –u.p Kushinara & pava
Kashi-up varansi Kosala me mil gyi by kansa king
Kuru(west up) indraprastha
Panchala(west up) Ganga river kanauj
Kosala(east up) Sarayu river Prasenjit(Buddha
contemporary)
Shurasena(s.up) Mathura(Yamuna river) Avantipura/Buddha disciple
Vatsa(w.yamuna r) kaushambi udayana
Gandhara(pak ) taksashila Behistun ins. Of achaemenid
emperor darius mntion tht
Persian conquered gandhara
6th cent
Chedi/ti(e. bundelkhand) shuktimati shishupal
Matsya(raj) viratanagara virata
Avanti(mp) Divided by vindhyas King pradyota
n-ujjains-mahismati
Asavaka/assaka(mh,telangna potali Only Mahajanapada, situated
south of Vindhya Range
Kamboja(pak north-jammu poonch

Magadh empire -one of great kingdoms of 2 nd

urbanization
Haryanka dynasty Shishunaga Nanda
 1st dynasty ,capital rajagriha Imp rulers- Mahapadma Nanda usurped throne
Imp ruler-  shishunaga(initially Imp rulers-
 bimbisara/contemporary of Amatya/“minister” of  Mahapadma Nanda/ (ugrasena becoz
Buddha& jain Nāgadāsaka (last of large army)
 Royal physician- Haryanka ruler)) -Brahmanical texts-belonged to non-Kshatriya
jivaka -shifted capital to Vaishali caste. Buddhist texts-belong to Annatakula
 Expansionist policy -defeated Avanti+ ended 100 year (unknown lineage)
 Ajatashatru-aggressive+ old rivalry -first empire builder of India
expansionist policy+ rivalry b/w  kalasoka(son)/kakarvarna -titles-Ekarat (sole sovereign); Sarva-
kosala & mgdh -2nd Buddhist council conducted kshatrantaka (uprooter of Kshatriyas).
-Defeated kosala,mallas, vaishali -added Kalinga to Magadha ,brought image of
-Began fortification of Rajgriha to counter Jina as victory trophy, acquired Kosala to crush
threat of invasion his rebellions.
-War engines=catapults(Mahashilakantaka) -Tax collection- made by regularly appointing
used to throw stones officials
 UDAYABHADRA (UDAYIN) -built canals;
-new capital at Pataliputra(ganga - son r) -succeeded by his 8 sonsNavanandas/9 Nandas
-Hathigumpha-inscpn Udayagiri,Odisha, had
records of aqueduct built by Mahapadma
Nanda
 dhana nanda
-last significant king, vast army;known as
Agrammes/Xandrames by Diodorus (Greek
historian).
-invention of Nandopakramani (particular
measuring standard)
-Alexander invaded n-w India (327–325 BC)
during his reign.
Causes of Magadha success Adm Laws-regulation Society

abundant iron ore Higher officials- Legal & judicial system 4 vrna+untouchables emergedhaving
strategic position of capital – Mahamatras/Amatyasmulti base on own lang & kept outside 4 vrna
rajgir(surrounded by 5 hills) ple roles- commanders dharmashastras Family relations- Kinship ties were
 later patliputra- (Senanayaka)/judges/chief imp& were incorporated into caste
surrounded by rivers= accountants, and heads of Social hierarchy thi - hierarchy.
water fort (Jala Durga) royal harem assisted by civil & criminal laws-
Central Position in Gangetic Ayuktas-recruited from harsh punishmnts Kula –extended patrilineal family,
Plains: Forests in sthrn areas Brahmanas while Natakas-both mother’s
providedtimber,elephants(1st  Buddhist text &father’s relatives. Extended
state to use on large scale) Mahaparinibbana kingroups- Nati and Nati-Kulani.
Sutta-Vassakara of Status of Woman-patriarchial
Magadha, who ,inferior ,endogamous caste system,
enabled Ajatashatru more desire of son
to conquer
GanaSangha ofVajjis

Agri surplus, growing crafts & trade , growing pop- 2nd urbanization
 Pura/Nagara (Fortified town/city), Nagarka (Small town), Nigama (Market town)
 Diff types of town-pol & adm like- Rajgriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi ,Champa.
o Centres of trade- Ujjain,taxila
o Holy centres- vaishali
Village settlement-Vinay pitaka-3 type k
o Typical villages: inhabited by various caste communities headed by Gramabhojaka/Gramini/Gramakas.
o Suburban villages (craft villages):- Carpenter’s village (Vaddhaki-grama), Reedmaker’s village
(Nalakaragrama), Saltmaker’s village (Lonakara-grama).
o Border villages (Aramika-grama)
Trade & transport- 2 major trans-regional routes
 Uttarapatha (from nw-across IndoGangetic plains to port city of Tamralipti onBoB).
 Dakshinapatha (from Pataliputra in Magadha to Pratishthana on Godavari
Maritime trade-
o E regions: Trade b/w Bengal-Myanmar.
o W regions: Taxila –Afghn/Iran/Mesopotamia.
o Rajabhatas-royal officials to safeguard lives& property of travelers
 Use of money- Panini’s Ashtadhyayi (provides guidelines for writing ,speaking Sanskrit) mentions wage (Vetan)
and wage-earners (Vaitanika),
o Punch-marked ( marks of hill, tree, bull, fish, crescent, elephant, etc )coins, silver & copper -6th cent
Tax-cash & kind
 Kshatriya & brahman exempted
 Bali- compulsory tax-peasants-1/6th of produce
 No intermediaries+ tax collected by royal agents( balisadhakas)
 Peasants subjected to forced labour + Artisans were obliged to work for 1 day each month
 Kammikas (customs officials) ,Shaulkika/ Shulkadhyaksha (toll officials) levied taxes on merchandise
 Setthis (big merchants)-revenue auth
Agriculture
 Paddy transplantation
 Grihapatis (rich landlords) employed labourers -Dasas or Karmakaras
 smaller landowners -Kassakas or Krishakas
 Access to rich iron mines like Mayurbhanj and Singhbhum ensured a steady supply of tools.
Guild system-hereditary
  Merchant Street -‘Vessa’

Achaemenian /Iranian invasion-weak leadership, pol disunity

 king Cyrus (558–529 BC) 1st ruler to invade
 Persian king Darius annexed PB In 516 BC
 N-W Indian subcontinent remained under Iranian rule until invasion by Alexander
 Taxila part of Achaemenid Empire
o Excavated by john marshall-1940
o Panini compiled his work here 6th-5th bc
 Impact of contact
o Persian sigloi (silver coin)+ Indian word for coin karsa is of Persian origin
o Intro of Kharoshthi script derived from Aramaic(L to r) ex- ashoka major rock editcs- Mansehra and
Sahbazgarhi
o Archi- Ashoka’s bell-shaped capitals, Lion capital of Sarnath, Bull capital of Rampurva pillars.
 Alexander invasion
o Reason- greek-iranian conflict, disunity in n-w india, Wealth of India, as described by Greek writers like
Herodotus
o Invasion begin- during Dhanananda’s reign) when he crossed Khyber Pass
 Alexander defeated Porus in battle of Hydaspes (on the bank of Jhelum), he was impressed by
Porus’s valour and restored his kingdom
 continued eastward up toBeas River, but his army refused to go further due to formidable
power of Magadha, war-weariness, disease, and homesickness.
 Alexander was forced to retreat, ending his dream of an eastern empire. During his return, he
died of typhoid in Babylon.
 Effects of invasion-
Pol- Establishment of Greek satrapies/settlement- Alexandria in Sindh and Kabul region and Boukephala on Jhelum
(Peshawar in Pakistan)
Trade- direct contact b/w ancient Europe and South Asia, particularly India, by opening up 4distinct routes – 3by land
and 1 by sea.
Cultural dev: Estb of Gandhara school of arts

MAURYANS-321-185 BC( 1st subcontinental empire)

Development of innovative ,stable governance strategies
SOURCES-
 ARCHAELOGICAL-NBPW,junagargh inscription of rudradaman, ashokan ins , Wooden Palace of Chandragupta
Maurya in Pataliputra
 Literary sources- ‘Indika’ by Megasthenes. ‘Arthashastra’ by Kautilya. Visakha Datta’s ‘Mudra Rakshasa’
Dharmashastra texts, Puranas. Buddhist Text (Jataka Stories, Deepvamsa, Mahavamsa, Divyavadan).

IMPORTANT RULERS
 Chandragupta Maurya- overthrew Nanda& estb Maurya rule in 321 BC with help of Chanakya
a. Greek historians mention him ‘Sandrakottus’, a modified form of Chandragupta
b. War & conquest- defeated Greek prefects (military officials) left behind by Alexander, defeated Seleucus
(Alexander’s general)
c. Territorial Expansion- EXCEPT KERALA,TN, NE INDIA
i. Justin, a Greek writer-Chandragupta conquered India with vast army
d. ADM- indica, Arthasastra (compiled few centuries after Maurya rule) provide insights into adm
i. Central govt had 2 dozen depts controlling socio-eco activities, particularly near capital.
ii. empire divided into several provinces led by royal family members. Provinces were further
divided into smaller units
 e. Army - Pliny (Roman writer)-massive army
i. board of 30 officers divided into 6 committees overseeing difft military branches - army, cavalry,
elephants, chariots, navy, and transport
f. tax- Agri on newly cultivated land was statecontrolled done with help of cultivators &sudra labourers,
and taxes were collected on it.
i. Taxes on peasants ranged from 1/4th -1/6th of their produce + state charging for irrigation
+levying tolls on commodities at town gates.
ii. state monopolised mining, liquor sales, and arms manufacturing.
g. Death time- renounced world-acc to Jain tradition spent his last .
h. years as an ascetic in Chandragiri,Karnataka

Chanakya/Kautilya/Vishnugupta.
 Contemporary Jain&Buddhist texts did not mention him, but popular oral tradition ascribes his wisdom and
genius.
 author of Arthasastra(treatise on pol strategy& governance)
 play Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta (written during Gupta) narrates Chandragupta’s accession to throne of
Magadha Empire & exploits of his chief advisor-Chanakya.
 Megasthenes(Greek ambassador of Seleucus Nikator to court of Chandragupta).
a. wrote Indica-descibe subcontinent’s physical, adm ,cultural features.
b. mentioned that famine has never visited India, and never been general scarcity in supply of nourishing
food, even during war.
c. 7 castes in Mauryan society: artisans, farmers, warriors, philosophers, herders, magistrates, and council
members

Junagadh Inscription crved during reign of Rudradaman (GJ) dates back to 130–150 CE.
 refers to Pushyagupta, provincial governor (Rashtriya) of Chandragupta.
 provides insights into: extent of Mauryan Empire as far west as Gujarat.
 Records construction of Sudarshana Lake in 4th century BC during reign of Chandragupta. It was completed
during Ashoka. Shaka ruler Rudradaman I repaired lake around 150 AD.
Rumendei Pillar Inscription of Ashoka (Lumbini, Nepal): Brahmi script ,Prakrit lang. Ashoka visited &worshipped place,
as Shakyamuni was born there
Kandahar inscription mentions success of ashoka policy of Dhamma;

2. Bindusara- died in 272 BC succeeded by son Ashoka, though not his chosen successor.
3. ashoka- succeeded throne 4 years later-268 BC. indicates succession dispute b/w Bindusara’s son
 converted to Buddhism , adopted pacifist policy.
 Buddhist texts -him as Chakravartin.
 His reign marked pol unification through 1dharma,1lang(Prakrit), 1script (Brahmi)
 Devanampiya (beloved of gods), Piyadassi (of pleasing looks)
 Religious policy-tolerant, Barabar caves donated to Ajivika sects
o visiting Buddhist shrines- Dharmayatras
o 3rd sangha council- outcome –to expand reach of Buddhism to other parts of region
o Missionary activity- to Sri Lanka, Burma ,Central Asia
o Dhamma include-obeying parents; respecting Brahmanas &Buddhist monks;showing mercy to slaves&
servants.
 Adm- paternal kingship;
o officers (Rajukas) -adm of justice & Dharma-mahamatras;
o killing of certain birds,animals prohibited;
o To check oppressive rule, he intro rotation of officers in Tosali (Kalinga), Ujjain &Taxila
KALINGA war-punitive war
  Effects on ashoka- shift from physical occupation (Bherighosha) to cultural conquest ,peace policy and
promotion of dharma (Dhammaghosha
 inscriptions k thrgh janta tk baat krne vala 1st ruler
o engraved on rocks, polished stone pillars, caves
o lang- written in Magadhi and Prakrit lang and in Brahmi script
o Kandahar inscriptions -Greek and Aramaic lang,+ 2 inscriptions-NW Pakistan-Kharosthi script
o 33 edicts comprising 14 Major Rock Edicts, 2 known as Kalinga edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts
o James Prinsep deciphered edicts of Ashoka in 1837
Rock editcs
Rock editcs Theme
Major Rock Edict 1 Prohibition of animal sacrifice ,holiday on festive gatherings.
Major Rock Edict 2 func of state-provide medical care(hospital- to treat human
beings& animals.
Major Rock Edict 3 Yuktas (subordinate officials) ;Pradesikas (heads of dist), were to
go on tours every 5years to instruct people about dhamma.
Major Rock Edict 6 expresses King’s desire to be constantly informed about people’s
conditions
Major Rock Edict 7,12 All religions should co-exist, ascetics of all religions should be
honoured.
Major Rock Edict 13 mentions war with Kalinga;Asokan policy of Dhamma, which
pleads for conquest by Dhamma instead of War
Kalinga Rock Edict 1 officials should recognise their responsibilities and strive to be
impartial and just. He would send an officer every five years to
verify if his instructions were carried out
Maski edict mentioned that Ashoka had the inscriptions carved under
‘Devanampiya’
Dhauli Odisha Kalsi Uttarakhand
Jaugada Odisha Erragudi Andhra Pradesh
 Contemporary Rulers of Ashoka with whom he had Exchanged Missions
Antiochus II Theos of Syria (260-246 BC) -grandson of Selecus Nikator.
Ptolemy III Philadelphus of Egypt (285–247 BC)
Antigonus Gonatus of Macedonia (276–239 BC)
Magas of Cyrene, and Alexander of Epirus
 Death of ashoka- Pushiyamitra Sunga (Mauryan general) killed last Mauryan king- Brihadratha &usurped throne
of Patliputra
 Causes of decline-brahmanical reaction, financial strain, Dushtamatyas (wicked bureaucrats), missionary
activities left vulnerable to potential threats & attacks, spread of material culture

Mauryan adm-
Kautilya called king Dharmapravartaka
Ashoka, in his inscriptions, affirmed supremacy of royal orders
Central adm- capital Pataliputra directly administered. rest of empire was divided into 4 provinces –
o Suvarnagiri (near Kurnool in AP), Ujjain (Avanti, Malwa), Taxila in north-west, Tosali in Odisha
 extensive bureaucracy, CoM, purohita/priest, secretaries- mahamatriyas,espionage system est to gather
intelligence &oversee officers. Arthashastra recommends spies work in disguise
 Hierarchy & Salaries- Imp officials called ‘tirthas’ received salaries in cash; Enormous disparities existed in
salaries; Pana equals 3/4th of tola;
provincial adm- governor /royal princes
 district adm- under command of Sthanika; Gopas- incharge of 5-10 villages
 village- semi-autonomous under Gramani
 urban adm- nagarika
JUDICIAL ADM- 2types of courts
  Dharmasthiya courts-civil law ,presided over by3 judges well-versed in sacred laws& 3 Amatyas
 Kantakasodhana (removal of thorns) courts -presided over by 3 judges,3 Amatyas.est to clear society of anti-
social elements ,crimes( modern police)
 Punishment severe
ECONOMY- state appointed superintendents (Adhyakshas) regulate eco activities-agri,trade,crafts,mining
 Source of revenue-agri,custom & toll, taxes on urban homes, irrigation , land(bhaga), state held monopoly over
lands owned by king (Sita-revenue from crown land), forests, mines, salt
 Taxation system- emphasised on assessment of revenue
o Revenue collection-Samaharta (collector-general) +also incharge of exchequer
o Sannidhata-chief custodian of state treasury & storehouse
 Currency & mrkt exchange- Uniform currency; Punch-marked Silver coins (Pana, mostly used); Silver coins-
known Karshpana.
Agriculture- Greeks mentioned growing 2crops annually in India;
 Megasthenes -reed that produced honey (sugarcane) ,cotton; mentions officers measured land as in Egypt and
inspected channels meant to distribute water; Arthasastra -employment of slaves in agri emerged during this
period; did not notice slaves in India
Crafts & goods- hereditary occupations; head called Pamukha/leader +Jettha (elder) & organised in Seni/sreni/guild);
Disputes b/w Srenis resolved by Mahasetthi
Art& culture-intro stone masonry , highly polished Chunar stone used for Ashoka’s Pillars.
80-pillared hall discovered at Kumrhar (Patna)

Trade - Merchant groups travelled together as caravan for security, led by caravan leader (Mahasarthavaha)
hierarchy of markets

New settlements-est with help of cultivators (Vaisyas), Sudra labourers taken from overpopulated areas to bring virgin
soil under cultivation+ allowed remission in tax +supplied with cattle, seeds , money
 use of soak pits,ring wells allowed settlements to shift away from river appeared 1st under Mauryas & spread to
other parts of empire
literature- Katyayana (contemporary of Nandas-wrote commentary on Panini’s work);
Pictorial representation of cities is found in sculptures in Sanchi, portraying royal processions and cities
important officers-.
Sitadhyaksha Supervised agri Bandhanagaradhyaksha looked after jail
Pautavadhyaksha Suprintendent of weight&measure Panyadhyaksha Incharge of trade & commerce
Lohadhyaksha, Looked aftr goods mnfctred in Dandapala Head of police
Sauvarnika centres
Nava Adhyaksha Superintendent of ships Sulkaadhyaksha Collectoer of tolls
Annapala Head of Food Grains Department Durgapal Head of royal fort
Koshadhyaksha Treasury Officer Akaradhyaksha Mining officer
nayaka City Security Chief Vyabharika Chief judge
Karmantika Head of Industries and Factories Ayudhagaradhyaksha production& maintenance of variety of
armaments
Swarn Adhyaksha Officer of Gold Department Kupyadhyaksha Officer of forest

CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACT

 post-Mauryan period -focus from Magadha to N-w India.
 eastern & central regions Mauryan rule succeeded by native dynasties like Shungas, Kanvas, Satavahanas.
 N-w India, Central Asian ruling dynasties took stage, with Kushans
INDO-GREEKS
Early Greek Contact with India
India’s interaction with Greeks began with invasion of n-w India by Alexander (327–325 BC). z Selucus Nicator
(Alexander’s general) established his rule from Turkey to the Indus River. Later, Chandragupta Maurya defeated
Seleucus and they entered into a marriage alliance. z Bindusara maintained relations with the Antiochus of Syria. z
Asokan Rock Edict 13 mentions five Yona/Yavana kings, indicating deep ties with the Greeks. z It is argued that the
elaborate administrative institutions of the Mauryan Empire drew inspiration from the administrative systems of the
Persians and Greeks. z Luxury items like ivory, pearls, indigo, aromatic substances like spikenard (a fragrant oil from the
Gangetic region) and malabathrum (leaf of cinnamon) were exported from India

The Indo-Greek/ Indo-Bactrians /Yavana Kingdom

 Indo-Greeks were the first to invade India and advanced as far as Ayodhya (Saketa) and Pataliputra
 Causes of invasion- The Seleucid Empire began to weaken and disintegrate after 250 BC. Seleucid emperor
Antiochus III moved down to the Kabul River and defeated the local Indian king, Subhagasena, paving the way
for their Indian invasion. z With the building of the Great Wall of China, the Scythian tribes pushed towards the
Greek and Parthian regions. This forced the Bactrian Greeks to move towards India
 Indo-greek coin- e first to issue gold coins. z Indo Greeks were the first to issue coins which can be definitely
attributed to the kings. • The coins carried the portrait of the reigning king on one side with his name.
 Imp rulers-
1.DEMETRIUS II-180 bc
 conflict with Pushyamitra Shunga
 extended Bactrian rule to the south of the Hindu Kush
 issued bi-lingual square coins with Greek on the obverse and Kharosthi on the reverse
2.MENANDER
 On coins, he was described as “king” and “soter” or saviour, not a great conqueror.
 embraced Buddhism under the guidance of Nagasena. Buddhist work ‘Milinda Panho’ is a discussion between
Menander and Nagasena
 King Kharavela of Kalinga failed to stop him as per the Hathigumpha Inscription
3.ANTIALCIDAS:
 His emissary, Heliodorus, was sent to the court of Bhagabhadra, where he erected a pillar (Garuda-Dhvaja)
in Vidisha with its capital adorned by a figure of Garuda, in honour of God Krishna.
 Later, Heliodorus adopted Vaishnavism.

Arrival of Central Asian Tribes- the Sakas (Scythians), Parthians (Pahlavis) and Kushanas (Yueh-chi or Yuezhi tribes in
Chinese; Parthian kingdom of eastern Iran was established by Vonones

1. THE SHAKAS- pushed back from eastern Iran by the Parthian ruler Mithradates (188–123
BC). Thus, they turned to north-western India and settled between the Indus Valley and
Saurashtra. z The Shakas were organised into five branches with different power
centres. These were Afghanistan, Punjab, Mathura, Western India and Upper Deccan. z
The first Saka ruler in India was Maues, or Moa/ Moga (20 BC to 22 AD). He occupied
Gandhara, but it was his successor, Azes, who finally destroyed the Indo-Greek kingdom
ADM- Provincial governors (Kshatrapas or Satraps) were appointed to administer territories, many of whom became
virtually independent rulers
 Rudradaman I (130–150 AD) was an important Shaka Kshtrapa
o The rock inscription of Junagadh (Gujarat) mentioned that he defeated the Satavahanas in battle. • He
was the first to issue a long inscription in Sanskrit
Society - their coins represented Hindu Gods on one side; Patanjali in his Mahabhasya refers to the Shakas as ‘Anirvasita
(pure) Shudras

e King of Ujjain expelled the Shakas around 57-58 BC, after which he adopted the title Vikramaditya (for the first time).
This victory commences the era of Vikrama Samvat in 57 BC, making “Vikramaditya” a prestigious title
2)THE PARTHIANS (PAHLAVAS- presence in India was limited+ succeeded sakas
Rulers- a)Gondophernes
3) THE KUSHANAS- one of the five clans of the Yuechi tribe/tocharians
Geo expanse- encompassed territories from the River Oxus (Amu Darya) to the Ganges
Dynasties within kushanas-
a)first Kushana Dynasty was under Kadphises I (issued coins south of Hindukush and minted copper coins) and Kadphises
II (issued a large number of gold coins and spread the kingdom east of the Indus River)
 Khujula Kadphises was the first Kushan king who conquered Afghanistan. He was followed by Wima Kadphises
 Mathura was their second capital in India (the first being Purushpura or Peshawar).
b) second Kushana Dynasty was founded by Kanishka(son of kadphises 2)
 Rabatak Inscription (in modern Baghran province, Afghanistan) presents valuable information on Kanishka. It
mentions that he adopted the title of ‘Devputra’ and has been shown wearing a ‘peaked helmet’
 78 AD, which is now known as the Shaka era. This era is used in the Indian National calendar

DECLINE- mid 3rd cent- Sassanians from Iran overtook the Kushan Empire in Afghanistan
IMPACT-
i)SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACT OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACT-
polity- Feudal organisation developed
The Sakas, along with the Parthians, introduced the Satrap system of government
hereditary dual rule developed, where two kings ruled jointly ex- father & son ruled jointly
lesser degree of centralisation.
practice of military governorship was also introduced probably by the Greeks. These governors were
known by the title of Strategos- (a) for maintaining the power of the rulers over the indigenous people and (b) for
blocking invasions from the northwest.
In the coins, Kushana rulers are referred to titles as ‘king of kings’, ‘Caesar’, and ‘lord of all lands’
reinforced the notion of the divine origin of kingship by adopting titles like ‘sons of God’ to legitimise royal authority

economy- amount of gold from the Altai mountains in Central Asia

kushana copper coins, kushana controlled over silk route, promoted agri in pak,afhn;
Karakoram Highway establish that this was the route taken by Buddhist monks travelling to China+ major
commercial route for importing Chinese silk and horses
rock of Hunza (on the Karakoram highway project) mentions the first two Kadphises and the Kusanadevaputra Kaniska

warfare- Shakas and Kushans introduced better cavalry and the use of the riding horse; o introduced turban, tunic,
trousers, and long coats. They also brought caps, helmets, and boots for warriors;

society- Central Asian Rulers became entirely Indianized and absorbed into Indian society as a warrior class (Kshatriyas).
Manu explained their status as second-class kshatriyas, having deviated from their duties.

Religious dev- Shiva, Vishnu (Vasudeva)on coins and Buddha-4th council held, sent missions to china, patronized Buddhist
philosophers- Asvaghosha, Parsva, and Vasumitra, as well as the great Buddhist teacher Nagarjuna; massive stupa in
Peshawar (Purushpur).; His coins reflected his religious tolerant= mix of Indian, Greek, and Zoroastrian deities.

Art and Architecture- emergence of art schools like Gandhara, and Mathura- famous headless statue of Kanishka found
in Mathura were inspired by it; polished redware pottery

Language & lit.- Sanskrit ,

earliest specimen of the Kavya style (written in pure Sanskrit) was found in the Junagarh inscription of Rudraman
Ashvaghosha composed the first Sanskrit play, Sariputraprakarana, in nine acts, Buddhacharita and Saundarananda
Dramatist- Bhasa (his work ‘Urubhanga’ deals with story of Duryodhana during and after his fight with Bhima)
 Hindu treatises, we find the Manusmriti, Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra and Kautilya’s Arthasastra taking final shape by the
second century AD
Mahayana Buddhism led to the composition of Avadanas (centring on the Buddha’s explanations of events by a person’s
worthy deeds in a previous life), texts written in Buddhist-hybrid Sanskrit to convey Mahayana teachings. Some books of
this genre include Mahavastu and the Divyavadana.
Indian theatre possibly borrowed elements like indoor and outdoor theatres, curtains (Yavanika), and a rest house for
actresses.

Sci & tech- Greek terms related to planetary movements were incorporated into Sanskrit texts
Charaka-medicine+ wrote Charakasamhita contained numerous plant and herb names
Sushruta-surgery
Glass-making made significant progress

THE SATAVAHANAS
 native successors of Mauryans + defeated kanvas
 Satavahana kings known as “Andhrabhrityah.”
 Prathistan (Paithan in Mh) -capital.
 ruled over parts of Andhra, Mh, KR,MP

rulers-
Simuka Founder
Gautamiputra satakarni defeated Shaka ruler Nahapana; reissued Nahapana’s coins with his royal insignia
Nashik inscription of his mother-Gautami Balashri, calls him conqueror of Shakas, Pahlavas, Yavanas
performed Vedic Asvamedha sacrifice
titles of Raja-Raja (King of Kings) ,Maharaja (Great King) ,described as Lord of Vindhya
Vasishthiputra pulumavi est his capital at Paithan on Godavari.
Yagnashri satakarni Issued coins with shipmotif- overseas trade; last significant Satavahana king
King hala Wrote GathaSattasai (Prakrit),collection of 700 love poems with theme similar to Sangam poetry
Metallurgy- iron tools & extracted Iron ores from Karimnagar ,Warangal in Telangana
gold as bullion; used Lead, Potin, Copper, Bronze for making coins
potin- mixture of copper, tin ,lead
agriculture & eco- Paddy transplantation & Cotton production
generous donations to Buddhist cause
Gandhikas/perfumers were repeatedly mentioned as donors. At a later stage, term Gandhika denoted all kinds of
shopkeepers
Pliny (Italy) mentioned that Andhra included 30 walled towns and numerous villages.

Social org- tribe of deccan, were brahmanized ex- Gautamiputra Satakarni to be Brahmana, boasted of re-establishing
varna system
Matrilineal aspect- derived from their mothers, like Gautamiputra and Vashishthiputra but Satavahana ruling family had
patriarchal succession to throne.

Adm - followed ideals of Dharmashastras. king -upholder of dharma, having divine attributes
Adm structure- official – Amatyas, Mahamatras; high officials- Maharashtrikas;
New adm divisions-Rashtra were introd, districts= Ahara
Feudatories and Local Authority- three grades
a) Raja-right to strike coins
b) Mahabhoja
 c) Senapati- (commander-in-chief)appointed as provincial governor to
control tribal areas
d) Adm in rural areas was under Gaulmika,head of military regiment
Kataka, Skandhavara -military camps &settlements
Pliny mentioned that Andhra kingdom had large army consisting of infantry, cavalry ,elephants

Land Grants &Tax-Free Villages to Brahmanas,Buddhist monks that helped priestly groups attain higher status
Naneghat inscriptions (Mh) -tax exemptions given to lands granted to Buddhist
Land donation- dev of land-based social hierarchy and divisions in society

RELIGION- performed Vedic sacrifices like “Ashvamedha”, “Vajapeya”; worshipped Vaishnava Gods- Krishna/Vasudeva
Promotion of Mahayana Buddhism gained significanct following, particularly among artisan class
Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati in AP became imp Buddhist centres under Satavahanas and their successors, Ikshvakus

ARCHITECTURE- Rock-Cut Chaityas& Monasteries

Ex- Karle chaitya viharas in Nasik carry Nahapana and Gautamiputra inscriptions
Stupas-amravati
Nagarjunakonda- contained both Buddhist monuments and early Brahmanical brick temples
Satavahanas contributed greatly to embellishment of Buddhist stupa of Sanchi+ repaired under King Satakarni II

LANGUAGE- Prakrit + brahmi script

DECLINE OF EMPIRE-3rd century replaced by Ikshvakus, followed by Pallavas in Andhra and Kadambas in northern
Karnataka.

Gupta empire
Srigupta(founder)-240-280 adopted title- ‘Maharajas
Ghatotkacha-280-319 adopted title- ‘Maharajas
Chandragupta 1
Samudragupta
Chandragupta 2
Kumargupta 1-415-455 ad
Skandgupta -455-467
Vishnu gupta-540-550

3rd century AD after decline of Satavahanas, Kushans, Murundas(kinsmen of Kushans ruled central India from 230 AD to
250 AD after decline of Kushans in india)
 Vaishya origin- strong central govt
 Contemporary- vakatakas(central), kadambas+gangas(mh,kr); salankayakas(ap); pallavas(tn,ap); pandyas-kerala,
malavas & yaudheyas-raj
 Reasons for rise-fertile land,iron ore, silk trade with byzantine empire
Imp rulers-
1.Chandragupta I- 1st to be called Maharajadhiraja (great king of kings)
 Lichchavi was est Gana-sangha lying b/w Ganges-Nepal Terai
 No inscriptions or coins have survived
2. Samudragupta- policy of conquest
Allahabad pillar inscription (same inscription on which Ashoka’s policy is engraved), composed by Harisena in
Sanskrit, refers to his military campaigns
  Conquests- Forest kingdom of Vindhyan region (known as Atavika Rajya)
 Meghavarman (ruler of Sri Lanka) sent missionary to Samudragupta for permission to build Buddhist temple at
Gaya
 called ‘Napoleon of India’ by V.A. Smith, in sense that he never knew any defeat.
 performed Asvamedha sacrifice ,issued gold &silver coins with legend ‘restorer of Asvamedha’
 ardent follower of Vaishnavism +tolerant . also patron of great Buddhist scholar ‘Vasubandhu’
 a lover of poetry ,music, given title ‘Kaviraja’
3. Chandragupta II- after succession struggle with brother Ramagupta
 saw highest watermark of Gupta Empire& formed peak of Gupta’s territorial expansion
 title Vikramaditya, which 1st used by Ujjain ruler in 58 BC;other names -Vikrama, Devagupta, Devaraja
,Simhavikrama
 Ujjain-2nd capital
 1st Gupta ruler to issue silver coins.
 credited with maintaining in his court 9 luminaries/great scholars
name work name Work
Dhanvantari Physician Varahamihira Panchasiddhantika
Kalidasa Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Vikaramorvashiyam Amarasimha Amarakosha (Sanskrit lexicography
Vararuchi Vyakrna Kshapanaka Jyotishya sastra (Astrology)
sanku Silpasastra (Architecture) harisena Allahabad pillar inscription
Vittal bhat Mantra Shastra (Music)

 Fa Hein’s Visit- described people of Mathura-numerous,happy & people of Pataliputra -rich ,prosperous
o main purpose -to see land of Buddha ,collect Buddhist manuscripts from India
o valuable information on religious, socio-eco condition of Gupta empire
 alliance & conquest- married Kuberanaga, Naga princess of Central India; gave his daughter Prabhavati in
marriage to Vakataka prince Rudrasena II, who occupied a strategic position in Deccan; killed last ruler of Saka
satrap and assumed title ‘Sakari’ (meaning destroyer of sakas; Chandragupta II defeated northern rulers like
Huns, Kambojas and Kiratas; Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription mentions his extensive conquests
 seaports - Broach, Sopara, Cambay
4) Kumaragupta I/Sakraditya
 general peace and prosperity.
 foundation for Nalanda university
 branch of Huns from Central Asia made attempts
5) Skandagupta
 able to repulse attack by Huns
 Bhitari monolithic pillar inscription -account of Skandagupta’s reign

ADM-
 Gupta Kings claimed divine status. Ex- Samudragupta compared to Purusha (Supreme Being) in Allahabad
inscription.
 strong central govt
 Feudalism as institution began to take root during this period
King-
 God Vishnu-protector ,preserver
 connected with Gods through epithets like Parama-Daivata ( foremost worshipper of gods) and params-
bhagavata (foremost worshiper of Vasudeva Krishna) and Parameshvara
 Kingship-hereditary, but absence of firm practise of primogeniture
Ministers & official
 assisted in adm by council -cm, Senapati/commander-in-chief of army
 king maintained close contact with provincial adm through class of officials-Kumaramatyas(imp + paid in cash)
and Ayuktas.Recruitment not only confined to upper varnas
designation role designation role
Mantriparishad COM Akshapataladhikrita Royal record keeper
Amatya/sachiva Executive officer Saulkika Collector of custom/tolls
Sandhivigrahaka Minister-foreignaffairswar,peace Uparikas Provincial governor
Mahabaladhikrita,Mahadandanayaka Superior posts in army Mahapratiara Chief of palace guards
Mahashvapati Commander of cavalary Khadyatapakita Superintendentofroyalkitchen
Dandapashika Chief officer of police Dutakas Spies
pilupati Head of elephant dept asvapati Head of horse dept
narapati Head of footsoldiers Lokpala Provincial governor

Army –standing army thi, excellent horsemen, military designations-Baladhikrita and Mahabaladhikrita (commander of
infantry and cavalry)
 Vaishali seal mentions – RanabhandagarAdhikarana- office of military storehouse

Division of empire-bhuktis-vishyas-vithi-villages
 Provinces/desh/bhuktis admnstrd by uparikas
 Vishayas/distt headed by vishyapati
 Below distt level- vithi, bhumi, pathaka and peta+ Ayuktakas and Vithi-Mahattaras -officials in these areas
 Village lvl- Gramika &Gramadhyaksha;
 Damodarpur copper plate- reign of Budhagupta mentions Ashtabula-Adhikarana (a board of 8 members)
headed by Mahattara/village headman
 Urban adm/guilds/shrenis- manage own affairs
 Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II mentions Panchmandali a corporate body

Feudatory system- major part of empire held by feudatory chiefs/vassals/Samanta.

charters issued for vassals living on fringe of empire had Royal ‘Garuda’ seal. They had obligations like personal
attendance to king, paying him tribute presenting daughters for marriage
Ecomomy
 Nitisara, written by Kamandaka about royal treasury
 Agri- because of expansion of irrigation
o Crops , fields were fenced, and those who damage crops punished
o Kalidasa, s-India-famous for Pepper, Cardamom.
o Varahamihira- provide for plantation of fruit trees
o Paharpur Copper Plate Inscription: king sole proprietor of land &Ustapala maintained records of all land
transactions in district. Village accountant in village
 Irrigation- Narada Smriti, two kinds of dykes-
o Bardhya, which protected field from floods.
o Khara, which served purpose of irrigation
o Jalanirgamah - drains constructed to prevent inundation of fields
o most famous lake -Sudarsana Lake at foot of Girnar Hills in gj
 land classification during gupta period
o Kshetra- Cultivable land
o Khila -Waste land
o Aprahata -Jungle /Wasteland
o Vasti- Habitable land
o Gapata Saraha- Pastoral land
 Land grant system
o 3 types- agrahara grants- given to brahaman , hereditary,tax free
 Devagraha grant- in favour of Brahmin as well as gifts to merchants for repair and worship of
temples.
 Secular grant- to feudatories of Guptas
o emergence of priestly landlords at cost of local peasants
 o Religious functionaries were granted land free of tax forever, but they could collect all taxes from
peasants- local peasants and tribals were subjected to forced labour and reduced to serfs because of
caste classification
o priests can even punish criminals in lands granted to them

diff land tenure-

1.) Nivi dharma- Endowment of land under kind of trusteeship was prevalent in N &Central India ,Bengal.
2.) Nivi dharma aksayana-perpetual endowment. recipient could make use of income derived from it
3.) Aprada dharma- Income from land could be enjoyed, but recipient was not permitted to gift it to anyone.no adm
rights
4.) Bhumichchi-dranyaya- Right of ownership acquired by person who made barren land cultivable for 1st time. This
land was free from any rent liability

Kulyavapa & Dronavapa -diff measurements of land during Gupta period

Taxation
land taxes( Baga/Bhoga,) increased, trade& commerce decreased.
 Land tax- 1/4th to 1/6th of produce.
 villagers subjected to forced labour -‘Vishti’considered sort of tax paid by people
 Iranyavesti - forced labour
 Different kind of tax-
Bhaga King’s customary share of produce normally – 1/6th of produce paid by cultivators.
Bhoga Periodic supply of fruits, firewood, flowers, etc., which village had to provide to king
Kara Periodic tax levied on villagers (not a part of annual land tax)
Bali(oppressive tax) voluntary offering by people to king but later became compulsory
Udianga(extra tax) Either police tax for maintenance of police stations or water tax.
uparikara extra tax
Hiranya tax payable on gold coins, but in practise, it was king’s share of certain crops paid in kind.
Vata-bhuta Different kinds of cess for maintenance of rites for winds (Vata) and spirits (Bhuta)
Halivakara plough tax paid by every cultivator owning plough
sulka royal share of merchandise brought into town/harbour by merchants=customs &tolls
Klipta & upaklipta sale &purchase of lands

Trade - internal , external trade flourished- no fear of thieves

 Narada & Brihaspati Smritis describe -organisation & activities of guilds
 2 types of traders-
o Sresti - settled at particular place.
o Sarthavaha - caravan trader who carried his goods to diff places.
 Usury (lending of money at exorbitant rate of interest) was in practise
 Fa Hien- Tamralipti - imp port in Bengal
 important ports( Gupta)- Calliena (Kalyan) & Chaul (Mh). Broach & Cambay (Gj). Kadura &Ghantasala ( Ap)
markets of Male (Malabar), Mangarouth (Mangalore), Salopatana, Nalopatana and Pandopatana on the Malabar
coast

mining & metallurgy- iron ore- Bihar and copper- Rj

Amarasimha, Varahamihira and Kalidasa made frequent mention of existence of mines

Coinage-
 gold coins contain legends & symbol, about titles ,sacrifices performed by Gupta monarchs, Goddess Lakshmi is
represented as wife of God Vishnu on other side
 closely resemble Greek & Kushan coins
 Samudragupta issued 8 types of gold coins ;playing Lute (veena)-reprsnted on
  Chandragupta II and his successors issued gold, silver and copper coins

Society - Brahmana supremacy continued

 castes became rigid and proliferated into numerous sub-castes
 position of women- prohibited from studying religious texts
o Swayamvara was given up, denied property rights, change of women’s gotra upon marriage after 5th
century
o Sati gained social acceptance
 Eran inscription of Bhanugupta provides the first evidence of sati
 Sudras - earlier appeared as servants, slaves and agricultural labourers, now became agriculturists.
o distinction between Vaishyas and Sudras got blurred.
o Untouchability had slowly begun during this period

Religion- Brahmanism, worship of Shiva ,Vishnu

 1st time-image of Vishnu, Shiva ,other god. Worship of new god - Krishna started
 Puranas was composed during this period. Vishnu - god of devotion and saviour of varna system
 Vishnupurana’ and ‘Vishnusmriti’(a law book) were written in his honour
 Bhagwadgita appeared in 4thcen AD, taught devotion to Lord Krishna,stressed performance of function assigned
to each varna
 Fa Hein called Gangetic Valley ‘ island of Brahmanism’
 Idol worship -common feature
 Agri festivals were given religious colour& became source of income for priests.
 Buddhism flourished in n-w India but was in state of neglect in Gangetic Valley- no longer received royal
patronage
 Jainism flourished in w & s India.great Jain council -Valabhi was held, Jain canon of Svetambaras was compiled
 policy of tolerance

judicial system
 civil & criminal law were clearly demarcated
 Elaborate laws were laid down about inheritance.
 diff courts like Karana, Adhikarana, Aharmasana
 Laws were based on differences in varnas
 Punishments were not severe

Art & architecture- Golden Age

1)Buddhist art-
 Sculptures- Bronze image of Buddha in Sultanganj ; Images of Buddha from Mathura and Sarnath.
 Paintings- Ajanta , bagh cave(mp), sirigiya( sri lanka)
 Stupas- samat(up), ratnagiri (orissa), Mirpur khas(sind)
2)temple architecture- nagara & Dravidian style evolved but lost due to huns invasion
 Few brick temple remained. Eg- Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhaitari in Ghazipur, Nachnakutara in Panna and Deogarh
in Jhansi
 brick structure of Nalanda University belongs to this period
3) stone & metal sculptures-
 Copper image of Buddha at Nalanda and the Sultanganj Buddha
 Stone sculpture of erect Buddha from Sarnath
 Stone sculpture of great Boar (Varaha) at entrance of cave at Udayagiri.
 Prayaga Prashasthi (Allahabad Pillar Inscription)- engraved on Asokan pillar & composed by Harisena in classical
Sanskrit using Nagari script. Samudragupta is compared to Purusha (Supreme Being)
4) terracotta & pottery
 Red ware pottery
 Clay figurines were used both for religious and secular purposes
5) literature- secular+ religious literature
 Sanskrit-official lang
 Last phase of smriti lit
 Nagari script evolved from Brahmi script
 evolution of many Prakrit forms such -Suraseni used in Mathura and its vicinity, Ardh Magadhi spoken in Awadh
and Bundelkhand and Magadhi in modern Bihar
 plays characterstics- all comedies, characters of higher and lower classes do not speak same language. Women
and Sudras speak Prakrit, while others speak Sanskrit
o Bhasa wrote 13 plays- Pratijna Augandharayana, 2. Svapnavasavadatta, 3. Charudatta, 4. Pancaratra, 5.
Madhyama Vyayoga, 6.Pratima-nataka, 7. Duta Vakyam, 8. Duta Ghatotkacha, 9. Karnabharam, 10.
Urubhanga, 11. Avimaraka, 12. Balacarita, and 13. Abhiseka
 Puranas in their present form were composed during this period. There are 18 Puranas, imp- Bhagavatha,
Vishnu, Vayu , Matsya Puranas
 Mahabharatha & Ramayana were written in present form during this period
 Prominent Buddhist writers of Gupta period - Arya Deva, Arya Asanga, Vasubandhu and Dignaga
o earlier Buddhist works were in Pali, and the later ones in Sanskrit
o first regular Buddhist work on logic was written by Vasubandhu.
 Jain literature first appeared in Prakrit and later shifted to Sanskrit
o Jain writer Vimala wrote the Jaina version of Ramayana
o Siddasena Divakara laid the foundation of logic among the Jainas
Author-work
Sudraka- --Mrichchhakatika (The Little Clay Cart)
Palakapya--- Hastayurveda/veterinary sci
Bharavi--- Kiratarjuniya - story of conflict b/w Arjuna and Shiva.
Vagbhata--- Astanga Samgraha (Summary of 8 branches of medicine).
Dandin ---Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharitha
Brahmagupta --Brahmasphutasiddhanta and Khandakhadyaka
Subhandu ---Vasavadatta
Amarasimha ---Amarakosha (thesaurus in Sanskrit) [UPSC 2020]
Vishnu Sharma--- Panchatantra
Chandrogomia ---Chandravyakaranam (Sanskrit Grammar)
Patanjali ---Mahabhashya (Sanskrit Grammar/commentary on Panini ‘s Ashtadhyayi
Kamadandaka----Nitisara
Kalidasa---- Abhijnanasakuntalam(drama)
Plays – Malavikagnimitram(love story of King Agnimitra and court dancer Malavika)
Vikramorvashiya
Epics - Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava
Lyrics - Ritusamhara and Meghaduta
Vishakadatta--- Devichandraguptam(story of Gupta King Ramagupta who decides to surrender his queen
Dhruvadevi to Shaka invader but his younger brother Chandragupta enters enemy camp disguised as
queen and kills enemy. In the climax of the play, Chandragupta dethrones Ramagupta and marries
Dhruvadev)
Mudrarakshasa(ascent of king Chandragupta Maurya)

Science- evolution of zero and decimal system

1) Aryabhatta-
a. Aryabhatiyam: Deals with arithmetic, geometry and algebra.
b. Surya Siddhanta: Examined true cause of solar eclipses
c. 1st to declare that earth was spherical in shape and that it rotated on its own axis
2) Varahamihira
a. Panchasiddhantika - on 5 astronomical systems. summary of Surya Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta,
Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta, Paitāmaha Siddhanta.
 b. Brihadsamhita - encyclopedia on astronomy, physical geography, botany and natural history.
c. Brihat Jataka – Astrology
3) medical trio of ancient India were Vagbhata, Charaka and Susruta.
a. Charaka and Susruta lived before Gupta age
4) Navanitakam was medical work -Gupta age-manual of recipes, formulation and prescriptions.
5) Hastyayurveda/veterinary science by Palakapya, attests to advances made in medical science during Gupta

Nalanda university- Kumargupta laid foundation

 acclaimed Mahavihara and a large Buddhist monastery
 UNESCO World Heritage site
 flourished under patronage of Gupta Empire in 5-6th centuries; later under Harsha, emperor of Kannauj.
 Nalanda attracted scholars and students from Tibet, China, Korea and Central Asia
 contact with Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia, and one of kings built a monastery in complex.
 Nalanda was ransacked ,destroyed by army of Mamluk dynasty of Delhi Sultanate under Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1200
 Dharmapala, Chandrapala, Shilabhadra, Bhadrihari, Jayasena, Devakara,Matanga - esteemed teachers/scholars
 another Chinese pilgrim I-Tsing visited Nalanda
 monastery was supported by revenue of 200 villages.

Fall of empire
 Hun invasion
 Rise of feudatories in Bengal,bihar, up

Stone pillar inscriptions Mandasor (mp) in 532 AD -powerful king Yasodharman if malwa who overthrown huns .

Harshavardhana
Gupta Empire’s decline, N-India fragmented into various kingdoms: Maithriyas (Gj, Capital - Valabhi), Maukharis (Agra
and Oudh states) and Vakatakas (w-Deccan)

Sources- Madhuban copper plate inscription.

 Sonpat inscription on copper seal.
 Banskhera copper plate inscription.
 Nalanda inscription on clay seals.

Rulers-
Pushyabhutis est independent state at Thaneswar (lying n of Delhi b/w Sutlej -Yamuna) - founder
 they initially held military role under Gupta Empire and ascended to authority following Gupta’s decline.
 Prabhakara Vardhana (580–605 AD) fought Gurjaras, Huns, and extended his influence upto Malwa and Gujarat.
He strategically formed an alliance by marrying his daughter, Rajyasri, to Grahavarman, the Maukhari king of
Kanauj.
 Rajavardhana (605-606 AD) succeeded his father Prabhakaravardhana. &treacherously murdered by Sasanka,
Gauda ruler of Bengal, after which Harshavardhana, his younger brother, assumed throne

Harshavardhan/ last great Hindu ruler of N-India

 accepted throne on advice of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva with title of Rajputra and Siladitya.
 kingdoms of Thaneswar , Kanauj became united under Harsha’s rule. Consequently, Harsha transferred his
capital to Kanauj
 military conquest- killed Deva Gupta of Malwa, who tried to covet Rajyasri (his sister).
 o formed alliance with Kamarupa (Assam) against Gauda ruler Sasanka. After Sasanka’s death, Harsha
subjugated Gauda Empire.
Pulikesin II -title “Parameswara” to celebrate his victory. Inscriptions in Pulikesin’s capital, Badami, confirm his triumph
over Harsha
 contemporary of T’ang emperor, Tai Tsung.
 Adm- more feudal and decentralised.
 Com- mantri parishad include:
Avanti Min of Foreign Relations, War skandagupta Chief Commandant of Elephant Force
Simhananda Commander-in-Chief Dirghadhvajas Royal Messenger
Kuntala Chief Cavalry Officer Mahaprathihara Chief of palace Guard
banu Keeper of Records Sarvagata Secret Service Dept

Revenue dept-
 Hiuen Tsang, traders had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations.
 Types of tax-
o Bhaga (land tax in kind, 1/6th of produce).
o Hiranya (cash tax from farmers and merchants).
o Bali (not well-documented)
 Land grants- to officials seem to have started during Harsha’s rule.
o Crown land/revenue was divided into 4 parts:
 Part I - for carrying out affairs of state.
 Part II - for paying ministers and officers of crown.
 Part III - for rewarding men of letters.
 Part IV - for charity to religious institutions
Judicial adm- stricter criminal laws than Gupta
 Mimamsakas - to dispense justice
 Hieun tsang – work ‘Si-Yu-ki’ (Buddhist Records of Western World).
o known as “prince of pilgrims”
o 5yr at University of Nalanda
o carried with him relics of Buddha, Buddha images and manuscripts.
o observed-
 Though he was robbed, law & order seemed perfect due to strong law enforcement.
 Principal penalties-corporal punishment for serious offenses though it was avoided because of
Buddhism’s influence.
 Maiming as punishment for offences against social morality,defiance of law
Adm divisions-
 divided into multiple provinces,province into Bhuktis. Bhukti into several Vishayas.Vishaya into Pathakas.
 HarshaCharita mentions officials like Bhogapathi, Ayuktha, Pratpalaka-purusha, etc overseeing local adm.
 Cities & town- Hieun Tsang, India- land of innumerable villages
o Pataliputra lost its prominence replace by Kanauj.
o Reasons of decline- Trade ,commerce, use of coins ,tolls declined in Pataliputra during reign of Harsha.
 Power shifted to military camps (Skandhavaras)
 Kanauj-situated in elevated area which made it place of strategic importance as it was easily
fortified.
 situated in middle of doab, which allowed rulers to control both east and west wings of doab
 Charitable initiatives- free hospitals, caring for sick &poor,rest houses (Dharamshala) for travellers est by Harsha
Army-
 4 divisions (chaturanga) by hieun tsang
o Chatas & Bhatas-ordinary soldiers.
o Brihadisvaras- Cavalry officers.
o Baladhikritas and Mahabaladhikritas-infantry officers.
Society-
Religious policy- embraced Buddhism influence of his sister Rajyasri( Mahayana).
 summoned 2 Buddhist assemblies, 1-Kanauj and another at Prayag (known as (Mahamoksha Parishad).
 golden statue of Buddha was consecrated in a monastery-kannauj assembly
 prayag assembly- offered lavish gifts to Buddhist monks during the assembly.
Caste system- 4 varna
 Brahmins and Kshatriya led simple life, but nobles& priests led luxurious life.
 Agriculturalists were Shudras
 no social conflict
 People-honest not deceitful/treacherous in their conduct
Status of women
 Purdah system but not by higher class
 Sati –Yasomatidevi, wife of Prabhakara Vardhana, immolated herself after death of her husband
Education- Sanskrit + vedas taught orally not written
Cultural progress under harsha-
 Court poet- Bana, known for “Harshacharita” and “Kadambari,”
Harshacharita -1st formal biography of king
 Harsha wrote Sanskrit plays like Priyadarsika ,Rathnavali, Nagananda.
 gifted liberally for promotion of edu
 Temples & monasteries-educational centres. Renowned scholars imparted education in monasteries

Kingdoms of South
1.CHALUKYAS
Sources-i) Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta
ii) Aihole inscription of Pulikesin II provide details of the Pallava - Chalukya conflict
iii)lit- Kannada work-Kavirajamarga & Vikramarjuna-vijayam (also called Pampa- bharata, by Pampa)
iv) Nannaya’s Mahabharatam in Telugu.
v) writings of Arab travelers, geographers such as Sulaiman, Al-Masudi, and Ibn Hauka
poems-
 of Vaishnavite Azhwars, later compiled as the Nalayira Divya Prabhandam
 Saiva literature, canonised as the Panniru Tirumurai
 Thevaram, composed by Appar (Thirunavukkarasar), Sambandar (Thirugnanasambandar) and Sundarar; and
Thiruvavasagam by Manickavasagar

Imp ruler-
1) Pulikesin I (543-566 AD)- Established the Chalukya dynasty by declaring independence from the Kadambas. Z
 Performed Ashwamedha yagna
2) Kirtivarman (566-597 AD)-- Founded the capital, Badami.
3) Pulikesin II (609-642 AD)- Defeated Mangalesha and proclaimed himself as king (described in the Aihole
inscription).
 defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of river Narmada & After defeating Harshavardhana, Pulikesin II
assumed the title of Parameswaran & aihole insc about it composed by ravikriti in sanskrit
 Defeated the Kadambas of Banvasi and Gangas of Talakad (Mysore)
 attack Kanchipuram was repelled by Pallava ruler Mahendravarman
 Pulikesin II, also known as Sathyasraya (the abode of truth
  died in the battle with Pallava King Narasimha Varman I.
4) mid-eighth century, the Badami Chalukyas were subdued and replaced by the Rashtrakutas

ADMINISTRATION-
 king - head of the administration
 The elder son was appointed as Yuvaraja while the king was in office.
 according to Dharma-sastra and Nitisastra eg- Pulikesin I was well-versed in Manu-sastra, Puranas, and Itihasas
 assumed titles such as Maharajan, Sathyasrayan and Sri-Pritivi-Vallaban, Maharajadhiraja, Dharma Maharaja,
Bhattarakan
 Royal insignia: The wild boar (Varaha avatar of Vishnu)
 state was divided politically for the sake of administration into Vishayam, Rastram, Nadu and Grama
 Vishayapatis exercised power at the behest of the kings. Samantas were feudal lords functioning under the
control of the state
 Royal Women The Chalukya dynasty of Jayasimhan I line appointed royal ladies as provincial governors. They
also issued coins and inscriptions. Eg: Vijya Bhattariga
 Categories of Ministers were:
o Pradhana (head minister)
o Mahasandhi-Vigrahika (minister of foreign affairs).
o Amatya (revenue minister)
o Samaharta (minister of exchequer)
 Provincial, distt & village adm
Grampohis & Village officials Nala-kavundas Traditional revenue
Gramkudas officials of the villages
Kamunda/pokigan Central figures in Mahapurush maintaining order and
village administration, peace in the village.
appointed by the kings.
Maha-samanta Provincial governors, Mahajanam Maintain law & order
with some of them of village
maintaining troops.
Mahatras Prominent village men Nagarapatis/purapatis Officials of town
vishyapati Chief of ‘Vishaya’ Karana/gramani Village acc
(district)

Religion- patronised both Saivism and Vaishnavism

 bore titles such as Parama-Vaishana and Parama-Maheswara.
 gave a prominent place to Kartikeyan, the war god, and the Saiva monasteries became centres for
popularising Saivism
 patronised heterodox sects like Jainism and donated lands to them.
o Ravikirti, the poet-laureate of Pulakesin II, was a Jain scholar
o Kirtivarman II, a Jain temple in Annigere was built
o prince Krishna appointed Gunapatra, a Jain monk, as his master
o Pujyapatar, the author of JainentriyaViyakarnam, was a Jain monk, a contemporary of Chalukyan
ruler Vijayadityan
Literature –sanskrit inscriptions on pillars-aihole, mahakudam
 Kannada as the local language and Sanskrit as the language of culture.
 Pulikesin II authored a grammar work, Saptavataram, in Sanskrit.
Architecture- introduced the technique of building temples using soft sandstones.
 grouped into two: Excavated cave temples and Structural temples
 Badami is known for both structural and excavated cave temples
 Pattadakal (Eg: Virupaksha temple) and Aihole (Eg: Lad Khan temple) are famous for their structural temples
Paintings-
  Vakataka style in painting. + incarnation of Vishnu mostly
 most popular Chalukya painting is in the palace built by King Mangalesan (597-609 AD). It is a scene of the ball
being watched by members of the royal family and others

2) PALLAVAS
 Pallava means ‘creeper’ (Sanskrit version of word ‘tondi
 Pastoral local tribe; Capital at kanchi
 Sources-
o Buddhist sources (Deepavamsa ,Mahavamsa - written in Pali)
o accounts of Chinese travellers Hiuen Tsang and Itsing

Imp rulers-
1) Shivaskandavarman-4th cent
 Hirahadagalli plates referred to Sivaskandavarman as ‘Agnisttomavajapeyasvamedhayaji’ (one who
conducted Agnistoma, Vajapeya and Asvamedha sacrifices
2) Simhavishnu-6th cent
 defeated Ikshvakus and laid firm foundation for Pallava empire
 defeated Kalabhras
 est his capital at Kanchi. + title of ‘Avanisimha’ (Lion of Earth)
3) Mahendravarman I
 defeated by Chalukyan ruler Pulekshin II at Pullalur
 was poet, musician ,great patron of art
o wrote Mattavilasa Prahasanna
o began construction of cave temple at Mahabalipuram
o was earlier Jaina but later took up Shaivism under influence of Appar
4) Narasimhavarman I /Mahamalla
 defeated Pulkeshin II with help of the Sri Lankan prince, Manavarma.
 claimed victories over Cholas, Cheras, and Kalabhras.
 dispatched two naval expeditions to help Manavarm
 constructed port of Mamallapuram and Rathas at Mahabalipuram.
 in honour of Narasimhavarman I that Mahabalipuram is also known as Mamallapuram.
5) Mahendravarman II- Pallava−Chalukya conflict continued for decades, and he died fighting the Chalukyas
6) Parameshvaraman I/ Ugradanda- ‘destroyer of city of Ranarasika’
 Ranarasika- title of Vikramaditya I.
 Kuram copper plates record his military achievement
7) Narsimhavarman II /Rajasimha- constructed Rajasimheshvara/Kailashnatha Temple ,Shore Temple at
Mahabalipuram
8) Dantivarman- iske time p Rashtrakuta king Govind III invaded Kanchi.
9) Nandivarman III- Defeated Pandyas in Battle of Sripurambiyam/Thirupurambiyam, aided by w-Gangas and
Cholas
10) Aparajita- died in battle against Chloa king Aditya I

Adm-
 Kingship-divine origin and hereditary.
 titles like Maharajadhiraja (borrowed from north India), who was aided by a council of minister
o Amatyas Counsellors
o Mantrins Diplomats
o Rahasyadhikrita Private secretary
 o Manikkappandaram-Kappan Treasury officer
o Kodukkappillai Officer of gifts
o Kosaadhyaksa Treasury supervisor
 Pallava queens did not take active part in adm of kingdom, but they built shrines, and installed images of various
deities, and endowed temples
o image of Queen Rangapataka, queen of Rajasimha, is found in inscription in Kailasanatha temple in
Kanchipuram
 Judicial courts were termed Adhikarna Mandapa
o Dharmadhikarins - Judges.
o Fines are mentioned in Kasakudi plates of Nandivarman as:
 Karanadandam (fines in superior court).
 Adhikaranadandam (fines at dist level)
 District officers collaborated closely with local autonomous institutions and advised provincial governors
 Policy implementation was done through meeting b/w district representatives and assemblies of villagers
Land grants
 most common practice was cultivating crown lands through tenants
 Land ownership was vested in the king, who had auth to grant revenue and land to officers and Brahmins
 Villages with mixed-caste populations were subject to land revenue payments
 Brahmadeya villages- gifted to individual Brahmins or groups, exempting them from taxation and leading to
increased prosperity
 Devadana villages were donated to temples
o Revenue was directed to temple authorities rather than the state
o temple authorities assisted the village by providing employment in temple service
 Urrukkattukottam, near Puducherry, 11 plates held together by copper ring and stamped with Pallava royal seal
(depicting bull and lingam) were discovered.
Village life
 Village assembly, known as Sabha, dealt with various village matters, including land, irrigation, records, and
crime
 Sabha-subordinate to dist council, which worked with Nadu or dist adm
 Sabha was formal institution but closely collaborated with urar (an informal village gathering).
 The village headman served as link b/w village assembly& official adm.
 Brahman-populated villages maintained records on assembly and council operations.
 Village courts also handled minor criminal cases.

Tank irrigation
 Eripatti/tank land, donated by individuals, and the revenue generated from this land was reserved for
maintaining the village tank
 built through cooperative effort of village, and its water was shared by all cultivators

revenue & tax

 Land grants recorded on copper plates
 Tax on villages-
o Land revenue paid by cultivators to state (1/6th to 1/10th of produce
o Local taxes for village services like repairing irrigation works and illuminating temples.
 Additional tax
 War loot contributed to state’s revenue

Army
 Standing army + no chariots, less elephants
 est navy &constructed dockyards at Mamallapuram and Nagapattinam.

Trade
Kanchipuram –trading hub
 merchants had to obtain licence
 initially, barter system but later, Pallavas introduced gold and silver coins
 Merchant organisations like Manigramam est to regulate trade. Traders formed guilds, identifying themselves as
Sudesi,Nanadesi(Foreign merchants, separate flag with fig bull at centre; enjoyed issuing virasasanas- {prasasti
describing their brave and heroic deeds as traders and as a fighter} ), Ainurruvar, and others.

maritime trade with south-east Asia

 guild’s jurisdiction extended over Southeast Asia, with its chief -Pattanswamy, Pattnakilar, and Dandanayaka in
inscriptions and their members were referred to as Ayyavole-Parameswariyar
 Mamallapuram served as crucial seaport for trade with Southeast Asia, which included 3 significant kingdoms:
Kambuja(Cambodia), Champa (Annam), and Srivijaya (the southern Malaya peninsula and Sumatra)

Society
 caste system became firmly established, and Sanskrit gained high regard
 Aryanisation is reflected in transformation of educational institutions. Initially, education was controlled by Jains
and Buddhists, but gradually the Brahmins superseded them
 Sat-kshatryas ( group within Kshatriya) played imp role in ruling state. ,engaged in trading& warfare, enjoyed
right to read Vedas

Religion
Jains initially used Sanskrit and Prakrit for their religious lit but later adopted Tamil
Mahendravarman I shifted his allegiance from Jainism to Saivism, leading to loss of royal patronage for Jains. He became
intolerant towards Jainism and destroyed Jain monasteries.

Monasteries & mathas

8th century, Mathas gained popularity, serving as combination of rest house, feeding centre, edu institution

Sanskrit lit- official lang

Mahendravarman I composed Mathavilasa Prahasanam in Sanskrit
Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi and Dashakumaracharita by Dandin

1st Pallava rulers issued their charters in Prakrit. 2nd line of Pallava rulers issued their charters in Sanskrit.

3) IKSHAVAKU (225-350 AD)

 arose after Satavahanas declined with nagarjunakonda as capital
 local tribe

4)kadambas of banavasi
 founded by Mayurasharman, who defeated Pallavas with help of forest tribes
 feudatories of Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas.
 2 lineage in 11th cent—
o Kadambas of Hangal (in Dharwar district)
o Kadambas of Goa founded by sheshtha-1 (Dharwar, Karwar and Belgaum districts)
o Both claimed title Banavasipuravaradhisvara

Adm
title of Konkanadhisa, Konkana Chakravarti (Lord of Konkana), Paschim - Samudradhisvara (Lord of the western ocean)
and Mahamandaleshvara.
region was divided into visayas (dist) administered by maneyas.lowest unit was village (grama) governed by grama
mukhya, Urodeya or Gavunda. They maintained their army and performed judicial functions
 economy & trade
land grant- liberal grants to Buddhists, Jainas ,Shaivas
maritime act- port, Ganadevi(guj)
Jayakesi I, assumed title of PaschimSamudradhishvara (Lord of Western Ocean), which suggests imp of oceanic trade.

Sangam Age(3rd cnt BC - 3rd cnt AD)

 Also called Muchchangam
Sources-
o Megalithic burials of S-India: Buried dead in urns made of red pottery diff from cist burial.
o Cist Burial: small stone-built coffin-like box is used to hold bodies of dead ,completely underground.
o Urn burial: After death, corpses are cremated, ashes are collected& put in urn
o Historic ports & capitals like Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Uraiyur and Alagankulam.
o Buddhist stupas ,chaityas in Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda
o Tolkappiyam (Tamil text) 5 epics belong to post-Sangam times
o Periplus of Erythrean Sea, Pliny - Elder’s Natural History, Ptolemy’s Geography, Vienna Papyrus and a
Roman Map called Peutingerian Table
 Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas ruled this age known as Muvendar/three crowned kings.

THREE SANGAMS OVER THE YEARS

place president Other scholars Imp work
Madurai Sage agastyar Agastya, Murugavel,Mudinagarayar,Murunjiyur Agatiyam, Paripadal, Mudukurugu, Kalariyavirai.
No literary work of 1st Sangam available
Kapadapuram Agastya Irundiyar, Tolkappiyar, Karungoli, Pandurangan, Tolkappiyam Mapuram, Isainunukam,
Tarainamaran, and Vellurkappiyanar Bhutapuram, Kali, Kuruku and Vendali
madurai Nakkiralu Thiruvalluvar, Valluvar, Ilango Adigal, Seethalai Pattupattu, Ettutogai, Pathinen Kilkanakku, and
Sathanar, Nakkiranar, Kapilar, Paranar, the Kural, Thirukkural
Auvaiyar, Mangudi Marudanar
Sangan texts
Classical Sangam corpus consists- Ettuthogai(8Anthologies)
Tholkappiyam, attributed to Tholkappiyar, earliest Tamil grammatical text, dealing with poetry , society ,culture of times
Pathupattu (10 long songs)collections -2400 poems composed by Panar (wandering bards) and Pulavar (poets).

Women poets-30
Prominent- Avvaiyar
Post sangam text
Patinen Kilkanakku (18 minor works) deals with ethics,moral codes. most imp-Thirukkural and Naladiyar
Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal; Manimekalai by Seethalai Sathanar –imp epics
Silappadikaram -love story in which dignitary called Kovalan prefers courtesan called Madhavi of Kaveripattanam to his
wedded wife Kannagi from noble family
Manimekalai- adventures of daughter born of union of Kovalan and Madhavi

Sangam polity-3lvl of rulers

kizhar Vendar- Kings who controlled larger/fertile territories velir
heads of villages/small Adopt titles to distinguish themselves from velir+ cmmn controlled mainly hilly ,forest areas located
territory people b/w Muvendar’s fertile territories
later known- nadu.(
chiefs of tribal absolute pwrs over his subjects, condcted Vedisacrifices Notable Chiefs - Athiyaman, Pari, Ay, Evvi,
communities living in ,advised by committee- “Aimperunkulu ‘’ which and Irungo ruled resource-rich regions
specific areas) comprised Ministers (Amaichchar), Priests (Anthanar),
Generals, Envoys (Dutas or thuthar), and Spies (orrar). patronised poets
+ advised by imperial court- Orasavai /Vettavai and court
poets held military , often clashing and
occasionally uniting against main kings
kings of Sangam age - diff titles-Vanavaramban,
Vanavan, Villavar (Chera rulers),Senni, Valavan and Killi Satiyaputra (Athiyaman) in Asokan
(Chola rulers), Thennavar and Minavar (Pandyarulers) inscription is Velir chief in Sangam poems

 Vattakirutal: king defeated in battle committed ritual suicide by starving himself to death

Society
 Sharp inqualities- affluent dwelled in brick ,mortar houses, while poor lived in huts,simpler structures
o Brahmanas 1st appeared during Sangam era in Tamil land. Many worked as poets. An ideal king would
never hurt them
o Kshatriya,Vaisya not appear as regular varna in sangam text. Though warrior class was not absent.
o Captains of army received title of “Enadi” at a formal ceremony
o Civil and military offices held by Vallalas/rich peasants
o ruling caste -Arasar and had marriage relations with Vallalas (4th Caste)
o Large landowners-vellalar, ordinary ploughmen-uzhavar, landless labourers including slaves-kadaisiyar
and adimai
o Low-class artisans (Pulaiyans) were responsible for crafting charpayis

Tamil eco-zones- divided into 5

1.kurinji---- Hilly region- hunting, gathering activities.
2.marutham--- Riverine tract- agriculture using ploughs and irrigation
3.mullai--- Forest region-pastoralism +shifting cultivation.
4.neythal--- Coastal land- fishing ,salt production
5.palai--- Arid and parched land-cattle lifting and robbery

Sangam eco
Revenue- foreign & domestic trade imp source; custom & transit duties ; spoils of war
 Tamil lit mentions irai(regular contribution ),tirai(tribute)-2 types of contributions received by chieftains
 Evidence of taxation is found on highways ,in port of Kaviripattinam
 Agri provided regular income, though share of King not specified
Trade –
 Barter common + use of coins , long distance trade
 Sangam text “Manimegalai” mentions Magadha artisans, Maratha mechanics, Malva smiths, and Yavana
carpenters working with Tamil craftsmen
 Umanar/salt merchants
 Chattu -mobile merchants/itinerant traders

Craft production ----Maduraikanchi (written by Mangudi Maruthanar) describes day and night markets offering diverse
crafted items

Army- maintained regular from taxes of peasants

Religion
1)Buddhism – 1st apppreance in ashoka period, less presnt in tn
2)Jainism- mostly in tn
3)brahminism
 Satavahanas, Sangam kings, and Ikshvahus supported Vedic sacrifices
 Worship of Vishnu
 Megalith practice( people offered paddy in burial)
 Cremation was introduced, but inhumation was not abandoned.
 Local god Murugan (also known as Subramaniya) was worshipped by people

CHOLAS/ Cholamandalam or Coromandel

Ruled b/w velar & pennar river
Capital- Uraiyur, near Thiruchirapalli town (Known for Cotton trade
Puhar, or Kaviripattinam, alternative royal residence and chief port town
efficient navy that sailed as far as mouth of Ganga, Irrawady ,Malay archipelago.

Ruler- karikalan/tirumavalam
 transferred capital to Puhar (Poompuhar)
 Pattinappalai by poet Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar described trade prospered under him.
 Military achievemnts- defeated cheras, pandyas with support from 11 velir chiefs at battle of venni
o 2nd battle at Vagaipparandalai, he defeated 9 Princes.
 built many irrigation tanks and Killanai dam (Grand Anicut) across Kaveri River
 Karikalan’s death led to succession dispute b/w Puhar and Uraiyur Chola branches

CHERAS
 2main Chera branches: 1st ruled Vanji, 2nd Poraiya branch ruled Karur.
 ports like Musiri ,Tondi
 Pugalur inscriptions- mention 3 generations of Chera kings
 Prominent kings include Imayavaramban, Nedun-cheralathan and Senguttuvan
 Chellirumporai minted coins in his name

Imp kings
1) Udiyan Cheral- earliest Chera King lived during reign of Satavahana King Satakarni II
2) Nedum cheral adan--confront Yavanas,whom he defeated earned title “Imayavaramban” thrgh their humiliation
a. Ilango Adigal, youngperson, became ascetic& authored ‘Silappadikaram’
3) Senguttuvan(red chera)
a. Greatest king, proctected port of musiri from piracy
b. contemporary to Yagnasri Satakarni of Satavahanas
c. defeated pirates/’Kadambas’ and earned title ‘Kadal-Pirakka Hiya’
d. initiated 1st diplomatic mission to China from South India
e. introduced Pattini cult in Tn venerating Kannagi as exemplary wife.

PANDYAS
 1st mentioned by Megasthenes, who said their kingdom was famous for pearls.+described Pandyan society as
being matriarchal
 territory- capital at Madurai, controlled port -Nelkynda
 main port- : Korkai (near confluence of Tampraparani with Bay of Bengal
o Korkai is mentioned in Periplus as “Kolkoi”, known for pearl fishery and chank diving
 Trade- sent embassies to Roman emperor Augustus.
o Horses were imported by sea into kingdom
 Imp kings
1)vadimbalambaninra-known as nediyon /earliest king
2) Padagasalai Mudukudumi – Peruvazhuthi
 Maduraikanchi of Mangudi Marudan mentions him.
 Velvikkudi copper plates of 8th century mention land donated to Brahmans.
 Issued coins with legend “Peruvazhuthi ‘’ to commemorate his performance of Vedic sacrifices
3)Nedunchezhiyan- title of ‘Aryappadaikadanda’.

Decline- due to invasions of Kalabhras.

dynasty region capital Imp ruler Imp ports emblem
Cheras Kerala Vanji Cheran senguttuvan Musiri, tundi Bow & arrow
cholas tn uraiyur Karikala Kaveripattinam/puhar Tiger
pandyas tn madurai nedunchezhuyan Nelkynda, korkai fish

Age of kalabhras/dark age/interregnum(post sangam)

period b/w Sangam Age& Pallava-Pandya era

Jainism, Buddhism gained influence
leading orthodox Vedic-Puranic scholars depicted Kalabhra rulers negatively
Kalabhra kingdom was eventually overthrown by Pandyas in the mid-6th century AD
Dark age-disapperance of 3 tamil kingdoms, gud traits of tamil culture
era as transition period, with emergence of larger state societies under Pallavas in northern Tn and Pandyas in south.