VECTOR CALCULUS

A field is a physical quantity that has a value for each point in space and time, e.g.
gravitational field. Certain things can be influenced by a field. For example, anything with
mass is affected by gravitational field. Light is not influenced by gravitational field since it
has no mass. Similarly, our motion is not affected by electric field because human have zero
net charge, but electron has a net charge and its motion is influenced by electric field.

Scalar field
A scalar field only produces magnitude at a given location in a given plane. E.g. electric
potential field (i.e. the distribution of electric potential) and temperature field (the distribution
of temperature) are scalar fields because they have a certain magnitude at a certain location
but no direction.

Scalar field only has magnitude but no direction e.g. f ( x, y, z ) = xe y z 2

Vector field
A vector field produces magnitude and also direction at a given location in a given plane.

A vector field in 2D is given by

F( x, y ) = f1( x, y ), f 2 ( x, y ) = f1( x, y )i + f 2 ( x, y) j

where f1 and f 2 are scalar functions (i.e. the strength in i and j direction, respectively).

Note that a vector can be written in bold F or using arrow F .

F ( x, y ) = f1( x, y ), f 2 ( x, y ) = f1( x, y )i + f 2 ( x, y ) j

A vector field in 3D is given by

F( x, y, z) = f1( x, y, z), f 2 ( x, y, z), f 3 ( x, y, z )

F( x, y, z ) = f1 ( x, y, z )i + f 2 ( x, y, z ) j + f 3 ( x, y, z )k

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Example 1
For the vector field F( x, y ) = x + y,3 y − x , evaluate and plot the vector at

i) F(1,0) ii) F(0,1) iii) F( −2,1)

For i) F(1,0) = 1 + 0,3(0) − 1 = 1, −1 = i − j

For i) F(0,1) = 1,3 = i + 3j

For i) F(−2,1) = −1,5 = −i + 5j

Vector differential operator

The vector differential operator  , called “del” or “nabla”, is defined in 2 dimensions to be:
 
= i+ j
x y
For 3D, the operator is
  
= i + j+ k
x y z

GRADIENT
If we multiply  to a scalar field [let say f ( x, y , z ) ], we get the gradient of the scalar field
f f f
grad f = f = i+ j+ k
x y z
Note that grad f will give a vector (of course when we talk about gradient, we must refer to
which direction)

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IF a vector field originates from the gradient of a scalar field, then the vector field is said to
be a conservative vector field. For example, let say we have a vector field F where it is
given by F = f , where f is a scalar function, then F is a conservative field.

For example, electric field is the gradient of the electric potential field. So, the electric field is
the gradient of a scalar field, and therefore is a conservative field.

Example 2
Find the gradient of the following scalar field f ( x, y ) = x 2 y − e y

grad f ( x, y ) = f x , f y = f x i + f y j

f x = 2 xy f y = x2 − e y

Therefore  f ( x, y ) = 2 xy, x 2 − e y

Example 3
1
Find the gradient of the following scalar field g ( x, y , z ) =
x + y2 + z2
2

−2 x −2 y −2 z
gx = gy = gz =
( x + y 2 + z 2 )2
2
( x + y 2 + z 2 )2
2
( x + y 2 + z 2 )2
2

−2 x −2 y −2 z
Therefore  g ( x, y, z ) = , 2 , 2
( x + y + z ) ( x + y + z ) ( x + y 2 + z 2 )2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Finding the potential function

One way to know whether a given vector field (let’s call G ) is conservative or not, is by
trying to find its potential function or scalar function (let’s call g ) by using the formula
G = g .

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Example 4

Find the corresponding potential for F( x, y ) = 2 xy − 3, x 2 + cos y

If F is conservative, F is gradient of a scalar potential f

f ( x, y ) = F( x, y ) = 2 xy − 3, x 2 + cos y

f f
f ( x, y ) = , = 2 xy − 3, x 2 + cos y
x y
f f
= 2 xy − 3 and = x 2 + cos y
x y
Integrate f x with respect to x

f
 dx =  (2 xy − 3)dx → f ( x, y ) = x 2 y − 3x + A( y ) + C -----4(a)
x
Note that A can be a function of y because if we differentiate partially with respect to x , we
A( y ) f
will get = 0 and therefore we will get back = 2 xy − 3 .
x x
dA( y )
Differentiate 4(a) w.r.t y , we get f y ( x, y ) = x 2 + -------4(b)
dy

Compare 4(b) with the given f y = x 2 + cos y , we can see that

dA
= cos y integrate → A = sin y
dy
Note: no need to add constant C because we already have in equation 4(a)
Therefore, the scalar function is f ( x, y ) = x 2 y − 3x + sin( y ) + C
Therefore we confirm that F is conservative since it has a corresponding potential
function.

f
Note: we can also start by integrating = x 2 + cos y w.r.t y to get
y

f = x 2 y + sin y + B( x ) + C
dB
Then differentiate w.r.t x  f x = 2 xy + then compare with the given f x = 2 xy − 3
dx

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 dB
We can see that = −3 → B = −3 x
dx
Therefore, we also get f ( x, y ) = x 2 y + sin( y ) − 3x + C

Example 5

Find the corresponding potential for F( x, y ) = 3x 2 y 2 − 2 y, x 2 y − 2 x

f x = 3x 2 y 2 − 2 y and f y = x2 y − 2 x

Integrate f x with respect to x

f
 dx =  (3x 2 y 2 − 2 y )dx → f ( x, y ) = x 3 y 2 − 2 yx + A( y ) + C
x
dA( y )
Then differentiate w.r.t y  f y ( x, y ) = 2 x 3 y − 2 x + ------5(a)
dy

Compare 5(a) with the given f y = x 2 y − 2 x , we can see that they are not the same

2x3 y  x 2 y
Therefore, F is not a conservative vector since it does not have a corresponding potential
function.

DIVERGENCE
If we make a dot product (i.e. scalar product) between a vector differential operator  and a
vector field [let say F( x, y, z ) = F1i + F2 j + F3k ], we get the divergence of the vector field

    
div F =   F =  i + j + k   ( F1i + F2 j + F3k )
 x y z 
F1 F2 F3
div F =   F = + +
x y z
Note that div F is a scalar. Divergence indicates how much a physical quantity (e.g. mass,
charge etc.) is moving out of any given region. If the divergence is positive inside a region,
then the physical quantity is moving out of the region, if the divergence is negative inside a
region, then the physical quantity is moving into the region, and if the divergence is zero,
then the net changes in the physical quantity inside the region is zero.

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Example 6
Find the div for F( x, y ) = xi + yj

 ( x)  ( y)
div F =   F = + = 1+1 = 2
x y

The plot of the vector field F is shown, where a longer arrow denotes a higher magnitude.
We can draw any random region (e.g. the red rectangle in the figure). There is a net physical
quantity going out of the region with magnitude 2. The result div F = 2 means that there is
always a net physical quantity moving out with magnitude 2 and does not depend on x
and/or y .

Example 7
Find the div for F( x, y ) = yi − xj

 ( y)  (−x)
div F =   F = + =0
x y

The plot of the vector field F is shown, where a longer arrow denotes a higher magnitude.
We can draw any random region (e.g. the red rectangle in the figure). There is no net physical
quantity going out of the region because div F = 0 .

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Example 8

Compute the divergence for F( x, y, z ) = x 2 y,3x − yz, z 3

( x 2 y )  ( 3x − yz ) ( z 3 )
div F =   F = + + = 2 xy − z + 3z 2
x y z
The result basically tell that if we draw a rectangular region and locate it at different position
on the x-y-z space, the net physical quantity moving out/in will be different since
div F = 2 xy − z + 3z 2 depends on the position x , y , and z .

CURL
If we make a cross product (i.e. a vector product) between vector differential operator  and
a vector field [let say F( x, y, z ) = F1i + F2 j + F3k ], we get the curl of the vector field

i j k
  
curl F =   F =
x y z
F1 F2 F3

 F F   F F   F F 
F =  3 − 2 i −  3 − 1  j+  2 − 1 k
 y z   x z   x y 

 F F   F F   F F 
  F =  3 − 2 ,− 3 − 1 , 2 − 1 
 y z   x z   x y 

Note: curl F is a vector. Curl basically signifies how much the vector field is causing
rotation. In order to cause rotation, there must be mixing in the F1 , F2 , and F3 . For example,

F1 must contain y and z components. If F1 contains only x , the F1 wont cause rotation.

The same applies to F2 and F3 .

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Example 9
Find the curl for F( x, y ) = xi + yj

If we plot the vector field F( x, y ) = xi + yj , we can see that this vector field basically does
not produce rotation in any direction. This is because there is no mixing in the vector field
component.

Example 10
Find the curl for G = yi − xj

For this vector, there is rotation where the rotation axis is the negative to the positive k
direction (axis). Note: rotation on xy plane produce axis in the z (or k ) direction. The
negative means that the axis direction is opposite to the positive k direction, and the number
2 denote the magnitude of the rotation. Basically the rotation has the same magnitude at any
point x and y on the xy plane because curl G does not depend on x and y .

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Example 11

Evaluate the curl F for F( x, y, z ) = x 2 y,3x − yz, z 3

For this case, we have a rotation with axis in the x (or i ) direction (i.e. rotation on the yz
plane, and a rotation with axis in the z direction (rotation on the xy plane). There is no
rotation with axis pointing in y direction.

Determining whether a vector field is conservative or not

Previously, we can know whether a vector field is conservative or not is by trying to find its
corresponding potential function. Another way to know is by taking curl on the vector field.
IF F IS CONSERVATIVE, THEN  F = curl F = 0
How to prove this.
If F is conservative, F is made of the gradient of a scalar function f , i.e. F = f .

 
      f f f 
F =  i + j+ k f =  i + j+ k
 x y z   x y z 

  F1 F2
F3


 
      f f f 
Therefore , curl F =   F =  i + j + k    i + j+ k
 x y z   x y z 
 F1 
 F2
F3


i j k
  
F = = ( f zy − f yz )i − ( f zx − f xz ) j + ( f yx − f xy )k = 0i + 0 j + 0k = 0
x y z
f f f
x y z

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Note that f xy = f yx , f zy = f yz , and f xz = f zx since f must be continuous inside the region.

Example 12

Use the curl theorem to determine whether F( x, y, z ) = cos( x ) − z, y 2 , xz is conservative.

i j k i j k
     
curl F =   F = = = 0, −1 − z,0  0 Therefore not
x y z x y z
F1 F2 F3 cos x − z y2 xz

conservative

Example 13

Use the curl theorem to determine whether or not F( x, y, z ) = 2 xz,3z 2 , x 2 + 6 yz is

conservative.

i j k
  
curl F =   F = = 0,0,0
x y z
2 xz 3z 2 x 2 + 6 yz

Therefore F conservative

Laplacian operator

The Laplacian operator is defined as

2 2 2
2 = + + Sometimes we write  = 2
x 2 y 2 z 2
It is a scalar operator. The Laplacian operator is basically a dot product of two vector
differential operator 2 =  

Laplacian on a scalar field

If Laplacian operator is applied to a scalar field, it generates another scalar field.

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Example 14
Find the Laplacian of the scalar field f ( x, y , z ) = xy 2 + z 3

2  2 f  2 f  2 f  2 ( xy 2 + z 3 )  2 ( xy 2 + z 3 )  2 ( xy 2 + z 3 )
 f = 2 + 2 + 2 = + + = 2 x + 6z
x y z x 2 y 2 z 2
----------------------------------------------------
If a scalar field is the product of two functions, say f = uv , then the Laplacian for f can be
given by:

( ) ( )
2 f = 2 ( uv ) = v 2u + u 2v + 2 ( v )  ( u )
grad u dot grad v

----------------------------------------------------
Example 15 gradient -

Find the Laplacian for f ( x, y , z ) = ( x + y + z )( x − 2 z ) ↓it

-U < Ym Yy , > =(1 !
1)
Call u = x + y + z v = x − 2z
=

, ,
,

-V
=

Gr V
VzD
2 2
N
(1
 u=0  v=0
=

>, 0
↓ appa
Cic-
,
, , -27
- =

an Vyy Vzz +

u = i + j + k v = i − 2k
+ =

Want
-24
Ugy 47z
:
+ =

-2 f
( ) ( )
0 0
21 1
+

Therefore, 2 f = 2 ( uv ) = v 2u + u 2v + 2 ( u )  ( v ) = −2

(1
= +

: 0 -

27
, 17
, ,
,

24 2) -

2
-

Laplacian on a vector field

If Laplacian operator is applied to a vector field, it generates another vector field.

Example 15
Find the Laplacian of the vector field F( x, y , z ) = 3z 2i + xyzj + x 2 z 2k

 2 2 2 
(
2F =  2 + 2 + 2  3z 2i + xyzj + x 2 z 2k )
 x y z 

 2 2 2   2 2 2   2 2 2 
( )
2F =  2 + 2 + 2  3z 2i +  2 + 2 + 2  ( xyzj) +  2 + 2 + 2  x 2 z 2k ( )
 x y z   x y z   x y z 

2F = 6i + 0 j + 2( x 2 + z 2 )k

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Exercise
1) f ( x, y , z ) is a scalar function and F( x, y , z ) is a vector field. Mention whether the
operations below will give a scalar field, vector field, or undefined
a)   ( f )

b)   (  F)

c)   ( f )

d)   (   F)

2) Find the gradient of the scalar field

a) f ( x, y , z ) = x 2 sin z − xe y

b) f ( x, y, z ) = y ( x − 1) 2 + 5 y 2 z 3

3) Find the corresponding potential for

a) F( x, y ) = 3 ye3 x , e3 x + 4cos 4 y

b) F( x, y ) = 2 x 2 + 5 y 2 ,10 xy

4) Find the divergence for

a) F( x, y, z ) = 5xy − x 2 ,3e y − yz, xz 3

b) F( x, y , z ) = 5sin(4 x )i + (3 − yz ) j + ( xe −2 z )k

5) Find the curl for

a) F( x, y, z ) = 5xy − x 2 ,3e y − yz, xz 3

b) F( x, y , z ) = 5sin(4 x )i + (3 − yz ) j + ( xe −2 z )k

6) Use the curl theorem to determine whether or not the following vector field is
conservative:

a) F( x, y, z ) = e − z , x − z, xz

( )
a) F( x, y, z ) = 2 z − 4 z sin 2 ( x ) i + ( y + 2 z ) j + ( 2 y + sin(2 x ) ) k

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7) Find the Laplacian for
a) f ( x, y , z ) = (3x + sin(2 y ))( z − xy 2 )

b) f ( x, y , z ) = (e 2 x sin(3z ) + 4 y )( y 2 + x 2 )

c) F( x, y, z ) = x 2 y 2 , z − cos(2 y ), z 5

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