Sothi culture 4600 BC

Jomie ( not proto harappan ) 1500BC

Kit diji 3300 BC
Amri 3600 BC

India - Research on stone age started in 1863

In 1871, the Archaeological Survey was established as a separate department, and Alexander Cunningham was appointed as its
first Director-General. In 1901, during the tenure of Lord Curzon, it was centralized as Archaeological Survey of India and John
Marshall was appointed in 1902 as its fi rst Director-General. *National Human Museum, which was renamed as Indira Gandhi
National Human Museum is located in Bhopal (M.P.). It is an autonomous organization under the Department of Culture.

father of Indian pre-history - Robert Bruce Foote

Paleolithic Soan valley and Potwar Plateau, Siwalik hills ,  Chopper-chopping pebble pieces - Sohan river
Old Stone Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh , Adamgarh hill in valley of Punjab (Pakistan).
Age Narmada valley, Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh,  handaxe pieces of equipment - Vadamadurai and
Attirampakkam near Chennai Attirapakkam near Madras.
 the statue of bone-made Mother Goddess -
Lohanda Nala region of Belan Valley
 Hunting only

Mesolithic Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and  C.L. Carlyle discovered (1867-68) the Rock Painting
also in some places of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and from Vindhya region
Bihar  domestication of animals began in the Mesolithic
period.
 evidence of domestication of animals-Adamgarh
(Hoshangabad, M.P.) and Bagor (Bhilwara,
Rajasthan).
 Damdama(UP) is a Mesolithic site - 41 human
graves have been found
 Bone ornaments in the Mesolithic - Sarai Nahar Rai
& Mahadaha
 A grave with four human skeletons has been
found at Sarai Nahar Rai.

Neolithic Age
 Kashmir valley, Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh
 The important Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka,
Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh

characteristic features

 agriculture and domestication of animal-Grains were first ever produced in Neolithic Age
 Koldihwa and Mehrgarh- clear evidence of rice and wheat have been found
 polishing of stone tools
 manufacture of pottery - cooking as well as storage of food grains
 Mudbrick houses were built instead of grass huts.
 Wheels were used to make pottery.
 emergence of village communities based on sedentary life.
 Large urns were used as coffins for the burial of the dead
 Wheat, barley, rice, millet were cultivated
 Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern India.
 Domestication of sheep, goats and cattle
 Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport
 The people of the Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool
 FIRE WAS FIRST USED AS IN THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD.
 Ash mounds have been found from a Neolithic site Sangana Kallu in Karnataka
Facts
 Burzahom - Both human and animal skeletons were found here
 people of Jorwe culture lived in large rectangular houses . They believed in life after death and therefore buried the dead
inside the houses under the floor.
 Copper was the first metal used
 In India, the first evidence of man was found in western Narmada region
 Cereals used - Barley --> wheat --> rice
 earliest evidence of agriculture in Indian sub-continent has been reported from the Lahuradeva site (UP )
 earliest evidence of settled life - Mehrgarh
 'Bhimbetka Caves' are located in Raisen District of MP. They are best example of Rock Painting of prehistoric era. It was
discovered by V.S. Wakankar in 1957

HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION (INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION)/ PROTO HISTORIC/BRONZE AGE

 Harappa- 1921 by Dayaram Sahni. It was larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia civilizations.
 Discovery by John Marshall, Rai Bahadur, Daya Ram Sahani, Madho Sarup Vats
 Northern- Manda (Jammu-Kashmir)
 Southern- Daimabad (Maharashtra)
 Eastern-most site Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh),
 Western-most site Sutkagendor (Pakistan-Iran border)

Smallest site - Allahdino

India : largest = Rakhhigarhi (Haryana)
India - Dholavira and Rakhigari
Largest number of sites discovered by - SR Rao in Gujarat
Lothal city is called mini - Harappa

The pictures of elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, deer, sheep, etc. are depicted on the seals and terracotta arts of Harappan
culture.

Bhirrana
Now considered to be Oldest discovered IVC site (earlier Mehargarh (Pak) was considered to be Oldest )
(Haryana)

SITE
FINDINGS
 first artefact uncovered - stone seal carved with a unicorn and an inscription
 Granaries
 Red sandstone Male torso
Harappa  Stone symbols of Lingam and Yoni
 Painted pottery
Montgomery  Dice ,Evidence of Coffin burial
Punjab (PAK )  Two types of burial practice- R37type and cemetery H type
 Phallus worship.
 Graveyard

Mohenjodaro  Post cremation burial

 Great Bath
Mound of dead  Great Granary(largest building of civilization)
 Pasupathi seal , bull seal
 Bronze dancing girl
right of the Indus
 male priest
River
 Steatite statue of beard man
 A piece of woven cotton
Sindh  Unicorn Seals (Most numbers of it in here)
 Terracotta figure of Mother Goddess

 Inkpot, Lipstick, Metal workers, Shell-ornament makers and bead makers shop, dog’s paw imprint on brick,
Terracotta model of bullock cart, Bronze toy cart
 Known for cotton textile (Lancashire of IVC)
Chanhudaro
(Indus)  No Citadel (only IVC city)
Sindh  The largest number of copper tools found
 Remnants of Jhukkar and Jhangar culture were found at this site

 Important naval trade site, Dockyard

 Rice husk, atta chakki,
 Double burial (male female together)
 terracotta figure of horse
 Beadmaker’s shop
 Terracotta model of boats
Lothal  Ivory scale, Fire Altars
(Bhogava)
 Known for cotton trade (Manchester of Harappan Civilization)
Ahmedabad
Mini Harappa  Circular button seal (also called Persian Gulf seal)
 Two terracotta models of Egyptian Mummies (shows trade relation with Nile valley civilization)
 Painted story on Earthen jar resembling story of cunning fox in Panchtantra
 Sacrificial Altar (at Lothal and Kalibagan)- Shows medical and surgical skills
 evidence of business

 Evidence of dams, irrigation, water reservoir, water harvesting system and embankments
 only site divided in 3 parts, It was a walled city with heavy fortification
 Megalithic stone circle,
 inscription comprising 10-large sized sign of Harappan script
Dholavira  Megalith burial
(Luni) in Rann of
Kutch  Warehousing settlement ,rock-cut reservoir ( architecture )
Second largest  Shows all three phases of Harappan culture
 Located on Tropic of Cancer
 Dholavira has been named as the UNESCO World Heritage Site(India’s 40th )

Surkotada
Only site with horse remains, Oval grave, Pot burials, Soldiers sign on potsherd
(Gujrat)
 Bangle factory, Ploughed field surface, Camel bones, Fire altars.
 Wells found in every house
Kalibangan (RJ)
(Ghaggar)  Evidence of mixed cropping
 Mesopotamian seals
 Banawali Oval shaped settlement, Lack of systematic drainage system, Barley grains, Lapis Lazuli, Fire altars, Only city
(Ghaggar)
with Radial streets., tiger seal, terracotta replica of plough

 Largest IVC site in India ( also claimed to be largest IVC site)

 Evidence of Domestication of Dog
Rakhigarhi
 Manufacturing center of terracotta (Idly shaped terracotta)
(Ghaggar)
Amarendra Nath  Painted potteries in large numbers (show rich and dominant people lived)
1997-2000  Recent findings show Rakhigarhi doesn’t have the last phase of IVC ( earlier it was known to
Largest site in have all three phases of IVC)
India  DNA finding of Skeletal remains of a woman
 Rakhigarhi’s sudden demise can be explained by the drying up of the Saraswati in 2000 BC

Ropar (Sutlej)  Dog buried with human oval pit burials, copper axe, first site to be excavated after independence

 Broken copper blade, ceramic items and impression of cloth on a trough.

Alamgirpur
(Yamuna) UP  Manpur, Bargaon, Hulas, Sanauli

Daimabad  Bronze images (charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant and rhinoceros)
(Pravara) MH

Pottery found during excavations proves that IVC existed before Aryan Civilization.

Pre-harappan sites are :

 Amri - Antelope evidence, Rhinoceros’ evidence

 Kot Diji(Indus ) - largest stone tools
 Gumla and Mehrgarh, Bhirrana, Padri,Kalibangan,Dholavira,Balakot,Harappa

 Mature Harappan sites : Harappa, Banawali, Kalibangan, Balakot, Rakhigari,

Dholavira,Nageshwar,Lothal,Mohenjodaro,Chanhudaro,KotDiji

 Kalibangan and Banawali have the evidence of proto-Harappan and Harappan cultural phases.

 Late Harappan - Jhukar, Lothal, Rangpur, Dadheri ( Punjab )

 Sutkagendor-Trade point between Harappa and Babylon

IVC IMPORTANT FEATURES

  The towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
 Used burnt mud bricks (1:2:4) joined with gypsum mortar (contemporary Egypt dried bricks
were used).
 The city was divided in two parts, the city on raised platform, Known as Upper citadel & the
TOWN PLANNING AND
lower town known as lower citadel (working class quarters)
STRUCTURES
 Mostly buildings have private wells and properly ventilated bathrooms.
 Do not have large monumental structures such as temples or palaces for rulers unlike
Egyptian and Mesopotamian Civilisation.
 Advanced drainage system.
 Main crops: Two types of Wheat and Barley. Evidence of cultivation of rice in Lothal and
Rangpur (Gujarat) only. Other crops: Dates, mustard, sesamum, cotton, rai, peas etc.
 First to produce cotton in the world so Greeks called them Sindon.
 Used animal drawn wooden plough, and stone sickles.
AGRICULTURE
 Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by dams found but channel or canal irrigation was probably not
practised
 Produced sufficient food grains and cereals were received as taxes from peasants and stored in
granaries for wages and emergencies same as Mesopotamia.

 Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, and pigs, dogs, cats, asses and camels were
DOMESTICATION OF domesticated. Humped bulls were favoured by the Harappans.
ANIMALS  Not horse centred but evidence in Surkotada, Mohenjodaro and Lothal. Lion was not
known. Elephants and Rhinoceros (Amari) were well known.

 This is known as the first urbanization in India.

 Along with stone, but were well acquainted with bronze (occasionally mixed arsenic with
copper instead of tin). As neither tin nor copper was easily available, bronze tools do not
TECHNOLOGY AND abound in the region.
CRAFT  Iron was not known to the people.
 Important crafts: spinning (Spindle whorls), bricklaying, boat-making, seal making, terracotta
manufacturing (potter’s wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
 They were aware of the use of the wheel.
 Trade importance supported by Granaries, steatite seals, a uniform script, and regulated
weights and measures.
 Engages in inter-regional as well as foreign trade. Sumerian texts refer trade relation with
Meluha ie. ancient name given to Indus region & mentions 2 intermediate trading
TRADE AND stations- Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
COMMERCE  Used boats and bullock-carts for transportation.
 Carried exchanges through a barter system.
 IMPORT: Gold, Silver, Copper, Tin, Jade, Steatite
 EXPORTS: Agricultural products, cotton goods, terracotta figurines, bead from Chanhudaro,
counch-shell from Lothal, ivory products, copper.

 Hierarchy in urban habitation. Merchants and priests were important class of this period.
 Harappans were fashion conscious. Different hairstyles and wearing beard were popular. The
use of cosmetics was common (Cinnabar, lipstick and collyrium)
 Necklaces, fillets, armlets and finger rings were worn by both men and women but bangles,
girdles, anklets, ear-rings were worn by women only.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
 Beads were made from gold, copper, bronze, cornelian, quartz, steatite, lapis lazuli etc –
naturalistic animal models as pin-heads and beads.
 Fishing, hunting and bull fighting were pastimes.

 Central authority may have contributed to uniform culture.

 No clear idea of an organized force or standing army.
POLITY
 Priests did not rule in Harappa as they did in the cities of lower Mesopotamia but was possibly
ruled by a class of merchants.
  IDOL WORSHIP - Seal-Male deity Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-siva)-three-horned heads, and is
represented in the sitting posture of a yogi, with one leg placed above the other surrounded by
an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and below his throne there is a buffalo, and at his feet two
deer.
 Prevalence of the Phallus (lingam) and Yoni worship. The Rig Veda speaks of non-Aryan people
who were phallus worshippers.
RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
 Chief female deity was mother Goddess. They also worshiped fire.
 The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees (ex: pipal) and animals (unicorn, humped
bull etc).
 Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces and, therefore, they used amulets against them.

 Oldest script in Indian sub-continent.

 Pictographic script (yet to be deciphered).
SCRIPT
 Writing was boustrophedon -writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in the next
line.
 Plain pottery is more common than painted ware and is generally of red clay, and is uniformly
sturdy and well baked.
 The painted pottery is also known as Red and Black Pottery as it used red colour to paint the
background and glossy black paint was used to draw designs and figures on the red
POTTERY background. Trees, birds, animal figures and geometrical patterns were the recurring themes of
the paintings.
 Most of the potteries are wheel-made.
 Rare polychrome pottery has also been found (geometric patterns in red, black, green, rarely
white and yellow).
 Most of the seals are square plaque (2×2 square inches) made mostly from Steatite.
 Seals had an animal (no Cow) or human figure on one side and an inscription on the opposite
side or inscriptions on both the sides.
 Seals were primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification,
SEALS AND SEALINGS for educational purposes as well.
 Seals with symbol similar to ‘Swastika’ design have also been found.
 Types – Square OR Rectangular.
BRONZE CASTING:
 Practised on a wide scale using the ‘lost wax’ technique or Cire Perdue.
 They mainly consist of human and animal figures. Example: ‘Dancing Girl’. She stands in
a ‘tribhanga’ dancing posture.

STONE STATUES:

ART
 Bearded man– (found in Mohenjo-daro and made of Steatite), interpreted as a priest
 Red sandstone – figure of a male torso (found in Harappa)

TERRACOTTA FIGURES

 Found are less in number and crude in shape and form. Examples: Mother Goddess, mask of
horned deity, toys, etc
 After 2000 BC IVC declined & gradually faded away.
 Possible reasons – declined soil fertility, depression in land, Aryans invasion, decline of trade,
DECLINE
Floods, Earthquake etc.
 Most acceptable reason is ecological imbalance.
Major burial practices of Indus Valley Civilization
 complete burial, fractional burial, and urn burial (Burial of the ashes after cremation).
 Most common burial method was placing body with head towards north in a pit or brick chamber.
 Grave goods including food, pottery, and ornaments can be found along with the body.

*** Remains of Well and Bathroom have been found in approximately every major city of Indus Civilization.
VEDIC PERIOD

ARYAN - SUPERIOR RACE

Aryans originally lived in the Steppes region. Later they moved to central Asia and then came to Punjab.
  Aryans names appear in Hittite inscription (Anatolia), Kassitte inscription (Iraq) & Mittani inscription (Syria).
 An Iranian text, Zend Avesta, talks about names of Aryan Gods like Indra, Varuna
 Language - Sanskrit

Rig veda, yajurveda and samaveda are called vedatrayi or simply trayi

COMPONENT RIG VEDIC PHASE (1500 BC- 1000 BC)

 Mains source of information about this age is the Rig Veda (10 Mandalas and 1028 Hymns).
 Mandalas/ Chapters from 2 to 8 are called Saptarishi Manadalas as these are composed by the seven great sages.
 Mandalas 2 to 7 form the earliest portions of the Rigveda while 1 and 10 were latest additions.
 3rd Mandala, composed by Vishwamitra, contains Gayatri Mahamantra addressed to Goddess Savitri.
 10th Mandala has the famous Purush Sukta that describes cosmic creation (Adi Purush) along with 4-fold Varna
System.

GEOGRAPHICAL  Early Vedic people or Aryans settled in the land of seven rivers, called Sapt Sindhu à Sindhu
EXPANSION (Indus), Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikani (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Bipasa (Beas), Satudri (Satluj), and
Saraswati (Ghagghar).
 Sindhu (Indus) is the most mentioned and Saraswati is the most regarded (holy river).
 Saraswati Valley was called Brhmavarta.
No mention of Himalayas or Ganges.
Society  Rig Vedic communities comprised of populations called ‘janas’ along with several non-aryan
‘janas’.
 Society was divided into Aryans and Non-aryans, non-aryans were called ‘Dasas’ and ‘Dasyus’.
Aryans were soft towards Dasa & hostile towards Dasyus.
 It was an egalitarian society, social differentiates were not sharp.
 Slaves were used for domestic purpose & not for agriculture.
 The 4-fold Varna order and rigid caste-system was not yet completely developed.
 The term Varna used in Rigveda with refrence to only Aryans & Dasa having respectively fairs &
dark complexion.
 Rig Vedic society was patrilineal and birth of a son was sought after.
 Many hymns of the Rig Veda were composed by women and they were called Brahmavadini.
The prominent amongst them were Lopamudra, Vishwawara, Sikta, Nivavari and Ghosa.
Lopamudra was the wife of Agastya Rishi/sage
 Child Marriage and Sati were absent and a special widow-remarriage, called ‘Niyoga’ was
prevalent.
 Played gambling, Chariot race was famous.
 Two Drinks – Soma & Sura – Soma was sanctioned by religion & was drunk at sacrifices. Sura was
disapproved by priests.
POLITICAL SYSTEM  Janas’ were headed by a ‘Rajana’ who was assisted by Purohit, Gramani and Senani and popular
bodies like ‘Sabha’, ‘Samiti’, ‘Vidhata’, ‘Gana’ and ‘Sardha’.
 Sabha had few chiefs was an assembly of the learned and elite ones while Samiti was larger
body(common people )
 Sabha and Samiti are mentioned as two daughters of Prajapati in Atharvaveda.
 Vidhata was the oldest.
 ‘Janas’ -- ‘Vis’ -- ‘Kul’ / ‘kutumb’;
 kul has ‘Griha’ as its unit and ‘Kulapa’ as its head while the ‘Griha’ was headed by ‘Grihapati’ or
‘Dampati’.
 ‘Gaun’ was the place where cattle were kept and ‘Gavishthi’ was quest or war for cows.
 Group of ‘Kulas’ made a ‘Gram’ and ‘Gram’ was headed by ‘Gramani’.
 Vajrapati – Authority over a large land was leader of kulupa & graminis.
 ‘Rajana’ ruled over his people (jana) and not over any specified area of land and hence, was
called their protector (gopa janasya or gopati janasya).
 There were few non-monarchial states, whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha.
 ‘Rajana’ had no standing army and bureaucracy too was absent. Military functions were
performed by tribal groups called – Vrat, gana, grama, sardha.
The “Battle of Ten Kings” was fought on the banks of Ravi river for protection of wealth i.e. cow and
cattle and was won by ‘Rajana Sudas’ of Bharat Jana (tribe).
ECONOMY  Rigvedic society was pastoral & Agriculture was secondary occupation. Cattle was main form of
the wealth;
 Agriculture production was for consumption only. They had better knowledge of agriculture.
Rigveda mentions about wooden ploughshare.
  ‘Yava’- Barley
 ‘Bali’ was voluntary gift from producers to the ‘Rajana’.
 Neither tax was imposed nor treasury was maintained.
 Currency or coins are not reported; a gold neck piece ‘nishka’ finds mention but has more
ornamental value than currency.
 Barter system was prevalent
 Copper tools of this era are reported from Punjab and Haryana.
 ‘Ayas’ - any metal. Gold was called Hiranya.
 Iron was not known to them
 Pottery type: Ochre Colored Pottery and Painted Grey Ware (PGW).
 Aryan introduced spoked wheels.
 Horse played significant role in their life.
 They Didn’t live in cities.
Economic activities – Hunting, carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot-making, metal smeltry etc.
Vrihi – Rice
Mudga – Mung bean
Yava – Millet
Ikshu – Sugarcane
RELIGIOUS ASPECT  Rig Vedic hymns (‘sukti’) are praises for Gods and Goddesses and the deity
is anthropomorphic i.e. in human form. Yet, idol worship was not practiced.
 Simple, short and less ritualistic worship and sacrifices were practiced mainly for ‘praja’ and
pashu’ i.e. increasing population, protecting cattle, birth of male child and against disease.
 Households performed the rituals themselves and any expert priest was not required.
 Chanting of mantras was an important part of the ritual.
 Magic and Omen were not prevalent.
 Important gods of Rigvedic time were Indra, Varuna, Agni, Yama and Soma.
 Vishnu was minor god during Rigvedic period.
Maharshi Vasistha & Vishwamitra were important priests.

COMPONENT LATER VEDIC PHASE (1000 BC- 600 BC)

Sources of Information : Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.

 Brahmanas – The Detailed commentaries/ explanations on the Vedas.
BASICS  Aranyakas (forest books)- Explains metaphysics & symbolism of sacrifice.
 Upanishads - books on philosophy or deeper knowledge about ‘aatma’, ‘brahma’ etc. They are anti
ritualistic.

 Aryans became generally familiar with the major portion of the Gangetic valley where they gradually
settled. Western Ganga-Valley was called ‘Aryavarta’
GEOGRAPHY
 Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean, Several Himalayan peaks and Vindhya mountains (indirectly) are
mentioned
 Visible 4-fold varna system and appearance of several ‘jaatis’ or castes made the social system
complex.
SOCIETY  Untouchability appeared; women’s position degraded as they no longer got formal education.
 Gotra was the place where cattle resided together with ‘janas’ and later developed into an identity for
the ‘janas’.
 Nishad, Chandala and Shabar were the untouchables mentioned. Guests were called ‘Goghna’ (cow-
killer).
 ‘Niyoga’ too was considered a negative activity.
 Male members of upper three varnas were called ‘dvija’ or twice born. Only these were entitled to
‘Upanayan’ i.e. wearing the sacred thread.
 Women like Gargi and Maitreyi accomplished in the knowledge arena; Gargi outwitted Yajnavalkya in a
philosophical discourse.

 Sati and Child Marriage were still largely absent.

 Institituion of Gotra & practice of gotra exogamy appeared.
 4-fold ‘ashram’ (stages) for 4 ‘purusharthas’ (goals):
 Brahmacharya (Celibate Student) for knowledge i.e. Dharma.
  Grihastha (Householder) for wealth and progeny i.e. ‘artha’ and ‘kama’.
 Vanaprastha (hermit in retreat) for spiritual wisdom.
 Sanyasa (Renunciation) for liberation i.e. Mukti/Moksha.
 ‘Janas’ evolved to become ‘Janapadas’; Hastinapur and Indraprastha were capitals of Kuru ‘janapada’.
 Authority of the ‘rajana’ became more evident and a support staff called ’ratnin’; they were 12 jewels
of the king, worked for ‘rajana’.
 Chiefship became hereditary.
 Still, there was no standing army.
POLITICAL  ‘Rajana’ started various sacrifices like ‘Rajsuya’ (coronation), ‘Ashwamedh’ (to become ruler of all
SYSTEM directions i.e. ‘Chakravarti’ and ‘Vajpeya’ (revitalization to the aging ‘rajana’).
 Dependence on ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’ reduced.
 women were not allowed to attend these assemblies.
 Vidhata completely disappeared.
 Term ‘Rashtra’, indicating territory first appeared in this period.
 ‘Rajana’ assumed titles like Samrat, Ekrat, Sarvbhumi, Virat.
 Iron (krishna/shyama ayas) was discovered and use of fire for clearing forest for cultivation increased.
 Agriculture of multiple crops put limitation on nomadic nature; cattle rearing continued.
 Wheat, Barley, Rice, Beans, Moong Urad and Sesamum were cultivated.
 Surplus produce led to Bali and Bhaga (1/6th or 1/12th) i.e. customary contributions (minor taxes) to
the Kings treasury.
 Treasurer was called ‘Samgrahitri’ and ‘Bhagdukha’ collected the taxes and Vaishya were only
taxpayers.
 ‘Shataman Krishnala’ are believed to be coins used but has no archaeological backing; there is
reference to money lending (Shatapatha Brahmana describes a usurer as ‘kusidin’).
 Various arts and crafts like smelting, smithery or carpentry, weaving, leather-working, jewellery-
ECONOMY making, dyeing and pottery-making, glass hoards and bangles also find mention.
 Commerce and trade are indicated by mention of sea voyages.
 Pottery type: Painted Grey Ware (PGW).
 Pani - traders
 Varun and Indra, the most important Gods of Rig Vedic age, lost prominence in later Vedic phase.
 Prajapati or Adipurush became the Supreme God in later Vedic phase.
 Rudra was merged into Shiva who appeared for the first time.
 Rituals, sacrifices and requirement of supervising priest (Purohita) made religious life complex.
 Few instances of idol worship are reported. Magic and Omen entered the socio-religious life.
 At the end of later Vedic phase Upanishadik philosophers made efforts to simplify the religious
practices.
 Few Kshatriyas, in Later Vedic phase, like Janak and Vishswamitra succeeded in knowing the supreme
RELIGIOUS i.e. ‘Brahma’.
ASPECT  Dharma meant one’s duties to oneself and to others but Rita was the fundamental law that governed
the working of Shrishti (Universe).

VEDIC DEITIES

Boghaz-Koi inscription (Asia Minor, Turkey) is important because there is mention of four Vedic Gods, namely Indra, Varuna,
Mitra and Nasatyas

DEITY WORSHIPED AS ADDITIONAL FEATURE

 Most Mention, 250 hymns, known as Purandhar or destroyer of forts

Indra God of Lightening
 Lost prominence in the Later Vedic Phase
Vayu God of Air
Agni God of Fire  For purity and Yajna
Had Vishnu, Savitri (Gayatri), Mitra and Pushan (vegetation, cattle-wealth and
Surya God of Life Source
marriage) as its attributes.
 Also worshiped for healing from diseases
Rudra God of Destruction
 Merged with Shiva in the later Vedic phase
Aditi Mother of Gods —
Usha Goddess of Dawn —
  Most Powerful, maintained cosmic order/laws
Varun God of Water and Morals
 Lost prominence in the Later Vedic Phase
Vishnu An aspect of Surya  Least Mention, 3 hymns
Marut God of Wind —
Prithvi Goddess of Fertility —
Aranyani Goddess of Forest —
Parjanya God of Rain —
Prajapati/
Supreme God  Most prominent during the Later Vedic period
Adipurush
Pushan God of the Shudras  Supposed to look after cattle

VEDIC TEXTS

Vedic texts are broadly categorised into two parts, namely, ‘shruti’ and ‘smriti’.

 Shrutis’ are the texts ‘that is heard’ or product of ‘Godly revelation’ to the great sages (rishis) while in meditation
SHRUTI (‘dhyaan’).
 The four Vedas and Samhitas are included in the ‘shrutis’.
 ‘Smritis’ on the other hand are those that are recollected by normal humans.
SMRITI  The detailed commentaries/ explanations on the Vedas (Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads),
6 Vedangas and 4 Upavedas make the smritis.

ASSOCIATED BRAHMANA/ PRIESTLY

VEDAS COMMENTS
UPAVEDA RECITER
 Oldest surviving text.
Aiteraya, Kaushitaki
RIG VEDA  Hymns are dedicated to several deities mostly to Indra.
Upaveda: Dhanurveda  Themes: Life, death, creation, sacrifice and ‘soma’(godly
Hotr/Hotar
Hymns and (Warfare) pleasure)
prayers  Term ‘varna’ is found
Brahmi script  Word Gotra used

Tandya, Sadavimsha  Earliest book on music

SAM VEDA
Musical hymns Udgatar
Upaveda: Gandhavra Veda  Poetic text, derived from Rig Veda.
(Music)
YAJUR VEDA Taittiriya, Shatapatha  Sacrifices and rituals, composed both in prose and poetry.
Hymns and
Adhavaryu
rituals Upaveda: Sthapatyaveda  Two related samhitas: Shukla and Krishna
(Architecture)
ATHARVA
Gopatha
VEDA Priests
Magic, omen, agriculture, industry/craft, cattle rearing, cure
Charms and (Brahmins)
Upaveda: Ayurveda for disease; composed by Non-Aryans
spells didn’t recite it
(Medicine)
 1. Samkhya: theoretical foundation; --> Kapil

2. Yoga: union of soul with God; --> Patanjali

Note: Sankaracharya,
3. Vaisheshika: discusses atomic theory; --> Kannad Ramanujacharya and Swami
The Six Theistic Philosophies Vivekananda promoted the
(‘Darshan’) Vedanta school.
4. Nyaya: philosophy of logic; --> Gautam

5. Mimansa: rituals; --> Jaimini

6. Vedanta: most important; --> Badrayan

1. Buddhist School of Siddhartha Gautama
Atheistic
2. Jaina School of Mahavir Swami
Philosophies:
3. Charvak or Lokayat School was actually propounded by Brihaspati but was systematised by Charvak.

There are two branches of Yajurveda-Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda. Vajasnami is the Samhita of Shukla Yajurveda.
Shukla Yajurveda is available only in the poetic form whereas Krishna Yajurveda contains both poetic as well as prose form.

Earliest evidence of use of Iron - Atranjikhera Kali river UP ) , fi rst identifi ed by Sir Alexander Cunningham in 1862 but excavated
by R.C. Gaur in 1962

Vedangas: For proper understanding of the Vedas, one needs to know Vedangas which are supplement on the Vedas. These are
6 in number:

1. Siksha: Pronunciation of the words; education.

2. Nirukta: Origin of the words.
3. Chhanda: Metrics used in Sanskrit verses.
4. Jyotish: Understanding of astronomy.
5. Vyakaran: Sanskrit grammar.
6. Kalpa: Knowledge of rituals (Dharmasutras)

UPANISHADS:

 The upanishada indicates knowledge acquired by sitting close to the teacher.

 They are also known as Vedantas, having the truth about human life and path to ’moksha’.
 A collection of over 200 Upanishads are known but out of these 108 are called ‘muktikas’.
 Mundaka Upanishada contains the famous phrase ‘Satyameva Jayate’.
 Kathopanishad is the story of the conversation between Yama, Lord of death and Nachiketa
 Kings mentioned - King Janak of Videha, King Pravahanjabali of Panchal, King Asvapati of Kekaya and King Ajatshatru of
Kashi.
 The statement "Tamsoma Jyotirgamaya" is originally mentioned in Brihadaranyaka Upanishada.
OFFICERS AND THEIR PROFILE IN VEDIC PERIOD:

Vrajapati: Officer-in-charge of pasture land Spasas: Spies & Messengers

Jivagribha: Police official Suta: Charioteer
Kshatri: Chamberlain Madhyamasi: Dispute resolving;
Sthapati: Chief Judge Takshan: Carpenter
Gramani: Head of the village Palagala: Messenger
Bhagadugha: Revenue collector Sanghrahriti: Treasurer
Kulapati: Head of the family Govikartana: Keeper of forests & games
Mahishi: Chief Queen Akshavapa: Accountant

The Shatapatha Brahmana narrates the story of King Videgha Madhava (a king of Videha) accompanied by his priest Rishi
Gautama Rahugana, carrying the sacred fire to east preserving thereby the tradition that the Kosalas and the Videhas received
from their culture

PURANIC LITERATURE

 The Puranic literature is very vast and has 18 main Puranas, 18 subsidiary Puranas.
 Puranas mention four ages: Krita, Treta, Dvapara and Kali.
 ‘Sarga’ (Evolution of the Universe), ‘Pratsarga'(Involution of Universe), Manvantar (Recurring nature of time), Vamsa
(List of Kings and Sages) and Vamsanucharita (Selected Character-based Stories) make the five fundamental pillars of
Puranic texts or ‘Itihasa’ (thus it happend).

Buddhism
 The religion is based upon the teachings, life experiences of its founder Siddhartha Gautam, born in circa 563 BCE.
 Buddha asked his followers to avoid the two extremes of indulgence in worldly pleasure and the practice of strict
abstinence and asceticism.
 He ascribed instead the ‘Madhyam Marg’or the middle path which was to be followed.

GAUTAMA BUDDHA  He is also known as Siddharta, Sakyamuni & Tathagata

 Belong to Sakya Clan OF KAPILAVASTU
(563 BC-483 BC)  Father: Siddhodana Mother: Mayadevi ( Koliyan clan )
 Birth Place: Lumbini, capital of Sakya republic (proof -Rummindei Pillar inscription of Ashoka
Mauryan empire )he also exempted Lumbini from tax
 Teachers: Alarakama and UdrakaRamputra
 Enlightenment: At age of 33 under Pipal tree at Uruvella (Bodhgaya) on banks of river
Niranjana (Falgu).
 First Sermon: Sarnath (Deer park) on Dharma Chakra Parivarthana to 5 disciples including
Mahakasyapa (first disciple)
 Mahaparinirvana: At Kushinagar at age of 80 (the first capital city of Malla Kingdom)
LITERARY SOURCES  Ceylonese Chronicles – MAHAVAMSA by Mahanama, DEPAVAMSA and ATTAKATHA by
Wattagamani.
 Tibetan Chronicles- DIVYAVANDANA-KALACHAKRA
 TRIPITAKA/ Three baskets of Buddhist scripture
 JATAKA FOLKLORE [stories related to birth of Buddha]/ In Chinese they are called SADOK.
MILINDAPANHA [Questions of Milinda - greek king Meander and answers of Buddhist monk nagasena]
TRIRATNA Buddha, Dhamma & Sangha.

 Roots of Buddism in past- Vedanta, Sankhya philosophy & Upansihada.

 Places visited - Kosala, Kapilavastu, Vaishali, Magadha and Rajgriha ,Pava’, the capital of Mallas
 last Sermon to “Subhaddha”
 Balaputradeva was the ruler of Suvarnabhumi who founded a Buddhist monastery at Nalanda and requested Devapala
through his ambassador to grant five villages for its maintenance.
 Buddha resided in Beluva(Vaishali) during the last rainy season of his life
 He delivered his maximum sermons at Shravasti, the capital of Kosala.
 Mahatama Buddha visited Kaushambi during the reign of “King Udayana”. Under the influence of Pindola Bharadwaj,
Udayan turned to Buddhism and donated Ghoshit Ram Vihar to Bhikshu Sangh.
 On the request of his disciple “Ananda”, Gautam Buddha allowed the entry of women as Bhikshuni into Buddhist
Sangha at Vaishali. The first women who was admitted into the Buddhist Sangha was Mahaprajapati Gautami.
  Adi Shankaracharya is sometimes called a cryptoBuddhist by scholars because he challenged Buddhism and took away
many of its concepts and merged in the mainstream Hinduism
 Pavarana. In this ceremony, the monks, confess their offences and discuss future work plan.
 The word stupa(tree stem) has been used for the first time in Rig Veda.
 Amravati stupa was built during the period of Satvahanas
 Gautama Buddha was elevated to the position of God during the period of Kanishka
 The Chaitya is the largest and most evolved cave temples of the Hinayana phase of Buddhism, situated at Karle in Pune
 Nagarjuna(Madhyamika school ) travelled to China and preached Buddhism.

GREAT EVENTS OF BUDDHA’S LIFE SYMBOLS

Avakranti (conception or descent) White Elephant
Jati (birth) Lotus and Bull
Mahabhinishkramana (Great Renunciation) Horse(Knatak )
Nirvana/ Sambodhi (enlightenment) Bodhi tree
Dharmachakra Parivarthana (first Sermon) Wheel
Mahaparinirvana (Death) Stupa

1. World is full of misery (Sabbam Dukkam)

4 NOBLE TRUTHS:
2. Desire is a root cause of sorrow (Pratitya Samputpada)
3. Desire can be conquered (Dukha Nirodha)
‘ARYA SATYAS’
4. Desire can be conquered by following Astangika marga.

 The path consists of various interconnected activities related to knowledge, conduct, and
EIGHT-FOLD PATHS
meditative practices.
 Right view + Right intention + Right speech + Right action + Right livelihood + Right mindfulness +
(ASTANGIKA MARGA)
Right effort + Right concentration
 Buddha also established code of conduct both for the monastic order and the laymen to follow
FIVE PRECEPTS OR
which are also known as the Five Precepts or Panchasil and refrain from them
PANCHASHIL
 Violence + Stealing + Sexual misconduct + Lying or gossip + Taking intoxicating substances

 The Vinaya Pitaka - rules of conduct and discipline applicable to the monastic lif
 The Sutta Pitaka -main teaching or Dhamma of Buddha. It is divided into five Nikayas or
collections:

1. Digha Nikaya
2. Majjhima Nikaya
3. Samyutta Nikaya
4. Anguttara Nikaya
5. Khuddaka Nikaya
THREE PITAKAS
 The Abhidamma Pitaka is a philosophical analysis and systematization of the teaching and the
scholarly activity of the monks.
 Other important Buddhist texts include Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Milind Panha etc.

BUDDHIST SANGHA AND ITS FEATURES:

 The oldest prayer place in history where slaves, Insolvents, and diseased were not allowed.
 There were 64 types of crimes called Pathimokshas, which were prohibited
 Women were also allowed to join.
IMPORTANT BUDDHIST SCHOLARS:
 MOGGALIPUTTA TISSA – launched ASHOKA’S dhamma campaign
 ASVAGOSHA– wrote BUDDHACHARITA and Sanskrit drama SARIPUTRA PRAKRAN [sariputra the disciple of Buddha]
 NAGARJUNA – Founded madhyamik school of mahayana buddism, gave theory of SUNYAVAD’ EMPTINESS’ and
important work include ‘MULAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA’
 BUDDHAGOSH – most important commentator of Theravada, important work is VISUDDIMAGGA.
 DHARMAKIRTI – Teacher at Nalanda, called as ‘kant of india’.
 In Mahayana, Buddhism Boddhisatva is a person who can reach nirvana but delays doing so through compassion for
suffering beings
BODDHISATVA TRAITS BUDDHIST COUNCILS:

 Future Buddha & Earliest bodhisattva

 Also known as Ajitaboddhisatva
MAITREYA
 Holds a waterphial in his left hand
 Popular laughing Buddha is claimed to be an incarnation of maitreya.

 Universal Boddhisatva
 associated with Meditation
SAMANTABHADRA  Manifestation is Action
 Like Indra holds thunderbolt [depict power]
VAJRAPANI  Depicted as one of the 3 protective deities around Buddha.
 Other 2 – Manjusri and Avlokiteshwara
 Kind-hearted.
AVLOKITESVARA
“Padmapani or “Lotus-Bearer”
 Guardian of purgatories and children
KSHITIGARBHA
 Boddhisatva of hell-beings or earth immortal beings
AMITABHA  Buddha of Heaven
SADAPARIBHUTA  Manifests Never disparaging spirit.
 Stimulator of understanding and he holds book describing 10 paramitas
MANJUSHRI
 Depict male boddhisatva wielding flaming sword in his left hand
 He is soundless as space
AKASAGARBHA
 Manifestation of wisdom

COUNCIL VENUE CHAIRMAN KING OUTCOME

 It was held soon after the Mahaparinirvan of the Buddha.
 The council was held with the purpose of preserving
First Sattapani
Buddha’s teachings (Sutta) and rules for disciples. During this
cave at Mahakasyapa Ajatasatru
council, the teachings of Buddha were divided into three
483 BC Rajgriha.
Pitakas.
 Compilation of Suttapitaka and Vinaya Pitaka by Upali
Second 383
Vaishali Sabbakami Kalashoka Divide in Sthaviradins & Mahasangikas
BC
Third
Pataliputra MogaliputtaTissa Ashoka Compilation of Abhidamapittaka
250 BC
Fourth
Kundalvana Vasumitra & Compilation of Mahavibhasha shastra. Division of Bhuddhism into
Kanishka
Kashmir Ashvaghosa Hinayana and Mahayana
98 AD

SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM

 MAJOR SCHOOLS - Mahayana & Hinayana

 OTHER SCHOOLS - Theravada, Vajrayana & Zen.
 The term Mahayana is a Sanskrit word which literally means “Great Vehicle”.
 Sought salvation through grace & help of Buddha & Bodhisattvas.
 It originated in northern India and Kashmir and then spread east into Central Asia, East Asia and some
areas of Southeast Asia.
MAHAYANA
 Believed that Buddha will be born again.
BUDDHISM
 Worship Buddha in idol form.
 Language- Sanskrit.
 Sub-schools Chittmatra & Madhyamaka
 ZEN is a subschool of Mahayana which is prevalent in china, Korea and related to Taoism.
  Considered Lesser vehicle. Also known as Abandoned Vehicle or Defective vehicle. It believes in the
original teaching of Buddha or Doctrine of elders.
 Followed original teachings of Buddha.
 Sought individual salvation through self-discipline & meditation.
 Buddha will never be reborn.
 Did not believe in Idol worship.
HINAYANA  Language- Pali language.
BUDDHISM  Buddha was an intellectual, not a god.
 Encompasses 18 subschools.
 Most important – Sarvastivada, Theravada & Sautantrika.
 Theravada Buddhism is older and the more conservative of the two main divisions of Buddhism and is
often referred to as the ‘traditions of the elder’
 Theravada is a Hinayana sect.
 Theravada Buddhists strive to become Arhats and gain freedom from the cycle of samsara.
THERAVADA AND  Sarvastivadins consider everything empirical to be impermanent, they maintain that the dharma factors
SARVASTIVADA are eternally existing realities.
 Theravada Buddhism developed in Sri Lanka and subsequently spread to the rest of Southeast Asia. It is
the dominant form of religion in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
 Vajrayana means “The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt”, also known as tantric Buddhism.
 This Buddhist school developed in India around 900 CE.
 Believed in acquiring magical power for liberation.
VAJRAYANA  Developed in Tibet and believes in the worship of female deities – Taras.
 It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.
 It is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China
ZEN
 Meditation is the most distinctive feature of this Buddhist tradition.
 Stressed on ethical living rather than rituals, animal sacrifices, etc.
 Does not recognizes the existence of god/soul.
 Taught Middle path for salvation.
 Propagated Liberal & democratic values.
 Women were given equal status as men.
 Opposed caste and Varna system to some extent some of the castes were placed as low.
RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL SPHERE
 Believed in doctrine of Karma.
 The Authority of Vedas was challenged. Faith was given a rational basis.
 accepted the principle of rebirth and theory of Karma
 doctrine of Momentariness
 The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya, the chaityas and viharas.
 Promoted education through residential universities like those at Taxila, Nalanda and
Vikramasila.
 The language of Pali and other local languages developed through the teachings of
ART AND CULTURE SPHERE
Buddhism.
 Ajanata Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora river
ARHATS Liberated beings
NIRVANA State of Supreme Bliss
SHEEL Refers to when a layperson leaves home to live the life of a Buddhist renunciate among a community of bhikkhus
One who labors, toils, or exerts themselves (for some higher or religious purpose) or “seeker, one who performs
ŚRAMAṆA
acts of austerity, ascetic.
Refers to the rite and ritual of ascetic vetting (ordination) by which a candidate, if deemed acceptable, enters the
UPASAMPADĀ
community as Upasampadā (ordained) and authorised to undertake ascetic life.
Three-month annual retreat observed by Theravada practitioners. Taking place during the wet season, Vassa lasts
VASSA
for three lunar months, usually from July to October.

It is a Buddhist day of observance, The Buddha taught that the Uposatha day is for “the cleansing of the defiled
UPOSTHA
mind,” resulting in inner calm and joy.

PAVARANA Assembly at the end of Vassa

POSADHA Restoration of vows

Sariputta, Mahamoggallana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha comprised the five chief disciples. His ten foremost disciples
were completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

Mudras of Buddha

Dharmachakra Mudra Gandhara style It symbolizes the first sermon of Buddha at Sarnath
Bhumisparsha Mudra Gupta period the moment when Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree
Varada mudra it is a gesture of granting wishes or mercy
Dhyana Mudra attainment of spiritual perfection.
Abhaya Mudra protection, peace, and the dispelling of fear.
Vajra Mudra five elements of air, water, fire, earth, and metal

JAINISM
  There were 24 Tirthankaras (teachers) & the first Tirthankara was Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev.
 The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born in Varanasi.
 The last – 24th Tirthkara was Vardhaman Mahavira.
 The doctrine of Jaina is older than the Buddhist doctrine.
 Birth – Kundagrama near Vaishali. Belongs to Gnatrika Clan. Buddha and Mahavira were
contemporaries.
 Parents – Siddhartha and Trisala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka).
 He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
 He attained Kaivalya-highest spiritual knowledge, at the age of 42 under Sal tree. Thus, he is called
VARDHAMAN
Mahavir, Jina Jitendriya , Nigrantha (free from all bonds).
MAHAVIRA
 Mahavir Swami attained enlightenment at the bank of river Rijupalika in the village of Jrimbhik.
 First sermon – At Pava
(539-467 BC)
 Died at Pava near Rajagriha at the age of 72 in 468 B.C
 A symbol was associated with every Tirthankara
 Parshvanath – Snake
 Adinath – Bull
 Mahaveer – Lion
 Rejected authority of the Vedas & Vedic rituals.
TEACHINGS OF  Did not believe in the existence of God.
MAHAVIRA  Emphasized the equality but did not condemn varna system.
 Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.

 Belief in God: Jainism recognized the existence of god but placed them lower than Jina (Mahavira).
 According to Mahavira, a person is born in higher or lower varna as the consequence of the sins or the
TENETS OF virtues in the previous birth. Thus, Jainism believes in the “transmigration of the soul” and the “theory
JAINISM of Karma.”

 Emphasizes that the ultimate truth and reality is complex, and has multiple-aspects i.e “theory of
ANEKANTAVADA
plurality”.

 All judgments are conditional, holding good only in certain conditions, circumstances, or senses.
SYADVADA  Seven modes of prediction (Saptabhangi Nayavada)
 Syadavada literally means the method of examining different probabilities.
 AHIMSA: Non-injury to a living being
 SATYA: Do not speak a lie
FIVE DOCTRINES
 ASTEYA: Do not steal
OF JAINISM
 APARIGRAHA: Do not acquire property
 BRAHMACHARYA: Observe continence
 It mainly aims at the attainment of liberation, for which no ritual is required.
 It can be attained through three principles called Three Jewels or Triratna i.e.
THREE JEWELS/
 1. Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)
TRIRATNA  2. Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana)
 3. Right Action (Samyakcharita)

 Through Sangha, consists of women & Men.

 Under the patronage of Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south
India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrkutas.
 When Bhadrabahu (Guru of Chandragupta Maurya) left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the
North with his followers.
SPREAD OF  After Bhadrabahu returned with his follower, Jainism spilt into two sects: due to famine in Magadha
JAINISM
 1. SWETAMBARAS: White-clad; Northerners - Sthulabahu
 2. DIGAMBARAS: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners - Bhadrabahu
 Sthanakvasi is a sect of Svetambara Jainism and Yapaniyas - Digamabars
  Monks of this sect believe in complete nudity. Male monks do not wear clothes while female monks wear
unstitched plain white sarees.
 Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya).
DIGAMBARA  Believe women cannot achieve liberation.
 Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
 Major Sub-Sects: Mula Sangh, Bisapantha, Terapantha, Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha.
 Minor Sub-Sets: Gumanapantha, Totapantha.

 Monks wear white clothes.

 Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya).
SHVETAMBARA  Believe women can achieve liberation.
 Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this sect.
 Major Sub-Sects: Murtipujaka, Sthanakvasi, Terapanthi

COUNCIL VENUE CHAIRPERSON OUTPUT

Sthulabahu, Patron – Chandragupta
First 300 BC Patliputra Compilation of 12 Angas
Maurya
Second 512 AD Vallabhi Devardhi Kshmasramana Final compilation of 12 Angas & 12 upanga

IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED TO JAINISM

 ASRAV- Inflow of karmas to the soul that occurs at every second in life.
 SAMVARA– Stoppage of the influx of the material karmas into the soul consciousness.
 NIRJARA – Shedding or removal of accumulated karmas from the atma (soul), essential for breaking free from samsara,
the cycle of birth-death and rebirth, by achieving moksha, liberation. It is one of the seven fundamental principles, or
Tattva in Jain philosophy.
 SALLEKHANA(Santhara)– It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death
 KAIVALYA, - omniscience in Jainism and is roughly translated as complete understanding or supreme wisdom.
 The canonical Jain literature is claimed to have started from ADINATH [Rishabnath] [first tirthankara]
 Teachings of tirthankara before mahavira was known as PURVA.
 Jain literature is called as JAIN AGAMAS [canonical text based on mahavira’s teaching]- sacred books of
IMPORTANT JAIN
the Jain religion + They are written in the Ardha-magadhi, a form of Prakrit language.
LITERATURE AND
 These agamas are further divided into – Angas, mulasutra, upangas, prakirnaka sutra, chedasutra &
ITS SCHOLARS
ulikasutras.
 KALPASUTRA -written by Bhadrabahu. It contains biographies of jain tirthankaras.
 Jain literature is mainly written in Prakrit language.

NON-AGAM LITERATURE: Non-agam literature consists of commentary and explanation of Agam literature, and independent
works, compiled by ascetics and scholars + They are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit etc

JAIN ARCHITECTURE

MANASTAMBHA: It is found in the front side of the temple, having religious importance with an ornamental pillar structure
carrying the image of Tirthankar on top and on all four cardinal directions.

 BASADIS: Jain monastic establishment or temples in Karnataka.

 Vardhaman Mahavir preached in ‘Ardha-Magadhi’ language, the language of the common man.

 Ellora Caves (Cave No. 30-35)- Maharashtra

 Mangi Tungi Cave- Maharashtra
LAYANA/GUMPHAS  Gajapantha Cave- Maharashtra
(CAVES)  Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves- Odisha
 Hathi-gumpha Cave- Odisha
 Sittanavasal Cave- Tamil Nadu

 Gometeshwara/Bahubali Statue- Shravanabelagola, Karnataka by Chamundraya

STATUES 
 Statue of Ahimsa (Rishabnatha)- Mangi-Tungi hills, Maharashtra
 Dilwara Temple- Mount Abu, Rajasthan
JAINALAYA (TEMPLE)  Girnar and Palitana Temple- Gujarat
 Muktagiri Temple- Maharashtra
 Introduced new philosophy – syatvad.
 Art & architecture – statue of Gometeshwar (Shramanbdlogola), temples of Khujaraho and Abu. Tiger cave of Udaigiri
and Indira Sabha of Ellora.
 Jainism contributed for the growth of trading community.

Jainism vs Buddhism Buddhism prescribes a middle path while Jainism

advocates its followers to live the life of complete
Jainism recognised the existence of god while Buddhism austerity.
did not.

Jainism does not condemn the varna system while

Buddhism does.

Jainism believed in the transmigration of soul i.e.

reincarnation while Buddhism does not.

4 caves at Barabar hills Gaya ( 3 has inscriptions of

Ashoka)

Mahajanapadas
 Source - Buddhist literature Anguttara Nihaya , Jain literature ‘Bhagwatisutra’
 22 Mahajanapadas are mentioned in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi. 3 most important viz. Magadha, Ashmak and Kamboj
 8 mahajandpadas in UP
 Lichchhavi dynasty(king Chetak) of Vaishali established the first republic in the world

Kuru, Vajji, Malla, Panchal and Kamboj were republican states and had a Ganparishad (assembly of seniors) as the supreme
authority in the state.
Some of the Mahajanapada are (*arranged east to west)

Mahajanapada Capital Unique Aspect

Important trade center for traders moving to South-East Asia

Anga (South of Ganga,Bihar) Champa
(Suvarnabhumi)

It was Republic state with many clans e.g. Lichchavis (capital

Vajji (North Bihar) Vaishali Vaishali), Videhans (capital Mithila), and Jnatrikas (Mahavira
belonged to this clan)

Malla Kushinagar ,Pava Republic

Kashi (Eastern UP) Varanashi

Magadha (Bihar) Rajgir Haryanka Dynasty

Koshala (Ayodhya, Eastern Shravasti/Saket Its King was Prasenjit (a contemporary of Buddha)
 UP) It included tribal Republic of Shakyas ( capital Kapilvastu)

Its King Udayana is the central character in three Sanskrit dramas:

 Svapnavasavadatta (by Bhasa) (romantic narratives

Kaushambi (confluence of about Udayana and Vasavadatta, the daughter of
Vatsa river Ganga and Yamuna,
modern Allahabad) Pradoyat, written in Ujjaini)
 Ratnavalli (by Harsha)
 Priyadarshika (also by Harsha)

Chetiya or Cheti (Central Shuktimati

Its king was Shishupala (also mentioned in Mahabharata)
India) ( Bundelkhand)

Panchala (Western UP) Ahichchhatra (modern Bareilly)

Kuru (Western UP) Indraprastha Mahabharata tells the story of the conflict in the Kuru clan

Shurasena (Western UP) Mathura Its king Avantipura was the disciple of Buddha

Matsya (Eastern Rajasthan) Virat nagar

Avanti ( Central Malwa)- North Ujjain(Avantika)

KING PRADOYAT
Divided by Vindhya Range South Mahismati

Assaka (situated on the Potali (modern

Only Mahajanapada lying south of Vindhyas
bank of Godavari River) Nizamabad, Telangana)

The Behistun Inscription of the Achaemenid Emperor Darius

Gandhara (North-west
Taxila mentions that Gandhara being conquered by the Persians in 2nd
Pakistan)
half of the 6th Century BC

Kamboja (North-west It was situated on the Uttarapatha and was known for its
Poonch (J&K)
Pakistan) excellent breed of horses and as remarkable horsemen

IMPORTANT ASPECTS ABOUT THE MAHAJANAPADA PERIOD

 Most urban settlements were inhabited by merchants and artisans (organized into a ‘sartha’ guild).
 Practice of trade and crafts was hereditary.
 Most important cities of the time were settled on the banks of the rivers and trade routes.
 Trade was facilitated through use of money called ‘nishka’ and ‘satamana’ (mentioned in Vedic
texts; no archaeological evidence)
 Agriculture was made easier with use of iron tools like axes, adzes, knives, razors, nails, sickles etc.
 Paddy transplantation was practiced. Besides, barley, cotton, pulses, millets and sugarcane were
also produced.
ECONOMY  1/6th of the farm produce was to be paid to the royal agent as tax and there were no intermediate
landlords.
 Rich peasants were called ‘grihapatis’.
 Vessa meant Merchants Street.
 ‘Balisadhakas’ collected the compulsory tax called ‘bali’ from peasants and ‘vaishyas’ only.

 People lived in three types of villages:

1. The first category had various castes and communities living together and it was headed by ‘Bhojaka’.

2. The second type was suburban and was dominated by craftsmen and linked the rural to urban.
 3. The third category was villages in the outskirts of the countryside and consisted fowlers, hunters etc. who
lived a comparatively backward life.

 Writing had started and was used for book keepings in trade, taxation and large size of army.
SOCIETY
 Lower varnas were subject to many discrimination.
 Severe punishments were awarded by royal agents.
 ‘Jatakas’ or stories of previous lives of Buddha mention that land grants were given in favour of
great religious leaders.
 The king was primarily a warlord.
 The King was highest administrative official who was supported by other officials
called Mahamatras who performed functions of Mantrin (minister)
ADMINISTRATION
and Senanayaka (Commander), judge and chief accountant etc.
AND ARMY
 Another class of officers performing similar functions were called ‘Aayuktas’.
 Administration of village was under village headman called as gramabhojaka, gramini or gramika.
 Large, professional and permanent army.
FORMATION OF AN EMPIRE: MAGADHA
 Strategic geography (Rajgir and Patliputra), abundance of resources (iron, alluvial soil, of Gangetic
plain).
REASONS OF THE RISE
 Greater use of elephants in wars.
OF MAGADHA
 Progressive attitude of Magadh society.
 Service of competent, enterprising and ambitious rulers like BimbisarA and Ajatshatru etc.
capital - Rajagriha ( Girivraj)
HISTORY OF MAURYAN AGE - 6 TH CENTURY BC

BIMBISARA (542-493 BC):

Haryanaka dynasty founder - Bimbisara ( overthrew Brihadrathas )
Bimbisara wives -
 Daughter of king of Kosahala and sister of Prasenjit - got Kashi in dowry
 Chellana - Lichchhavi princesses from Vaishali ( mother of Ajatshatru )
 Daughter of chief of Madra clan of Punjab
patron of Buddhism, yet his lineage is not discussed in Buddhist sources.
Bimbisar’s capital was Rajgriha or Girivraja.
He is described as Seniya, i.e., the one ‘with an army’.
Bimbisara sent his personal physician Jivaka to Ujjain to win the friendship of Pradyota, the king of Avanti.
AJATASHATRU (492 BC – 460 BC):
HARYANKAS  Ajatshatru killed his father- Bimbisar and ascended to thrown.
 Adopted expansionist policy & defeated Koshala and Vaishali.
 Both, Bimbisar and Ajatshatru were contemporaries of the Buddha.
 Built Dhatu-chaityas around the capital
Udayin (460 BC – 444 BC)
 As per the Mahavamsa, the Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicle, Ajatashatru’s son Udayabhadra (Udayin)
succeeded Ajatasattu and ruled for the next sixteen years.
 He moved his capital to the bank of Ganges which was known as Pataliputra and built a fort near the
confluence of the Ganga and Son at Patna.
 The last ruler of Haryanka dynasty, Nagadasaka was over thrown by his amatya Shishunaga
 Shishunaga shifted his capital to Vaishali which his son Kalashoka shifted back to Patliputra.
SHISHUNAGAS
 Kalashoka hosted the 2nd Buddhist Council in 383 BC at Vaishali.
 Mahapadma Nanada / Ugrasen - foundation of the Nanda dynasty in Magadha.
 Puranas refer to him as “destroyer of all Kshatriyas” i.e., Sarvaksatrantaka, Aparoparashurama and
Ekarat (sole suzerain).
 Presence of Jain ministers like Kalpaka, Sakatala, etc. in his court indicates his leaning towards Jainism.
 Dhanananda was the last of the Nanda rulers.
NANDAS  He was a contemporary of Alexander of Macedon.
 Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvel ( chedi dysnasty )
 Kalinga victory of Nanda’s King Mahapadmananda. According to this, King Nanda took away the statue of
King Jinsen and built a canal in Kaling
 donation of villages to Jain monks.
 Kharvel defeated the three states Chola, Chera, and Pandyas
 
Founder of the Achaemenid empire of the Persia (Iran), Cyrus 2nd .

His grandson Darius 1st conquered Punjab and Sindh.

As a result, Indo-Iranian trade, influences of language, art and architecture increased.
IRANIAN (PERSIAN) 
Bell-shaped capital, Ashokan inscriptions and introduction of Kharosthi script are products of this
influence.
 last Achaemenid emperor, Alexander crossed the Hindukush and entered north-western India
 Ambhi (Omphis), the king of Takshashila, submitted to Alexander.
 Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum): Porus, was defeated and captured
 Alexander, impressed by Porus’ resistance, reinstated him in power.
 Alexander’s army refused to cross river Beas (Hyphasis) to fight further and thus a clash between
the tired Macedonian mercenaries and the huge army of the Nandas did not happen.
ALEXANDER’S  he returned to Greek from Paatal in 325 BC
INVASION (327 BC – 325  Alexander died in 323 BC in Babylon.
BC)  Massaga republic - the women had taken up arms against Alexander when a large number of men
were killed in the war against him. Alexander had killed all the women of this town
IMPACTS:
 Direct contact between Indian and Greece (Europe).
 Seeds of Indo-Bactrian and Parthian States in India.
 Greek influences on the Gandhara School of Art and Architecture.
 New land & sea routes were discovered by Alexander

Reasons for Alexander’s success

 28 independent powers of that time.---no central authority in India

 his army was superior.
 Many Indian traitor kings like Ambhi supported him

Mauryan Empire

Capital _ Patliputra surrounded by Ganges in the North & by river Sone in the west

SOURCES - LITERARY ARCHAEOLOGICAL

 Megasthenes’ - ‘Indika’- administration
 Kautilya’s - ‘Arthashastra’- political condition
 Punch marked coins, Northern Black Polished Ware
 Visakha Datta’s - ‘Mudra Rakshasa’
(NBPW)
 Dharmashastra texts, Puranas
 Ashokan inscriptions and Edicts
 Buddhist Text (Jatak Stories, Deepvamsa, Mahavamsa,
Divyavadan)

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322 BC – 298 BC)

 Chandraupta or Sandrokottos (as he is referred to in Greek literature - William Jones) launched a series of wars against
Dhananand and also liberated the country from the Greek rule.
 He laid the foundation of Mauryan empire in 322 BC with help of Chanakya (Kautilya).
 After conquering the region between Beas and Bay of Bengal, Chandragupta launched expeditions throughout the
country and included territories of Andhra, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujrat and Central regions to Mauryan empire.
Thus, the credit of first unification of North India is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya.
 In 305 BC, Chandragupta defeated Seleucas Nikator, the Greek emperor after Alexander.
 Megasthenes a Greek ambassador was sent by Seleucus in the Chandragupta Maurya court.
 According to Jaina sources, Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and abdicated the throne in
favour of his son.
 Accompanied by Bhadrabahu, a Jaina saint, he went to Sravana Belgola (Karnataka), where he died by slow starvation
(Salekhan)
 Justin, a Greek writer, described the meeting of Sandrokottos and Alexander the Great.
 Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman - Chandergupta’s governor Pushygupta constructed a dam on Sudarshan lake for
irrigation. It mentions Ashoka also
 Kumrahar site - palace of Chandragupta Maurya in Patliputra was made of woods
 BINDUSARA (298 BC – 273 BC)
 Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, known to the Greeks as Amitrochates (Sanskrit, Amitraghata = the
destroyer of foes). Madrasar, Simhasena are other names used for Bindusara.
 Bindusara followed the extreme fatalistic order (religion) ‘Ajivika’ founded by Makhali Gosala. This order had
complete disregard for ‘karma’.
 Bindusara maintained good diplomatic relations with Antiochus I, the Seleucid king of Syria. Antiochus sent Deimachus
as ambassador to the Bindusara’s court.
 Bindusara requested Antiochus to send him some sweet wine, dried figs and a Sophist (philosopher); the last being not
meant for export, was not sent.
 Tibetan Buddhist monk Taranatha describes Bindusara as “conqueror of the land between two seas”-peninsular India.
 Divyavadan, Buddhist biographical narrative of Mauryan Kings, mentions a revolt at Taxila being suppressed by Ashoka,
the son of Bindusara; who was ‘Kumara’ or viceroy of Ujjain at that time.
ASHOKA THE GREAT (273 BC – 237 BC)
 Ashoka was coronated to the throne in 269 BC. Radhagupta, helped Ashoka in usurping the throne.
 8 years after coronation, Ashoka fought the horrible Kalinga War in 261 BC.
 Bherighosha was replaced with Dhammaghosha.
 became Buddhist under the guidance of Mogaliputta Tissa.
 Mogaliputta Tissa presided over the 3rd Buddhist Council held in 250 BC at Pataliputra. Source - Dipavamsa” and
 “Mahavamsa
 He sent missionaries for propagation of Buddhism to Sri Lanka, south Indian states, Burma, Central Asia etc. He also
sent ambassadors of peace to Greek Kingdoms & Greece
 Ashoka was not extreme pacifist – He retained Kalinga and incorporated into his kingdom; he also didn’t disband the
army.
 Name mentioned in Maski and Gujjra edit(MP) - minor rock edit
 The whole India came under the kingdom of Ashoka, except Assam and some of the southern part of India.
 Chola, Pandayas, Sattiyaputta, Keralaputta and Tamraparni (Sri Lanka) were not the part of Mauryan reign. That’s why
they were called as edge states
 Ashoka built the first hospital and herbal garden in India.
 Bhabru inscription proves Ashoka as Buddhist. In the same inscription, he referred to himself as ‘Piyadasi Raja’
Magadha, i.e. the king of Magadha
 Kalsi (Dehradun District) - copy of Emperor Ashok’s Rock Edicts discovered
 Kanganahalli Buddha stupa is located on the bank of Bhima river,Karnataka. There is a stone portrait of Ashoka along
with his Queen below which 'Ranya Ashoka' (King Ashoka) has been written
 12th major rock edict of Ashoka, there is the declaration of religious longanimity and growth of the essence of all
communities.
 central point in Ashoka's Dhamma - peace, non-violence & religious toleration
 Major Rock Edict II,XIII, describes the presence of Pandyas, Sattiyaputta, Keralputta and Tamraparni kingdom of South
India.
 Pillar Edict V - ban on animal killing

 Use of iron tools, diversified agriculture production, immense increase in agriculture land
and irrigation facilities contributed to growth of Mauryan economy.
MAURYAN ECONOMY  Occurrences of famines is also reported in kautilya’s arthashastra and Jaina texts.
 Sohgaura copper plate inscription & Mahasthana inscription deal with the relief measures
to be adopted during a famine.
 Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale.
 The normal taxation rate was 1/6th of the produce.
 Crown land was called “Sita”
 Mauryan State had strict legal and penal system (civil and criminal); tax evaders attracted
death penalty.
 punch-marked coins (mostly silver) were used for transactions.
 Money was used not only for trade; the government paid its officers in cash.
 Hired laborers were called ‘karmakaras’.
 convoy of merchants was called as Sarthwah which is described in “Arthashastra” by
Kautilya.
There was state monopoly of mining, forest, salt, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms and metallurgy.
 Society was clearly divided into four-fold Varna system, slavery (dasas) existed in the society.
 ‘Varna- Shankar Vivah’ or inter-varna or inter-caste marriages too are reported; these were of two
MAURYAN kinds, namely, ‘Anulom’ (groom of higher varna/caste) and ‘Pratilom’ (bride of higher varna/caste).
SOCIETY  While Kautilya mentions 9 categories of slaves, Megasthenes reports its absence. Megasthenes also
 talks about 7-fold social divisions.
 As per the Jataka tails untouchables like Chanadala, Nishad, Shabar etc. existed and were treated
inhumanly.
 Women’s position in society deteriorated severely: widow remarriage stopped, institution of ‘ganikas’
(prostitution) expanded.
 Most artisans were shudras, yet, they were worst paid and subjected to forced labour (vishti).
 centre of learning during Mauryan period was - Taxila
 The memorizing of Chronicles, dynastic histories, and epic tales was a profession of Maagadha

 Ashoka was a Buddhist but he also promoted few principles of morality known as ‘Dhamma’. The 4-
cardinal points of Dhamma included: Tolerance, Non-violence, Good Conduct (Obeying parents and
elders, respecting Brahmanas and Monks) & Welfare.
DHAMMA OF  A new officer called, ‘Dhammamahamatra’ was appointed for promotion of ‘Dhamma’.
ASHOKA  Sanghmitra, daughter of Ashoka, was sent to Tamrparni (Sri Lanka) for conversion of women in Sri
Lanka to Buddhism.
 Ashoka’s Dhamma cannot be regarded as sectarian faith. His teachings were intended to maintain the
existing order on the basis of tolerance.

 Major rock edits - 16 and minor rock edicts - 2

 Majorpillar edicts - 17 and minor pillar edicts- 3
 Deciphered by James Princep( Brahmi script )
 These are reported from places like Meerut, Topara, Kaushambi, Sanchi, Sarnath, Lauriya Nandgarh,
Lauriya Araraj, Rampur and Lumbini (Nepal) in and around the Ganga Valley.
ASHOKAN
 The national emblem of India is taken from the Ashoka’s Sarnath Pillar.
EDICTS AND
 Name of Ashoka occurs only on minor rock edicts. He was first king to speak people directly through
INSCRIPTIONS
inscriptions.
 Mainly inscribed in Prakrit Language and Brahmi script.
 Inscriptions from Manshera and Shahbajgarhi in Pakistan are in Prakrit language but Kharosthi script.
 Kandhar Inscriptions is bilingual, it used Greek and Aramaic languages and scripts.
 Kaushambi pillar(aka Queen’s edict - Karuvahi ) edict was shifted to Allahabad by Jahangir

 Mauryan Empire was divided into 5 provinces Mauryan had a huge army & had maintained navy.

MAURYAN
administration

CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION:
 King was the nucleus and was assisted by Mantri Parishad – Yuvraj, Purohita, Senapati and other.
 Highest officers were called ‘tirthas’ and Adhyakshas (superintendents) managed 26 departments.

IMPORTANT OFFICIALS:
 Samaharta – Revenue Collector
 Shulkadhyaksha – Officer-In-Charge of Royal Income
 Spies (gudhapurushas) and informers (prativedakas) played imp role.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION:
 Mauryan state also had local and municipal administration; ‘Vish’or ‘Ahara’ (districts) were the units of
a province.
 Megasthenese’s account mentions 6 committees of five members each for administering the
municipalities. Committee maintained the record of registration of birth and death certificates.
IMPORTANT OFFICERS:
  Sitadhyaksha – Supervised agriculture
 Panyadhyaksha -Superintendent of Commerce
 Yukta – Subordinate Revenue Officer
 Prasdesika – Chief revenue officer.
 Sthanika – Head of local administration. worked under Prasdesika.
 Rajuka – Revenue settlement officer
 Samsthadhyaksha – Superintendent of market
 Pauthavadhyaksha – Superintendent of weight & measure.
 Navaadhyaksha – Superintendent of ships.
 Sulkaadhyaksha – Collector of tolls
 'Agronomai' used to collect revenues, monitor irrigation facilities, perform legal administration &
looked after road construction.
VILLAGE LEVEL OFFICERS:
 Gramika – The head of village. It was elected body.
 Gramvriddhas – panchayat consist of Village elders to settle disputes.
 Sudarshan lake was constructed during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya in Girnar Hill in Gujrat.
 Tamralipti (Tamlook in Midnapur, WB) in the east and Bharuch/ Broach/Barygaza (Gujrat) in the west
were two important ports.
 Huge army and Navy were maintained in which all the 4 varnas were allowed to serve.
 King (Swami), Minister (Amatya), Territory (Janpada), Fort (Durg), Treasury (Kosa), Army (Danda) and
Allies (Mitra) were the 7 elements of states of Kautilya’s Saptanga theory in Arthashastra
 DECLINE OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE:
 Over-centralisation, cumbersome bureaucracy, super heavy taxation (on almost every activity) and foreign invasions
were main factors of decline.
 Neglect of North-West frontier and construction of great wall of China.
 Financial Crisis- Ashoka incurred huge expenditure for promotion of his ‘Dhamma Mission’.
 Over-tolerant, non-violent attitude killed the fighting spirit of the army.
 After Ashoka’s death in 232 BC Mauryan Emperors were incompetent and oppressive.
 Pushyamitra Shunga, a Mauryan army commander, killed the last Mauryan emperor Brihadrath and founded Shunga
Dynasty in 187 BC.
 Brhamins, annoyed by Ashoka for banning rituals, supported Pushyamitra Shunga who was a Brahmin.

POINTS

 Sanchi and Bharhut stupas (MP ) were discovered by Alexander Cunningham.

 Amravati Stupa is located on the right bank of Krishna river in the Guntur , Andhra Pradesh. Lord Mackenzie traced this
Stupa in 1797.
 Dhamekh Stupa of Varanasi(Sarnath) is related with the Gupta period. This stupa is designed on the fl at surface of the
ruthless plain

POST- MAURYAN PERIOD

 Dharmashastra; Manusmriti also known as ‘Manavdharmashastra’ is composed by Sage Manu and is first
detailed law book available.
 Gargi Samhita and Mahabhashya of Patanjali (which is commentary on Panini’s Ashtadhyayi).
 The Buddhist Jatakas, Divyavadana, Mahavastu and the Milindpanho (Sanskrit, Milindaprashna)
SOURCES  Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa and the Harshacharita of Banabhatta.
 ‘Periplus of the Erythraean Sea’ written by an anonymous Greek seafarer (pattern of trade between India and the
Western world).
 Also, the epigraphic records in Kharoshthi found in large numbers in Gandhara and Central Asia refer to different
facets of India’s regular contacts with these regions.

Shungas ( 187 BC - 78 BC )
 Capital at Patliputra and a second capital at Vidisha (under son Agnimitra’s viceroy).
 Pushyamitra Shunga defended the country (the Gangetic valley) and its culture against foreign invasions (Greeks).
Pushyamitra shunga erected Bharhut stupa.
 After Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra ruled.
 A significant attempt at penetrating into India by Demetrius I of Bactria was countered successfully by Vasumitra, son
of Agnimitra.
 Performed ‘Ashwamedh’ sacrifice for revival of Brahmanical order and patronized scholars like Patanjali and Manu.
 Shunga’s empire covered regions of Bihar, Bengal and Uttar Pradesh and northern Madhya Pradesh.
 The last ruler of the Shunga dynasty was Devabhuti, he was killed by Vasudeva who established Kanva Dynasty which
ruled in eastern and central India.
 Shungas issued gold and silver coins and they inherited and continued with Mauryan structure of administration.
 They patronised Brahmanical order, yet, there was no antagonism towards Buddhism.
 Art and literature received due patronage under Shungas. Mathura school of art achieved new heights, especially
in realistic human depiction. Accessories like gateways and stone railings were added to a number of
 ‘Manavdharmashastra’ and Malvikagnimitram’ are said to have been composed during this period.
 Yavanarajya inscription, Dhanadeva-Ayodhaya inscription mentions about Shungas.
 Vasudeva Kanva killed his king Devabhuti of Shunga and founded Kanva rule with Vidisha
and Patliputra as their capital.
KANVA DYNASTY
 Next came Bhumimitra, Vasudeva’s son and Narayan son of Bhumimitra, together they
ruled for 26 years.
(73 BC – 28 BC)
 The last Kanva king Susarman was killed by the Satavahana (Andhra) king and Kanva
dynasty of Brahmins ended with him.
 Kingdom of Chedis or Chetis was founded in Kalinga.
 The politics of this period is known for the 3rd Chedi king of kalinga known as Kharvela.
CHEDI DYNASTY/
 Hathgumpha inscription of Udaigiri hills of Orissa describe him as great conqueror who
Mahameghvahana
Magadh, Satvahanas and Pandyas of Madurai.
 Kharvela was a Jaina follower who donated caves to Jaina Monks in Udaigiri Hills.
 Chedis are also referred to as Cheta or Chetavamsa, and Mahameghavahana.
SATVAHANAS - Simuka founder

POLITICAL SETUP

 Satvahana are referred as “Andhras” in the Puranas( Matsya puran).

 The Satavahanas are reported from Deccan , with their primary capital at Pratishthana (modern Paithan in
Maharashtra) on Godavari river & second Capital was Amravati.
 Source-Aitreya Brahmana, Brihat Katha of Gunadya, Kamasutra of Vatasayana, Kathasaritsagar of Somadeva.
 The Satvahana graves are reported to be encircled by big pieces of stone and therefore they are known also as
megalithic people.

Hala- compiled the Gatha Saptashati in Prakrit. It is a collection of poems with mostly love as the theme.

Simuka 1. Founder of the dynasty

2. Succeeded by his brother Krishna (Kanha)
Kanha 1. He is identified with the "Kanha-raja" (King Kanha) of "Satavahana-kula" (Satavahana family) mentioned
in a Nashik cave inscription
2. He extended the empire to further south and was succeeded by Simuka’s son Satkarni-I.
Satakarni 1. He was the third of the Satavahana kings and was the first powerful Satavahans ruler.
2. His achievements in details are describes in the Nanaghat inscription.
3. Referred to as 'lord of Dakshinpatha'
His name is inscribed on one of the gateways of Sanchi Stupa.
Sivasvati  During his reign the Western Satraps invaded Northern Maharastra and Vidarbha and occupied the
districts of Pune and Nashik, forcing the Satavahanas to abandon their capital Junnar and to move to
Prastisthana (modern Paithan) in the vicinity of Aurangabad.
 His Queen was probably Gautami Balashri (mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni) who appears in an
inscription at Nasik caves as the donator of Cave Number three.
Gautamiputra Information about him comes from his coins, the Satavahana inscriptions and the royal genealogies in
Satakarni the various Puranas.
2. Best known inscription is the Nashik prashasti (eulogy) inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri,
which credits him with extensive military conquests
3. The Nashik prashasti inscription of Gautamiputra's mother calls him the "king of kings", and states that
his orders were obeyed by the circle of all kings.
protector of the Varna System
4. He was the first king bearing matronym (Mothers name)
 Gautamiputra Satkarni (also known as Ekabrahmana) defeated Sakas, Greeks, Parthians and
Nahapana (king of western Satrapa)
 He called himself the only brahmana. He adopted the title Dakshina Pathapati.
 He defeated the Shakas and claimed that the Kshatriya ruler Nahapana was destroyed by him
Vasishthiputra 1. Referred to as Vasishthiputra Sri Pulumavi
Pulumavi 2. Set up his capital at Paithan or Paristhan on the bank of Godavari river.
3. He extended his borders to eastern Deccan and started trade with Java and Sumatra.
According to the Junagadh inscriptions, he was married to Rudradaman I's the daughter.
Vashishtiputra He had great conflict with the Scythian Western Kshatrapas in the West, but he eventually married the
Satakarni daughter of Rudradaman I of the Western Kshatrapa dynasty, in order to forge an alliance.
3. Inscription in a cave at Kanheri witnesses the marriage between Rudradaman I's daughter and
Vashishtiputra Satakarni.
4. He was defeated by his father-in-law
Shivaskanda He was defeated twice in battle by his Western Satrap enemy Rudradaman.
Satakarni
Yajna Sri Satakarni He was lover of trade and navigation.
He issued coins in which ships were depicted.
Vijaya last ruler of Satvahanas dynasty
Administration  ‘Amatyas’ and ‘Mahamatras’ were district officers
 Kings donated land in favour of Brahmins and administrative officers.
 Gaulmika administered the rural areas; Katakas and Skandhvaras military camps.
 King during Satvahanas’ reign was supposed to be the upholder of the Dharma.
 Dharmshastras not only set ideals for the people but also for the King.
 Satvahanas promoted development of architecture in hills of the Western Ghats where caves
were cut in Ajanta, Nasik, Karle, Bhaja, Kondain, Kanheri.
ART AND  These caves were cut in to make Chaityas (Buddhist cave-temple) and Viharas (Buddhist rest
 houses).
ARCHITECTURE  Karle Chaitya is the largest cave temple.
 Nagarjunkonda and Amravati were important centres of trade and art. Stupas were constructed
here, use of white marble too is reported for the first time.
 Satvahanas also contributed to the development of Ajanta school of painting which is known for
beautiful colour combinations, drawings, expression of emotions, and spirtuality.
 Buddha’s entire life is pictured – Saptashati.
 Satvahanas issued coins (Karshapanas) in a number of metals like Silver, Gold, Copper, Lead and
Potin.(NOT GOLD )
ECONOMY  They were first native rulers to issue own coins with the portraits of the rulers.
 Paddy transplantation, cotton production and exploitation of iron ores (Karimnagar and
Warangal) was commonly practiced.
 Famous for production of rice and cotton
 Began practice of and grants to Brahmans and Buddhist monks
SOCIETY AND  Satvahana revived Brahmanism.
RELIGION  With flourishing of Mahayan Buddhism worship of Krishna and Vasudeva was also common.
 Society was made stable by enforcing the Varna system.
LITERATURE  Most of the inscriptions of the Satvahana rulers are in Prakrit Language as it was their official
language
INDO-GREEKS (200 BC – 100 CE)
 Indo- Greek rule in India had 3 branches, namely, Bactria i.e., North Afghanistan, Taxila (Takshashila) and Sakal or
Sialkot which is now in Pakistan.
 An ambassador from the Taxila branch, Heliodorus was sent to court of King of Vidisha.
 Heliodorus got a stone pillar constructed in Greek style (different from Asokan style) which was dedicated to Lord
Vasudeva.
 Demetrious and Menander or Milind are two significant rulers mentioned from Sakal or Sialkot branch of Indo-Greek.
 Menander or Milind adopted Buddhism under Nagasen who wrote “MILINDPANHO” in Sanskrit.
 This branch also caused a lot of trouble to the kings of Ganga Valley i.e., Mauryans and Shungas.
 Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins bearing inscriptions of images of Kings and Gods.
 India learned Use of curtain (yavan) from Greeks. Greek term horoscope was derived from the term horasastra. They
introduced practice of governorship.
 Adopting Indian social and religious way of life they got indigenised.
 Strato - II issued the lead coins.
 Growth of metallurgy, medicine, astronomy, stone-cutting, perfume-making are evidences of technical advancements
under Indo-Greeks.
 Patronizing both Buddhism and Hinduism, the greatest contribution of Indo-Greeks is witnessed in development
of Gandhara School of Art.
o In this, Greek techniques are applied over Buddhist themes and it is also known as Greeko-Buddhist Art.
o Taxila, Peshawar, Bactria, Bamiyan, Hadda; in Afghanistan; Baigram (Kashmir) were important sites of development of
this school of art.
o Muscular body, beard and moustache are seen in the images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. Images of Greek Gods and
Kings too are reported.
o Use of grey sandstone, outer robe (Roman influence), facial images and andromorphic (human form) God (Greek
influence) is evident in the Gandhara School of Art.
PARTHIANS  At the end of 100 BC few kings with Iranian names like Pahlavas of Indo Parthians, captured north-
western India.
In the reign of Gondophernes (the most significant of the Indo-Parthians) St. Thomas is said to have come to
India for the propagation of Christianity
SAKAS  Sakas who were also known as Scythians, were from Western China.
 The first Shaka king was Maues or Moga
(100 BC – 150  Mathura, Ujjain and Girnar were centres of Saka rulers in north India.
CE)  They ruled in capacity of ‘Satrapas’ i.e., governors and Mahasatrapas.
 With control over western Ganga valley, parts of central India and Gujrat, Sakas were almost always at
war with Satvahanas and put pressure over Deccan region.
 Rudradaman of Ujjain centre of Sakas is of significance as he finds mention in Junagarh inscription.
 This inscription is in Sanskrit( Brahmi script ).The earliest specimen of “Kavya” style is found in this
inscription
 Rudradaman got the lake Sudarshan repaired for better irrigation (constructed during the time of
Chandragupta Maurya).
 Bhumak and Nahapan of Girnar centre of Sakas, had their coins spread over many places in western
India.
  Huge number and great variety of silver coins are reported from western India that are attributed to
the Sakas.
 Patronising Indian art and culture many of the Saka rulers got themselves Indianized.
 Important centre of development of art were Sanchi, Mathura and Gandhar.
 The King of Ujjain defeated Sakas and assumed the title of ‘Vikramaditya’ and estd. the Vikram
Samvat or era in 58 CE.
Introduced Satrap system
KUSHANAS  Kushanas (Yueh-Chis) were from China, they ruled in North-West India with Purushpur (Peshawar) as
their capital.
(50 CE – 230  Kanishka, a Mahayan Buddhist, was the most important Kushana ruler.
CE)  Wem Kadphises, Huviska and Vasiska were other important Kushana rulers in India.
 The 4th Buddhist council at Kundalvan Vihar (Kashmir) with Vasumitra as president was held during
Kanishka’s reign.
 Ashwaghosh was vice-president of this Mahayan Buddhist council.
 “Buddha Charita” i.e., biography of Buddha, was composed by Ashwaghosh of Patliputra.
 Nagarjuna propounded the Madhyamika Philosophy of Mahayana Buddhism.
 Nagarjuna also discussed the idea of relativity and hence, is sometimes called as Einstein of India.
 In 78 AD, the Saka era was founded by Kanishka.( CORONATION of Kanishka )
 Adorned - Ashwaghosha, Nagaarjuna, Parsva, Vasumitra, charaka,Mathara
 They issued gold standard coins (22 or 23 carats).
 Processing of the imported Chinese raw silk at Bharoch in Gujrat helped it in becoming an important
trading centre.
 Greater use saddle in horse riding, armour, turbans, trouser, helmets, long coats and better cavalry are
Kushana’s contributions.
 Kushan rulers had circulated both gold and copper coins vastly.
 Vima Kadphises /Kadphises II - was the first Kushan ruler who issued gold coins.
 Buddha is depicted on the coins of -Kanishka
 practice of child marriage started in Kushana Period

Last ruler - Vasudeva

 Kautilya, chandragupta maurya and ayurvedacharya charak, king prasenjit of kosala, ayurvedacharya jivak of
bimbisar, vasubandhu, chanakya, etc. Studied at taxila university

Persian ruler, Darius-I (522-486 BC) was the first ruler who invaded some parts of India

THE HISTORY OF GUPTA PERIOD : 275-550 AD.

 Sri Gupta was the first ruler of the dynasty followed by his son
 Bhitari pillar inscription dates to his reign gives the chronology of Guptas and his conflict with Pushyamitra and Huns.

RULER INFORMATION
CHANDRAGUPTA-I  considered actual founder of the dynasty.
 title of ‘Maharajadhiraj’.
(319 CE – 330/335 CE)  His reign covered regions of South Bihar, Jharkhand and parts of Eastern Uttar Pradesh
(Saketa and Prayaga).
 His accession in about AD 319-20 marks the beginning of the Gupta Samvat (era).
 Chandragupta-I married the Licchavi princess Kumardevi and increased his influence in the
North Bihar region (Nepal).
 Gold Coins bearing the figures of Kumardevi and Chandragupta 1 known as Kumardevi
Coins were issued.
first Gupta ruler who issued the coins.
SAMUDRAGUPTA  The son of Chandragupta-I, Samudragupta, became the next ruler whose conquests are
recorded in Prayaga Prashasti (Eulogy).
(335 CE – 375/380 CE)  The name of the ruler of Kosala, the Mahendra, is mentioned over the Samudragupta's
"Prayag prashasti" by , Harishena in classical Sanskrit.
 According to Prayaga Prashasti, Samuddragupta conquered: Eight kings of Aryavarta –
(northern India i.e., Ganga Valley);
 Samudragupta captured and then liberated and reinstated 12 kings of Dakshinapatha (South
India).
 A large part of the subcontinent succumbed to the power of Samudragupta and paid tribute.
  Samudragupta performed the Ashwamedh Yajna (sacrifice) post these achievements.
 He issued Ashwamedh coins, Tiger-slayer coin, Battle-axe coin and Veena-Coin in which he is
displayed playing the Veena.
 Samudragupta was not only a conqueror but also a great poet, musician and patron of
learning.
 ‘Napoleon of India’- (Historian A.V. Smith)
Allahabad pillar inscriptions called him “Dharma Prachar Bandhu”.
CHANDRAGUPTA-II  Coming to the throne, Chandragupta-II defeated the Sakas in western region, assumed the
title of ‘Vikramaditya’ and ruled from Ujjain.
(380 CE – 414 CE)  Udaigiri Cave Inscription (Vidisha, MP) and Sanchi inscription inform us about this.
 Sanchi and Vakataka inscriptions - Devagupta
 He married Kubernaga of the Naga family and had a daughter by her named Prabhavatigupta.
 Prabhavatigupta was married to Vakataka Rudrasen 2nd of Central India, after Rudrasen’s
death, Prabhavatigupta ruled as a regent
 Chandragupta-II was the first Gupta ruler to issue silver coins bearing lion figure similar in
pattern with Saka coins.
 Mehrauli iron pillar inscription (Delhi’s Qutub-minar complex) of Chandragupta-II records
that Chandragupta-II defeated Valhikas of Bactria crossing the Saptsindhu.
 Kalidasa and Amarsinha lived in his court.
Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-haien visited his court.
KUMARGUPTA I  Karamdanda (Fyzabad) inscription refers to king Kumargupta I as ruler of 4 oceans, Mandasor
inscription as ruler of all earth and copper plate inscription of Damodarpur
(414 CE – 455 CE) as ‘Maharajadhiraj’.
 Bilsad (Etah) inscription also mentions Kumargupta I
 Kumargupta I performed Ashwamedha yajna and assumed titles like Ashwamedha-
Mahendra and Mahendraditya
 Himself a devotee of Shiva, Kumargupta I issued Kartikeya type of coins bearing figure of
peacock.
 While the threat of the Hunas crossing Hindukush was building up during Kumargupta I, on
the whole his reign remained peaceful.
During his reign Nalanda University was established.
SKANDAGUPTA Bhitari Pillar inscription
 His conquest over Pushyamitra
(455 CE – 467 CE)  defeated Hunas in North West Frontier

Got the Sudarshan Lake repaired (Junagadh inscription).

 Feudal lords (recipients of the land grants) stared asserting themselves and started setting up
their own dynasties.
DECLINE  Decentralized bureaucracy and absence of large, permanent and professional army
 Decline of foreign trade, invasions of Huna, weak successors contributed to their decline
 Acceptance of Buddhism by the later Guptas
Vishnugupta (540 CE- 550 CE) was the last recognized Gupta ruler.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITION DURING GUPTA PERIOD


King was assisted by council of minister.

Bhukti (province) and Vishaya (province division) were administrative units headed by Uparika and
Vishayapati respectively.
 Vishaya was further divided into Vithi & village was the smallest unit.
 Bureaucracy was not elaborated as that of Maurya.
Important Offices:
 Mahanandanayaka – Justice Delivery
 Mahapratihara – Chief of the Guards
 Dutakas– Associated with Gifts and Grants
ADMINISTRATION  Sandhi–Vigrahika– Minister of Peace and War
 Pilupati -Headed Elephants
 Asvapati -Headed Horses
 Narapti– Headed Foot Soldiers
 Ranabhandagrika– In charge of stores
 Akshapataladhikrita– Superintendent of Records and Accounts.
  Textile Industry was a prime industry of the Gupta period
 The King’s administration facilitated irrigation, ensured measurement and categorization of land into
cultivated (Kshetra) and un-cultivated (Khila/ Aprahata) lands.
 Kulyavapa & dronavapa were diff erent measurements of land during the Gupta period.
 Landowner class (mahattars, Gramika and Kutumbika) became influential as land was a prestigious
property to be sold or gifted.
 Craftsmen produced both utility and luxury items; particular craftsmanship became the basis ‘jaati’-
formation i.e., caste.
ECONOMY  Shreni continued to govern the trader’s affairs.
 Common people traded in cowrie shells.
 Issued less pure gold coins than Kushana.
 During the Gupta period, most of the Indian trade happened with South-East Asia, hence Tamralipti
(bengal) was most important port of this period. However, Bharuch, Kalyan, Cambay etc. were also used
for North Indian trade.
 Gold coin - Dinara
 Society became clearly feudalistic, Brahmins (Brahmadiyas & Agraharas)and feudal chiefs received land
grants.
 Position of women and Shudras improved Both were allowed to listen the Ramayana & Mahabharata &
advised to worship Krishna.
 Bhanugupta’s Airana (Eran) inscription - first evidence of Sati and Child marriage too existed.
 Fahien records almost absence of crime and death penalty.
 Vishti was forced labour to serve royal army & officials.
 Chandalas were the outcaste
 Different religious sects co-existed peacefully.
 Vaishnavite or Shaivite Kings got temples constructed for their respective deity.
SOCIETY AND  Religious texts like Puaranas, Mahabharata and Ramayana were expanded in this period.
RELIGION  Bhagvatism centered around Vishnu emerged.
 women and Sudra spoke in Prakrit language while upper varnas (class) person used Sanskrit to speak.
 The ruler of Gupta dynasty donated a maximum number of villages to temples and Brahmins.
 Continud growth of the Ajanta School (Theme: Buddha’s life) was accompanied by emergence of Bagh
School near Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh. In this cave-walls were painted in local themes i.e., it
related to common people.
 Sculpture– making made considerable growth with evidences of various stone images.
 Metal and stone images of Buddha (bronze, Bhagalpur), Shiva and Vishnu are reported from a number of
places.
 Images of God appeared first time.
ART AND
 Stupa and cave construction reduced and temple construction (Shikhara) picked up:
ARCHITECTURE
 Dashavatar Temple, Deogarh , U.P.
 Bhitargav Temple (Brick) Kanpur, U.P.
 Parvati Temple, Nachnakuthara, M.P.
 Vishnu Temple, Eran , M.P.
 Bagh cave Paintings belongs to this period.

Prayag Prashasti / Allahabad Pillar inscription - built by Ashoka, originally it was situated in Kaushambi, which was later shifted
to Allahabad by Akbar. The name of Jahangir and Birbal is also mentioned there.

It has 4 different inscriptions:

 Ashokan inscription in Brahmi script.

 Queen edict regarding the charitable deed of Ashoka’s wife, Karuvaki.

 Samudragupta inscription written by Harisena in Sanskrit language

 Brahmi script and Jahangir inscription in Persian.

Gupta Ruler Chandragupta- II ‘Vikramaditya’ was known as the ‘Saka Conqueror’ as he eliminated Saka power by defeating last
Saka king Rudrasimha- III in the fi rst decade of the 5th century. He adopted the title of 'Sakari' after this victory. He issued silver
coins (Rupak) on this occasion.
LITERATURE DURING GUPTA PERIOD

There were Navaratnas, or Nine Gems in the court of Chandragupta II who were experts of particular fields.

1. Kalidasa - poet 6. Kshapank - astrologer

2. Dhanvantri - physician 7. Varauchi - grammarian
3. Varahamihira - astronomer 8. Vetal bhatta - magician
4. Amar singh - Lexicographer 9. Ghata karpara - diplomat
5. Shanku - architect

 Dharmashashtras, Narad Smriti, Vishnu Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti and portion of Ramayana and Mahabharata, Bhasa’s
12 plays were also written in this period.
 Most of the literature is developed using ornate Sanskrit language.

AUTHOR WORK
 Abhijnanshakuntalam
 Vikramorvasiyam
 Malavikagnimitra
Kalidasa
 Kumārasambhava
 Raghuvansham
 Meghadootam
 Ritusamhara
 Jyotirvidabharana
Kamandaka Nitisara
 Mudrarakshas - Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas
Vishakhadatta
 Devichandraguptam
Gunadhya Brihatkatha
Sudraka Mrichhakatikam - love story of a rich merchant with the daughter of a courtesan
Varahamihir Panchasiddhantika (5 books, Brihatsamhita most notable)
Susrut Susrutsamhita on surgery
Vagabhata Ashtanghridaya
Dhanavantari Ayurveda
Amar Singh Amarkosh
Aryabhatt Aryabhattiyam, Suryasidhanta
Brahmagupta Brahmasphuta siddhanta
Bhasa Svapanavasaydattam

King Title
Sri Gupta , Ghatothkach Maharaj
Samudragupta Kaviraja,Ashmedha, Dharma Prachar Bandu, Param Bhagavat
Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, Sakari Devagupta/Devashri/Devraja, Param Bhagavata
Kumar Gupta Mahendraditya
Skand Gupta Vikramaditya, Kramaditya, Devraja
HARSHAVARDHAN & THE SOUTHERN DYNASTIES

 After the decline of Gupta empire, a number of Kingdoms appeared in the North India:
 Maukhari Dynasty in the core Ganga Valley Region.
 Harshavardhan’s ancestors (Pushyabhutis) in western U.P., eastern Punjab with their capitals
at Kannauj and Thaneswar (Panipat-Topara).
 Further east, Shashank (7th century, CE) ruled over Bengal (Gauda).
 In South, after Vakatakas who were contemporaries of Guptas, Chalukyas of Badami ruled over Deccan and further
South was the Kingdom of Pallavas of Kanchi.
 Hieun Tsang’s travel account Si-Yu-Ki, Banbhatta’s Harshacharita and Aihole stone inscription of
Pulkeshin II.
 Madhuban & Sonpat inscriptions records chronology of Harsha. Banshekhra inscriptions has a
signature of Harsha.
PUSHYABHUTI  Pushyabhutis were feudatories of Gupta. They became independent after Huna invasion.
 Important rulers of this dynasty were Prabhakarvardhana, Adityavardhan and Harshavardhana.
DYNASTY  Harshvardhan was son of Prabhakarvardhana.
During Harshavardhana’s rule, Kannauj was conquered and united with Thaneswar.
Harshavardhana attacked Shashank of Gauda Kingdom and established his control over regions of
Bengal, Bihar and Odisha and befriended Bhashkarvarman of Kamrup (Assam).
 Vallabhi King Dhruvbhata in Gujrat too was defeated and a truce was negotiated with him by
marriage of Harsha’s daughter to Dhruvbhata.
 He assumed titles of Uttarapathanatha or Uttarapathapati (Lord of the North).
 While marching southwards, Harshavardhan conquered regions of Malawa and after crossing
Narmada he was defeated by Pulkeshin II in the Battle of Narmada in 618 AD
HARSHAVARDHAN  Harshavardhana was greatly influenced by the personality of Hieun Tsang and organized a
Buddhist assembly at Kannauj under his chairmanship.
(606 CE – 647 CE)  Hieun Tsang, in his book, has appreciated Harshvardhan’s justice and munificence (generosity).
 Harshavardhan, the able military commander and good administrator, died in 647 CE without heir
and is regarded as the last Hindu King to have ruled large part of North India.
 Hence, his death also marks the end of Pushyabhuti dynasty and beginning of Muslim rule over
North India.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITION DURING HARSHAVARDHAN & THE SOUTHERN DYNASTIES
 Harsha governed his empire on the same lines of Gupta.
 The basic unit of administration was a village.
ADMINISTRATION  Offices under the king became hereditary as Harisena who was a ‘mahadandanayaka’, or Chief
Judicial Officer inherited the office from his father.
 One person could bear more than one office as Harisena also held offices of ‘Kumaramatya’ and
‘Sangrahvigrahika’
 The ‘sreshti’ (Chief Banker or Merchant), the ‘sarthavaha’ (Leader of Merchant Caravans),
‘prathamakulika’ (Chief Craftsman), and the ‘kayashthas’ (head of the scribes) were other
important officers of Harsha’s administration.
  Maintainance of Public Records is important feature of Harsha rule.
 One-sixth of the produce was collected as tax and was main source of revenue.
 Taxes imposed on ports, income from mines and tributes from vassals were other important
revenue sources.
ECONOMY  Overall, the trade and commerce are said to have declined during this phase.
 Mathura was famous for the production of cotton textiles.
 According to Hiuen-Tsang, there were castes, a mix of sub-castes, untouchables and also outcastes,
yet, forced labour was absent.
 The position of women declined during this period as the institution of Swyamvara had become
SOCIETY dysfunctional.
 Widow remarriage was not allowed and Sati & dowry system were prevalent.

 As Harshavardhan was a secular king, all sects of religion peacefully coexisted but Brahmanism grew
more than others.
 Harshvardhan was Shiva devotee. Later he converted to Mahayana Buddhism.
RELIGION
 According to Hieun Tsang, Harsha held Allahabad conference once in 5 yrs.

 A patron of art and literature, Harshavardhan patronized the Banabhatta(Prithikuta Village in

Bihar ), Mayura, Matanga Divakara etc.
 Banabhatta wrote – Harshacharita, Kadambari & Parvatiparinay.
 Harsha was a poet and composed three Sanskrit plays: Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarsika.
ART AND CULTURE  Harshavardhan held 5 yearly donation (Daan) ceremony at Prayag and donated munificently in
favour of: Administration, Royal Household, Scholars and Religion.
 Brick temple of Laxamana at Sirpur was built during Harsha rule.

Chinese writers mentioned India by the name of ‘Yin-tu’ or ‘Thian-tu’ which means a variation of Hindu or Sindhu.

SANGAM AGE: THE HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA

Sangam was a college or assemblies of Tamil poets held under royal patronage
o 1st Sangam- Old Madurai (Lemurai) --- Saint Agastya
o 2nd Sangam- Kapatpuram (Alovai) --- Saint Agastya
o 3rd Sangam- New Madurai --- Nakkirar
 Sangam Literature is broadly divided into 2 groups – Narrative & Didactic.
 Narrative texts are called Melkannaku/18 major works consisting of Ettuthogai– Collection of 8 long poems
& Pattupattu– Collection of 10 small poems. Narrative texts are considered of heroic poetry in which heroes and wars
are glorified. They also give idea of state formation in South India.
 Didactic texts are called Kilkannaku/18minor works consisting of Tirukural and Naladiyar.These texts prescribe a code
of conduct for kings & society. They also Mentions about social groups, occupations.
 2nd and 13th rock edicts of Ashoka name 4 neighborly kingdoms of South India- Cholas, Cheras (Keralputras of
Malabar) Pandyas and Satiyaputras.
 Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga mentions Tamil kingdoms.

Naura, Tondi, Mushiri and Nelisanda were the main ports of the western coast
terms Kon, Ko and Mannan, were attributed to the King.

Other Sangam  Silappadikaram – written by Ilango Adigal. It is about love affair of Kovalan, Kanaggi and Madhavi.
 Manimekhalai – Written by Sittalai Sattanar continues the story of Silappadikaram in next generation
in which Manimekhalai is the daughter of Madhavi and Kovalan.
Literature
 Tolkappiyam – written by Tolkappiyar was product of 2nd Sangam and it is basically a work on Tamil
grammar & poetics.
 Tirrukural – Deals with philosophy and wise maxims & was written by Tiruvallur
 Chola Empire was founded by Vijayalaya built the city of Thanjavur
CHOLAS  they defeated the Pallavas to come into power.
( kaveri )  Capitals at Kaverippattanam (Puhar) and Uraiyur (famous for cotton trade).
 Territory – N-E to the territory of Pandya, between Pennar & Velar Rivers.
 Emblem – Tiger
 Kaverippattanam, Uraiyur and Arikamedu (Puducherry) became famous centers of trade and
 industry under Cholas.
 Elara was the earliest known king. He conquered Sri Lanka & ruled over it for 50 yrs.
 Karikala was the greatest king. He founded Puhar & constructed dam across Cauvery River.
 Battle of Venni - Chola (Uraiyur) ruler Karikala with a confederacy of Pandya (Madurai) and Chera
rulers
 Brihadeeshwara temple Thanjavur- Dravidian style temple of Chola-Style, constructed in the reign of
Rajraja-I
 excellent village administration
 Uttaramerur inscription, which states that every village had its own committee called 'Sabha' which
were usually independent of Central command and independently administered the village
administration
 Rajaraja- I was the first Chola king who created the Naval Army
 Rajaraja-I captured only the northern part of Sri Lanka
 Rajaraja - I started the tradition of writing & collecting the tales of victories of his ancestors through
written inscriptions
 Hoyasala and Pandya Kingdom defeated Chola King Rajendra III.

Port - Puhar
Rajendra Chola  Rajaraja-I and his son Rajendra-I sent an expedition against Sailendra empire of South East Asia and
conquered some of the areas as they were facing difficulty in a trade with China
 Rajendra -I annexed the whole of Sri Lanka and he defeated Mahipal after that adopted the title of
Gangaikonda.
 Chola navy was the strongest in the area, and they converted the Bay of Bengal into Chola lake.

 Capital at Madurai (center of trade and industry)

PANDYAS  Teritory – Southern most & South eastern portion of peninsula.
 Emblem – Carp (fish)
 Pandyas had trade relations with Romans. They find mention in the Ramayana & Mahabharata.
 Nedunjelian, known for his kingdom’s wealth and prosperity, was most noteworthy Pandya ruler.
 Port - Korkai
 Mentioned by Megasthenes and Hiuen Tsang
 Capital at Vanji (Malabar).
CHERAS  Territory – West & North of Pandya.
 Emblem – Bow and Arrow.
 Senguttuvan (Red Chera) was most important ruler. He established the Kannagi or Pattini
Cult; Kannagi became object of worship.
 He was the first King from South India to send an ambassador to China.
 He enjoyed the reputation of being highly ethical or virtuous.
 Gajabahu was his contemporary Sri Lankan King.
 Karrur and Mujirispattanam were important centers of international trade.
 Romans settled at Mujirispattanam.
A temple of Roman emperor Augustus was constructed here.
Administration  Kingdom was divided into Mandalam(province), Nadu (district), Ur (Town), Sirur (Small village), perur
(Big Village)
Revenue administration: Karai – land tax, Ulgu – custom duties, Iravu – Forced gift/extra demand, Irai –
tribute paid by feudatories, Variyar – Tax collector
ECONOMY  The region that Sangam Literature mentions was prosperous and agriculture, industry and trade
flourished there.
 People were pastoralists, hunter, fishermen although they also produced rice.
 Pliny, the Roman author , in his Naturalis Historia regrets the drain out of huge amounts of gold and
silver to India.
 Ptolemy in his Geographia and Strabo in his Geographica also describe this trade imbalance of
Roman empire with India.
 Discovery of Mansoon winds by Hippalus around 45-47 CE further promoted the trade between India
and the west.
 Tamil mandalam served as the zone of interaction for silk trade with China.
Land revenue, customs duty on foreign trade and booty captured in wars were the main sources of the
income.
SOCIETY  Tamil people were primarily pastoral and trace of early megalithic life appear in the sangam texts.
 Yet, the widows were treated badly as Sati was prevalent.
 Some social (Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar, Pulaiyar) and other primitive (Thodas,
Irulas, Nagas, Vedars) tribal groups also lived in the Sangam age.
 Murugan was the most important deity of the Sangam age and Nadu Kal (Hero Stone) was also
commonly worshiped remembering the bravery of soldiers.
 Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert) are
the 5 types of the lands mentioned in the Tolkappiyam. Each type of land was associated with a
distinct activity and a related deity:

1. Kurinji– Hunting; Murugan

2. Mullai– cattle-rearing; Vishnu (Mayo)

3. Marudam– agriculture; Indra

4. Neydal– Fishing, Salt-manufacturing; Varunan

5. Palai– Robbery; korravai

 Jainism and Buddhism flourished and expanded during this period.

Architecture Chola architecture (871-1173 AD) was the epitome of the Dravida style of temple architecture.
Chola temples like Brihadeshwara temple, Rajarajeshwara temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple took
Dravidian architecture to newer heights. Temple architecture continued to flourish even after Cholas.
sculpture of Nataraja in the Tandava dance posture
earliest known Nataraja sculpture, which has been excavated at Ravana phadi cave at Aihole, was made
during the early Chalukya rule

Pallavas of Kanchi

 Pallavas are identical with the pulindas mentioned in Ashoka’s Inscriptions.

 Pallavas ruled from Kanchi and Mahabalipuram/Mamallapuram as their capital.
 Important rulers of the dynasty were –
 He was defeated by Chalukya King Pulkeshin II.
 Gunabhara, Satyasandha, Chettakari (temple-maker) Chitrakarapuli (painter), Vichitrachitta
and Mattavilasa were titles used for Mahendravarman I.
MAHENDRAVARMAN I  Mandagapathu inscriptions mentions beginning of rock cut temples constructions.
 He was a versatile genius having expertise over painting, music and literature; composed a
(600 CE – 630 CE) satirical drama Mattavilasa Prahasanam in Sanskrit.
 Music inscriptions at Kudumiamalai were ascribed to him.

 Narshimhavarman I defeated the Chalukya King Pulkeshin II at the battle of Manimangalam

as per the Kuram copper plate inscriptions.
 Assuming the title of Mamalla (great wrestler), he founded the great city of Mahabalipuram
or Mamallapuram.
NARSHIMHAVARMAN I
 On conquering Badami (Vatapi), he assumed the title of ‘Vatapikonda’.
 He sent naval expedition to Sri Lanka and restored the throne of Sri Lankan prince-
(630 CE -668 CE) Manavarma.
 Chinese traveller and Buddhist monk Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign.

 Also known as Rajsimha. he assumed titles of Shankarbhakta, Agmapriya etc.

 He Sent embassies to China.
NARSIMHAVARMAN II  Shore temple & Kailasanatha temple were built during his reign.
 Dandin- Sanskrit scholar lived in his court.
 Patronized Perundevannar who translated Mahabharata in Tamil and named Bharathavenba.

Other notable rulers were Nandivarman, Parmeshwarvarman I and Parmeshwarvarmn II.

  Pallavas promoted agriculture and sea-trade and collected huge wealth
 Pallava kingdom was divided into Kottams.
 In pallava administration land grants were given to Brahmans (Brahmadeya) and to temples
Devadhana and were exempted from taxation.
 Group of villages were called as ‘Nadu’
 Group of Nadus were called as ‘Nagaram’ (Organisation of merchants)
 Group of Nagarams were called as ‘Manadalam’
 Sabhas (assemblies) consisting of brahmin land owners functioned through smaller
assemblies/committees that looked after irrigation, agriculture, roads, and temples.
ADMINISTRATION  Non- brahmin land owners’ assemblies were called ‘Ur’.
 The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village assemblies called sabhas and their
committees.

 Four–fold caste system became rigid & Brahmana occupied dominant position as Pallava were
orthodox Brahmanical Hindus.
 Bhakti Movement received promotion under Pallavas.
 Shaiva and Vaishnav sages promoted Shiva and Visnu bhakti (devotion).
 Shaiva sage-poets were called as Nayanars (Important Nayanars: Thirunavukkarasar or Appar,
Sundarar or Sundarmurti, Sambandar, Manikkavsagar)
SOCIETY & RELIGION  Vaishnav sage-poets were called Alvars (Important Alvars: Perialvar, Andal-poetess, Nammalvar,
Kulashekhar).
 Pallava period witnessed rise of Saivism & Vaishnavism and decline of Jainism & Buddhism.

 Kanchi developed as a great centre of education, culture and trade. The Ghatika (centres of
learning) at Kanchi was very popular.
 Tamil language and literature along with Sanskrit flourished under Pallavas.
 Periyapuranas: Collection of songs in love and devotion of Shiva.
 Nalayir-Divya-Prabandham: Collection of songs in love and devotion of Vishnu.
 Under Pallavas, the basic features of the Dravidian architecture i.e., Vimana, Mandapam and
Gopuram became vividly developed.
 During Pallavas rule temple architecture developed in 4 styles under various kings:

1. Under Mahendravarman I, small rock-cut temples were made and were called as ‘manadapas’; examples
are Bhairavakonda temple and Ananteswara temple at Undavalli.

LITERATURE, ART 2. Under Narsimhavarman I, ‘mandapas’ became bigger, Mahabalipuram/ Mamallpuram city was founded
AND ARCHITECTURE and a number of monolithic Ratha (Chariot) temples were constructed like the Panchapanadava rathas.
Important Mandapams are of Varaha, Mahishasuramardhini and Tirumurthi.

3. Under Rajasimha, free-standing or structural temples started to be built. Shore, Olakkaneshwara and
Mukundanayanar Temples in Mahabalipuram and Kailashnath Temple and Vaikunthaperumal temple at
Kanchipuram were constructed with this feature.

4. Under Nandivarman and later Pallavas, temples continue to be constructed in Rajsimha style.
Matagenswara and Muktheeswara temples are examples of this.

 The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.

 Dakshinchitra (Commentary) was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I.
 The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music.

CHALUKYAS (535 CE – 1190 CE)

 Founded by Pulakesin I, Chalukyas ruled the extensive Deccan region between 6th and 12th century CE with capital at
Badami (Vatapi).
 Pulakesin I performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice.
 The same family also ruled from Vengi (as the Eastern Chalukyas) and Kalyani during some later time.
 Chalukyas were involved in continued struggle against Pallavas.

PULAKESIN II (608 CE – 642 CE)

  The Aihole inscription issued by Pulakesin II substantiates that he was most important ruler of the dynasty.
 Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II and composer of Aihole inscription( sanskrit) was a Jain.
 name of poet Kalidasa and Bharavi are mentioned in the Aihole inscription
 Pulakesin II defeated Harshavardhan and limited his southward expansion till Narmada.
 He also defeated Kadambas of Banavasi and the Gangas of Mysore and established his suzerainty.
 Pulakesin II emerged victorious against first struggle with Pallavas but he was defeated by Narasimhavarman
I (Vatapikonda) of Pallavas (Kanchi) who captured the capital Vatapi (Badami).
 Pulakesin II sent an ambassador to the court of Persian King Khusrau.
 Huien Tsang, the Buddhist pilgrim from China, visited Chalukyas’ Kingdom during his reign.
 VIKRAMADITYA I: Pulakesin II was succeeded by Vikramaditya I, who pushed Pallavas out of Badami and re-
consolidated the kingdom.
 VIKRAMADITYA II: After peaceful and prosperous reigns of Vinayaditya (681-93) and Vijayaditya (693-
733), Vikramaditya II again invaded Pallava kingdom three times, and the repelled the Arab invasion of south Gujarat.
 KIRTIVARMAN II: He was the last ruler of the Chalukyas. Dantidurga defeated him to establish rule of the Rashtrakuta
dynasty.
 After the death of Pulakesin II, in Eastern Deccan, a branch of Chalukyas appeared with capital at Vengi.
 During the late 10th century, the descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami, re-appeared and ruled with Kalyani as their
capital (Basavakanlyan, western deccan).

 Chalukyas was highly centralised unlike Chola and pallava. Units (villages) were in direct control of
central authorities.
 Chalukyas maintained great naval force and small but well organised standing army that too was
contributed by feudal chiefs.
ADMINISTRATION  Army officers were put to civil duties whenever an emergency arose.
 Rocky and infertile land limited the income from land for Chalukyas.
 Overall decline of trade and commerce in India during this period, therefore the Chalukyas conducted
invasions and plunder of the neighbouring regions.
ECONOMY
 Arab traders were given patronage at the west coast under Chalukyas.
 Chalukyas of Badami practiced Brahmanism but respected other sects of religion too.
 Expansion of Brahmanism is reflected by building of temples in honour of Vishnu, Shiva and other gods.
While Jainism witnessed expansion, Buddhism declined in Chalukya’s reign and region.
RELIGION
 Religious sphere of life became more ritualistic.
 Chalukyas contributed to the growth of Prakrit language and literature.
 Ajanta art continued to grow under the patronage of Chalukyas.
 The fusion of Nagara and Dravidian style i.e., Vesara Style of temples started to appear during
Chalukya’s time but they distinctively developed under Rashtrakutas and Hoysalas.
 Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal are important centres of structural temples of the Chalukyas
 Ajanta (Cave paintings too), Ellora and Nasik have some of the Cave temples of Chalukya’s times.
 A number of rock-cut halls (Chaityas) were constructed and granted to Jain monks.
 Aihole-Badami and Pattadikal groups are two groups of temples of Chalukyas; of these: Ladh Khan
temple, Durga temple (a Buddha Chaitya), Huchimalligudi temple and the Jain temple of Meguti are in
Aihole group
LITERATURE, ART  The Muktheeswara temple and the Melagutti Sivalaya are at Badami.
AND  At Pattadakkal, which is a UNESCO World Heritage site, there are 10 temples;
ARCHITECTURE
1. The Papanatha temple is in Nagara style
2. The Sangamesvara temple and the Virupaksha temple are in Dravidian style.

 Gopala of Pala dynasty of Bengal and Nandivarman II (Pallavamalla) of Pallava dynasty - chosen directly by public.
 Kadamb dynasty was founded by Mayurasharman. Kadamba state was annexed by Pulakesin - II

Name of Book Name of Author Description

The Shatapatha Brahmana is a commentary on the Śukla (white) Yajurveda. It is

Shatapatha Brahmana
attributed to the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya
 Aitareya The Aitareya Brahmana is the Brahmana of the Shakala Shakha of the Rigveda

Mimamsa Sutra or It forms the basis of Mimamsa, the earliest of the six orthodox schools
Rishi Jamini
Purva Mimamsa Sutra (darshanas) of Indian philosophy.

Panchtantra Vishnu Sharma an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit

Yoga sutra Patanjali collection of Sanskrit sutras on the theory and practice of yoga

Buddhacharita Asvaghosa is an epic poem in the Sanskrit maha kavya style on the life of Gautama Buddha

also known as the Manavas Dharmashastra or Laws of Manu.

Manusmriti Manu It is believed to be the first ancient legal text and constitution among the many
Dharmasastra of Hinduism

Kama Sutra Vatsyayana A manual of love.

Charaka Samhita Charaka It is a Sanskrit text on Ayurveda

Siddhanta Kaumudi Bhattoji Dikshita Sanskrit grammar. Rearranges and provides descriptions for Panini’s Ashtadyayi.

The book is a commentary on selected rules of Sanskrit grammar from Panini’s

Mahabhashya Patanjali treatise, the Astadhyayi, as well as Katyayna’s Varttika – Sutra, an elaboration of
Panini’s grammar.

Devichandraguptam or
Vishakhadatta Drama about Chandragupta II
Devi Chandragupta

Mahabhaskariya Bhaskara I Book related to mathematics

In the play written by Kalidasa, Shakuntala is the wife of Dushyanta and the
Abhijanasakuntala Kalidasa
mother of Emperor Bharata

Meghaduta Kalidasa A poem in which the cloud is asked to take a message of love to the hero’s wife.

Mricchakatika or Shudraka Story of Brahman who is in love with a courtesan

Harshacharita Banabhatta The book is a biography of Indian emperor Harsha in the Sanskrit language.

Mahendravarman I
Mattavilasa Prahasana Short one-act Sanskrit play
(Pallav King)

https://testbook.com/ias-preparation/important-battles-in-indian-history

Important terms

Advent of the Aryans/Early Rig Vedic Age  Dasa/Dasyus– indigenous inhabitants of India during
 Avesta– oldest text in the Iranian Language Aryan migration
 Naditarna– another name for River Saraswati, called the  Panchjana- Aryans were divided into 5 tribes called
best of the rivers in the Rig Veda.  Gavisthi – Term for war/search for cows in Rig Veda
 Ayas– terms used for metals- copper/bronze in Rig Veda
 Samiti/Sabha/Vidatha/Gana– tribal or clan based Official Positions in Later Vedic age
assemblies  Mahishi – the queen
 Prajapati– the officer who enjoyed authority over a  Suta/Sarathi– charioteer
large land or pasture ground.  Senani– General
 Kula– Family  Kshata– gateman/chamberlain
 Kulapas– head of a family  Bhagadudha – collector of taxes
 Gramanis– head of the fighting hordes  Akshavapa– courier
 Vrajapati– when the units settled after wars, the  Palagala- friend of king – mnemonics- Kings Pal
Gramini became head of the village,with course of time  Govikarta – head of forest department
he came to be identified as Vrajapati.  Ganas– corporations of merchants
 Vrata/Gana/Grama/Sardha– Different tribal groups  Sreshtins– aldermen
 Jana– tribe Teritorial States and the First Magadha Empire
 Griha– family  Janapada– territory to which one belonged
 Soma – God of plants  Ekarat– title of Mahapadma Nanda- the sole sovereign
 Aditi,Usha– deities,denoting dawn. who destroyed all other ruling princes
 Vis– the clan  Jaladurga– water fort- Pataliputra in this case.
 Vispati– head of the clan State and Varna Society in the Age of Buddha
 Jana– the people  Vessas– merchant streets
 Gopa/Gopati– head of the Jana  Nishka/Satmana– coins/prestige objects made of metals
 Rashtra– territory/country  Bhojaka– village headmen
 Aghanya– used for cow,meaning ‘not to be killed’  Gahaptis– rich peasants
 Sura and Soma– alcoholic drinks  Mahamatras– higher officials in the court
 Ayuktas- a class of officers in the kingdom
Later Vedic Phase  Gramabhojaka/Gramani/Gramika – different titles for
 Shyam/Krishna Ayas– Iron village headmen
 Shatapatha Brahman- text talks about plough ritual  Balisadhakas– officers appointed to collect compulsory
 Vrihi– rice in Vedic texts payments- earlier voluntary payments were called Bali.
 Rajasuya yajna– sacrifice ritual meant to confer  Shaulkika/Shulkadhyaksha– toll officers who collected
supreme power to the King customs from traders
 Ashwamedha yajna- unquestioned control over an area  Parishad- small body similar to Samitis/sabhas –
in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted consisting exclusively of Brahmins
 Sangrihitri – officer for collection of taxes and tributes  Bhandagarika– treasurer
 Vis/Vaishya– refractory people/common people
 Rajanyas– close kinsmen of the King The Age of The Mauryas
 Upanayana– investiture with the scared thread of 3  Bherighosha– policy of physical occupation
varnas according to the Vedic Texts  Dhammaghosha– policy of cultural conquest
 Rathakar– chariot maker  Rajukas– officers vested with authority to reward or
 Gotra– cowpen/place where cattle belonging to the punish people as per policy of Dharma
whole clan are kept.  Sangiti – Buddhist council
 Goghna– guest or someone who was fed on cattle.  Bhaga– royal share of the produce
 Yajna– sacrifice rituals  Dhammamahamatra – officer of Ashoka for propagating
Dharma among social groups
 Dharmapravartaka – King/ promulgator of the social  Amatyas– officials
order  Mahamatras– officials
 Tirthas– important functionaries in the administration  Gaulmika– administrator of rural areas who was also the
 Pana – silver coin equal to 3/4th of a tola head of a military regiment
 Adhyakshas– 27 superintendents mostly to regulate the  Kataka and Skandhavaras– military camps and
economic activities of the state settlements which served as administrative centres so
 Samaharta – highest officer in charge of the assessment long as the king was there.
of the taxation  Mahabhoja– 2nd grade of feudatories
 Sannidhata– chief custodian of the state treasury and  Senapati– 3rd grade of beneficiaries
store house  Chaityas– sacred shrines,Buddhist temples
 Dushtamatyas- wicked bureaucrats  Vihara– monastery
Central Asian Contacts and Their Results
 Strategos– military governors- system introduced by The Dawn of History in the Deep South
Greeks  Enadi– captains of the army in the Sangam age
 Avadanas – texts composed during progress of  Vellalas– Rich peasants under Cholas and Pandyas who
Mahayana Buddhism also held civil and military offices- formed the 4th caste
 Yavanika – curtains borrowed from Greeks  Kadaisiyar– lowest class which did agricultural
 Yavana– branch of Greeks known to ancient India operations
 Drachma – greek word for Drama  Pariyars– agricultural laborers who also worked in
 Osadhi – plants animal skins and used them as mats.
 Ausadhi – medicines  Murugan/Subramaniya– chief local God worshiped by
The Age of the Satvahanas people of the hilly region
 Gandhikas– term for perfumer artisans,later came to  Virarkal – practice of raising hero stones
connote all kinds of shopkeepers  Tolkkappiyam – test dealing with grammar and poetics.
 Ahara– districts

 Four epochs : Krita - Treta - Dvapara -Kaliyuga  Upanishad, Brahmasutra and Bhagavad Gita are said to
 Shaiva sect named Mattamayura in ancient India was be the ‘Prasthantrayi’ of Vedanta because these are the
found in the inscriptions of Chedi Dynasty major epics of Vedanta. Among them, the Upanishad is
 Poigai, Pudam and Thirumangai were Alvar Saint the Prime Prasthan and the remaining two are known to
 The Bhagavata or Vaishnava religion reached its peak in be based on it.
the reign of Gupta kings. Gupta kings were the follower  Naimisharanya in Sitapur district of U.P. is considered to
of Vaishnava religionevidence related to Bhagavat be the residence of 60,000 hermits. Here, Sut Goswami
Religion - Besnagar’s inscription( Garud pillar ) of narrated the entire Mahabharata in front of Saunak and
Heliodorus(of Taxila ) in Vidisha other hermits, when he was accomplishing the Yagya.
 In the context of 6thcentury BC, Astika sect belonged to Earlier, Vaisampayana narrated the story of Mahabharata
those who believed in the authenticity of Vedas and for King Janamejaya
Nastika sect was of those who did not believe in the
authenticity of Vedas.
 Lokayata Philosophy - Carvaka
Maharishi Kanada is associated with atom theory. He was
scientist & philosopher who founded Vaisheshika school of
Indian philosophy in which he gave the atomistic approach
to physics and philosophy in Sanskrit.

Ha - Hariyanka
Si - Sisunaga
Na - Nanda
Ma - Mauryan
Sh - Shunga
Ka - Kanva