1(i) Modulation

Modulation is the process of altering the properties of a high-frequency carrier signal (such as
amplitude, frequency, or phase) to transmit a low-frequency baseband signal (like audio or data)
efficiently over long distances. Baseband signals cannot travel far due to high attenuation and
interference, so modulation helps in overcoming these issues.

There are three main types of modulation:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): The amplitude of the carrier signal changes according to the
baseband signal.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM): The frequency of the carrier signal varies with the baseband
signal.

3. Phase Modulation (PM): The phase of the carrier signal is modified based on the baseband
signal.

Modulation enables efficient use of the spectrum, improves signal strength, and minimizes
interference, making long-distance communication feasible.

1(ii) Baseband Signal

A baseband signal is the original information signal, such as voice, audio, or data, that needs to be
transmitted. It is typically low in frequency and has a frequency range starting from 0 Hz up to a
certain maximum value determined by its bandwidth. For example:

• Speech signals range from 300 Hz to 3.4 kHz.

• Video signals can have much higher bandwidths, such as several MHz.

Baseband signals cannot be transmitted directly over long distances because:

1. They are prone to interference and noise in their unmodulated form.

2. Their low frequencies require impractically large antennas for effective transmission.

3. Multiple signals in the same frequency range would overlap, making communication chaotic.

To address these challenges, baseband signals are modulated with high-frequency carrier signals to
shift their spectrum to higher frequencies, facilitating efficient and reliable communication.

1(iii) Noise Factor

The noise factor (F) is a measure of how much noise is added by a device or system during the
transmission or amplification of a signal. It is defined as the ratio of the input signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) to the output SNR. Mathematically:

F= SNR at output

--------------------------

SNR at input
Where F≥1, and higher values indicate worse noise performance.

Significance:
Noise factor helps in evaluating the efficiency of communication components like amplifiers or
receivers. A noise factor of 1 implies that no additional noise is introduced. The related metric, Noise
Figure (NF), is expressed in decibels (dB) as:

A lower noise figure indicates better system performance.

For systems with cascaded components (multiple stages of amplification), the overall noise factor is
calculated using Friis Formula:

Where F_n is the noise factor and G_n is the gain of each stage.

1(iv) Modulation Index in AM

The modulation index (m) in amplitude modulation (AM) measures the extent of modulation applied
to the carrier wave. It is defined as the ratio of the peak amplitude of the modulating signal (A_m) to
the amplitude of the carrier signal (A_c):

The value of mm determines the quality and efficiency of modulation:

• 0 ≤ m ≤ 1: This is the optimal range where modulation is effective, and no distortion occurs.

• m > 1: Overmodulation occurs, leading to distortion and loss of information.

• m = 0: No modulation, only the carrier is transmitted.

In AM, the total power of the transmitted signal depends on mm. The modulated signal has three
components:

1. A carrier component.

2. Two sidebands (upper and lower) that carry the actual information.

Mathematically, the AM wave is expressed as:

Where f_m is the modulating frequency, and f_c is the carrier frequency.
1(v) Image Frequency

The image frequency is an undesired frequency that can interfere with the operation of a radio
receiver, particularly in superheterodyne receivers. It is a signal frequency that, when combined with
the local oscillator (LO) frequency, produces the same intermediate frequency (IF) as the desired
signal, leading to interference.

where:

• fsignal is the desired signal frequency.

• fIF is the intermediate frequency.

How It Affects Reception:

The image frequency can pass through the RF (radio frequency) stage of the receiver and mix with
the LO to create the same IF, which leads to distortion and interference.

Solution:
To suppress the image frequency, the RF stage of the receiver employs a highly selective bandpass
filter with a high-quality factor (QQ), ensuring that only the desired frequency is amplified.

1(vi) Quantization Process

Quantization is the process of converting a continuous range of signal values (analog) into discrete
levels (digital). It is a key step in analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) and is used in systems like PCM
(Pulse Code Modulation).

Steps in Quantization:

1. Sampling: The continuous-time signal is sampled at regular intervals to produce discrete-

time values.

2. Quantization: Each sampled value is approximated to the nearest predefined discrete level.

For a quantizer with LL levels, the signal is divided into LL intervals. The number of levels is often a
power of 2, such as L=2nL = 2^n, where n is the number of bits.

Error in Quantization:
Quantization introduces an error called quantization noise, which is the difference between the
actual signal value and the quantized value. This error decreases as the number of quantization levels
increases.

Applications:
Quantization is widely used in digital communication, image processing, and audio compression
systems like MP3 and JPEG.
1(vii) Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a technique used to combine multiple signals and transmit them over a single
communication channel, saving bandwidth and infrastructure costs. At the receiver, the signals are
separated or demultiplexed.

Types of Multiplexing:

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Different signals are transmitted simultaneously

over different frequency bands (e.g., radio broadcasting).

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Multiple signals share the same frequency band but are
transmitted in different time slots (e.g., digital telephony).

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): Used in optical communication, where multiple

signals are transmitted on different light wavelengths through a single fiber.

4. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM): Signals are encoded with unique codes and transmitted
together (e.g., CDMA in mobile communication).

Applications:
Multiplexing is used in telecommunication, broadcasting, satellite communication, and data
networks.

1(viii) Sampling Theorem

The sampling theorem, also known as the Nyquist-Shannon theorem, states that a continuous-time
signal can be completely represented in discrete form and perfectly reconstructed if it is sampled at a
rate at least twice the maximum frequency present in the signal. This minimum rate is called the
Nyquist rate.

Mathematically:

Where:

• fs is the sampling frequency.

• fmax is the highest frequency in the signal.

Implications:

• If the sampling rate is less than the Nyquist rate, aliasing occurs, which distorts the signal.

• Sampling above the Nyquist rate ensures accurate reconstruction.

Applications:
The sampling theorem is fundamental in digital audio, video processing, and communication
systems.
1(ix) Balanced Modulator

A balanced modulator is a circuit that generates a double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)

signal. It eliminates the carrier frequency, leaving only the upper and lower sidebands, which reduces
power consumption and bandwidth usage.

Working Principle:

• It uses two mixers that combine the modulating signal and the carrier in opposite polarities.

• This results in the cancellation of the carrier while preserving the sidebands.

Applications:
Balanced modulators are widely used in communication systems like SSB (Single Sideband)
transmission and DSB-SC generation.

1(x) Pre-Emphasis in FM

Pre-emphasis is a technique used in FM (Frequency Modulation) systems to improve the signal-to-

noise ratio (SNR) for higher-frequency components of the modulating signal. High-frequency signals
are more susceptible to noise, so pre-emphasis amplifies these frequencies before transmission.

Implementation:
A pre-emphasis filter boosts the amplitude of high-frequency components using a frequency-
dependent gain. This filter is characterized by its time constant (τ\tau).

Complementary De-Emphasis:
At the receiver, a de-emphasis filter restores the original signal by attenuating the boosted high
frequencies, ensuring the overall response remains linear.

Applications:
Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis are standard techniques in FM broadcasting, improving audio quality
and reducing noise effects.

2(a) Explain/derive in detail Friis Formula (Noise Factor of Amplifiers in Cascade)

The Friis formula calculates the total noise factor (FtotalF_{\text{total}}) of a system composed of
multiple cascaded amplifiers. It is essential in determining how much noise is added by the system
when signals pass through multiple stages.

Key Concept

Each amplifier stage introduces noise and amplifies both the input signal and noise. The cumulative
noise factor depends on the noise contribution of each stage and the gains of the preceding stages.

Mathematical Representation

For a system with n cascaded amplifiers, Friis formula is:

Where:

• F1,F2,…,Fn: Noise factors of the stages.

• G1,G2,…,Gn: Gains of the preceding amplifier stages.

Derivation

1. First Stage Contribution:

Noise factor of the first amplifier is F1, and its gain is G1.
This stage amplifies the input signal and noise while introducing its own noise.

2. Second Stage Contribution:

The noise factor of the second amplifier F2contributes noise to the signal amplified by the
first stage. However, the gain G1 of the first stage reduces the relative impact of F2 on the
total noise.

The second-stage contribution to total noise is:

3. Subsequent Stages Contribution:

Similarly, the noise contribution of the third stage is:

This pattern continues for all subsequent stages.

4. Total Noise Factor:

Summing up all contributions leads to:

Applications

• Used to design low-noise amplifiers in communication systems, such as satellite receivers

and radio telescopes.

• Helps optimize the placement of high-gain, low-noise components at the front end of
cascaded systems.
2(b) Compare PAM, PWM, and PPM

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):

• In PAM, the amplitude of a series of pulses is varied according to the modulating signal.

• The position and width of the pulses remain constant.

• Used in systems like Ethernet communication.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):

• In PWM, the width (duration) of each pulse is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.

• Amplitude and position remain constant.

• Widely used in motor control and LED dimming.

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):

• In PPM, the position of each pulse is varied based on the modulating signal's amplitude.

• The amplitude and width of the pulses remain constant.

• Common in optical communication systems.

Comparison Table:

Feature PAM PWM PPM

Pulse Property Amplitude Width Position

Noise
Low High High
Resistance

Bandwidth
Moderate High High
Usage

Complexity Low Moderate High

Ethernet, Analog Signal Motor Control, Power Optical

Applications
Transmission Supplies Communication

3(a) Drawbacks of TRF Receiver and its Solution in Superheterodyne Receiver

Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

A TRF receiver amplifies and detects a signal directly at its carrier frequency.

Drawbacks of TRF Receiver:

1. Selectivity Issues: As the carrier frequency increases, maintaining a constant selectivity

across all frequencies becomes challenging.

2. Gain Instability: At higher frequencies, the gain decreases due to the limitations of tuned
amplifiers.
 3. Tuning Difficulties: Requires multiple tuning circuits to operate synchronously, which
complicates its operation.

4. Limited Frequency Range: Narrow bandwidth limits the range of frequencies it can process
effectively.

Superheterodyne Receiver Solution:

The superheterodyne receiver converts the incoming signal to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF) by
mixing it with a locally generated signal. This addresses TRF drawbacks:

• Improved Selectivity: IF allows the use of fixed, high-quality filters.

• Stable Gain: Amplification occurs at a constant IF, ensuring consistent performance.

• Simpler Tuning: Only the local oscillator frequency needs adjustment.

• Wider Frequency Range: Can handle a broad spectrum by converting any frequency to the
same IF.

3(b) Explain in Detail Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Generation and Degeneration
4(a) Draw and Explain in Detail FM Demodulator: Foster-Seeley Discriminator
The Foster-Seeley discriminator is a circuit used for demodulating frequency-modulated (FM)
signals. It converts frequency variations in the FM signal into amplitude variations, which are then
converted into the original modulating signal.

Circuit Diagram

The circuit consists of the following components:

1. A double-tuned transformer (primary and secondary windings) for coupling the input FM
signal.

2. A pair of diodes for rectification.

3. A pair of capacitors and resistors for filtering and balancing.

Working of Foster-Seeley Discriminator

1. Input Signal: The FM signal is applied to the primary coil of the transformer. The frequency
deviation in the signal shifts the phase and amplitude of the output in the secondary coil.

2. Phase Shift: The secondary coil generates two signals with a phase difference, which are fed
to the diodes.

3. Rectification: The diodes rectify these signals, producing voltage outputs proportional to the
frequency deviation of the FM signal.

4. Output Signal: The rectified signals are combined through a resistor-capacitor network to
produce the demodulated output.

Advantages

1. Simple and cost-effective design.

 2. Good linearity for small frequency deviations.

Disadvantages

1. Sensitive to amplitude variations, requiring a limiter stage before the discriminator.

2. Limited performance for wideband FM signals.

4(b)
5(a) Derive the Mathematical Expression of AM in Detail

Not sure………….

Amplitude Modulation (AM) is a modulation technique where the amplitude of the carrier wave is
varied in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal while keeping the
frequency and phase of the carrier constant.

μ determines the extent of modulation.

Mathematical Expression of AM:

The AM signal is obtained by combining the carrier and modulating signals:

Frequency Components of AM Signal:

1. Carrier Frequency (fc): The central frequency.

2. Upper Sideband (fc+fm): Represents the higher-frequency component.

3. Lower Sideband (fc−fm): Represents the lower-frequency component.

Thus, the spectrum of the AM signal consists of the carrier frequency and two sidebands.

Conclusion:

The bandwidth of an AM signal is twice the modulating frequency (BW=2m). The carrier does not
contain any information but helps in demodulating the signal at the receiver.

5(b) Write Short Notes

1. Delta Modulation

Delta Modulation (DM) is a simple analog-to-digital conversion method where the difference
between consecutive samples is encoded rather than the absolute signal values.

Key Features:

• A single-bit code (0 or 1) is used to represent whether the signal is increasing or decreasing.

• Provides a staircase approximation of the signal.

• Used in low-bit-rate applications such as voice encoding.

Advantages:

• Simple implementation.

• Lower bandwidth requirements compared to PCM.

Disadvantages:

• Suffering from slope overload distortion (for fast signal changes).

• Granular noise occurs in slow-changing signals.

2. Need for Modulation

Modulation is essential for effective signal transmission in communication systems. The primary
reasons include:

1. Signal Multiplexing:

o Allows multiple signals to be transmitted over the same channel.

2. Reduced Antenna Size:

 o High-frequency signals require smaller antennas for transmission.

3. Improved Signal Quality:

o Modulation reduces the impact of noise and interference.

4. Efficient Use of Bandwidth:

o Facilitates transmission over long distances by reducing signal degradation.

5. Compatibility with Medium:

o Adapts low-frequency signals to high-frequency carriers suitable for transmission.

6(a) Draw and Explain Electromagnetic Spectrum and Application

Components of the Electromagnetic Spectrum:

1. Radio Waves: Used in AM/FM radio, TV broadcasting, and mobile communication.

2. Microwaves: Used in radar, satellite communication, and microwave ovens.

3. Infrared: Used in remote controls, thermal imaging, and optical fiber communication.

4. Visible Light: The only spectrum visible to the human eye; used in lighting and photography.

5. Ultraviolet: Used in sterilization and fluorescent lighting.

6. X-rays: Used in medical imaging and security scanners.

7. Gamma Rays: Used in cancer treatment and nuclear energy.

6(b) Write Short Note on Space Wave Propagation

Space wave propagation occurs when electromagnetic waves travel directly from the transmitter to
the receiver, following a straight-line path.

Key Features:

• Operates at frequencies above 30 MHz.

• Limited to line-of-sight distances.

• Examples: Satellite communication, FM radio, and television broadcasting.

Factors Affecting Space Wave Propagation:

1. Earth's curvature: Limits the range to the radio horizon.

2. Atmospheric conditions: Refraction and scattering may alter the path.

6(c) Discuss Time and Frequency Shifting, Unit Step, Delta, and Gate Functions of Fourier
Transform
6(d) Compare Digital Band Pass Modulation Techniques: ASK, FSK, and PSK

Feature ASK FSK PSK

Full Form Amplitude Shift Keying Frequency Shift Keying Phase Shift Keying

Amplitude of carrier Frequency of carrier Phase of carrier

Key Principle
changes changes changes

Noise Resistance Low Moderate High

Bandwidth
Low High Moderate
Usage

Wireless
Applications Low-speed data transfer Modems, telemetry
communication

6(e) Explain Amplitude Modulation Technique (DSBFC)

Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC): In this AM technique, both sidebands and the full carrier are
transmitted.

Advantages:

1. Simple to implement.

2. Compatible with existing receivers.

Disadvantages:

1. Inefficient power usage.

2. Requires a larger bandwidth (2fm).

6(e) Explain Amplitude Modulation Technique (DSBFC)