Mechatronics EE4201

Section 6 : Instrumentation

Section Aims:

On completion of this section, you should;

➢ To state sub-systems in a measurement system

➢ To understand main function in each sub-system
To understand the basic properties of measurement
systems

Mechatronics EE4201
INSTRUMENTATION CHARACTERISTICS
 Shows the performance of instruments to be
used.
 Divided into two categories: static and
dynamic characteristics.
 Static characteristics refer to the comparison
between steady output and ideal output when
the input is constant.
 Dynamic characteristics refer to the
comparison between instrument output and
ideal output when the input changes.
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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

1- ACCURACY

 Accuracy is the ability of an instrument

to show the exact reading.
 Always related to the extent of the wrong
reading/non accuracy.
 Normally shown in percentage of error
which of the fullscale reading
percentage.

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 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

 Accuracy
 Accuracy is measured as a highest deviation of a value
represented by the sensor from the ideal or true value at
its input
 accuracy limits generally are used in the worst-case

analysis to determine the worst possible performance of

the system
 The accuracy rating may be represented in a number of
forms:
◼ Directly in terms of measured value ()
◼ In percent of input span (full scale)
◼ In terms of output signal

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0-1
bar with an accuracy of ± 5% fs (full-scale)
has a maximum error of:
5 x 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
100
Notes: It is essential to choose an
equipment which has a suitable operating
range.

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0 -
10 bar is found to have an error of ± 0.15
bar when calibrated by the manufacturer.
Calculate :
a. The error percentage of the gauge.
b. The error percentage when the
reading obtained is 2.0 bar.

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Answer :
a. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar x 100 = ± 1.5%
10.0 bar
b. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar x 100 = ± 7.5 %
2.0 bar

 The gauge is not suitable for use for low range reading.
 Alternative : use gauge with a suitable range.

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 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example :
Two pressure gauges (pressure gauge A and B) have a full scale
accuracy of ± 5%. Sensor A has a range of 0-1 bar and Sensor B 0-10
bar. Which gauge is more suitable to be used if the reading is 0.9
bar?

Answer :
Sensor A :
Equipment max error = ± 5 x 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = ± 0.05 bar x 100 = ± 5.6%
0.9 bar

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Sensor B :
Equipment max error = ± 5 x 10 bar = ± 0.5 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = ± 0.5 bar x 100 = ± 55%
0.9 bar
Conclusion :
Sensor A is more suitable to use at a reading of 0.9 bar because the
error percentage (± 5.6%) is smaller compared to the percentage error
of Sensor B (± 55%).

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

2 - PRECISION
 An equipment which is precise is not
necessarily accurate.
 Defined as the capability of an
instrument to show the same reading
when used each time (reproducibility of
the instrument).

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example : XXX
XXX
X : result
Centre circle : true value

Low accuracy, high precision

XXX
XXXX
XXX

High accuracy, high precision x

Low accuracy, low precision

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Accuracy vs Precision

High Precision, but

low accuracy.

There is a systematic error.

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Accuracy vs. Precision

Precision without Accuracy without Precision and

accuracy precision accuracy

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Accuracy vs Precision (Cont)

High accuracy means that the mean is close to the true

value, while high precision means that the standard
deviation σ is small.
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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
3- TOLERANCE
 Closely related to accuracy of an
equipment where the accuracy of an
equipment is sometimes referred to in
the form of tolerance limit.
 Defined as the maximum error expected
in an instrument.
 Explains the maximum deviation of an
output component at a certain value.

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

4. RANGE OF SPAN
 Defined as the range of reading between
minimum value and maximum value for the
measurement of an instrument.
 Has a positive value e.g..:
The range of span of an instrument which
has a reading range of –100°C to 100 °C is
200 °C.

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Range and Span
⚫ Range: lowest and highest values of the
stimulus
⚫ Span: the arithmetic difference between the
highest and lowest values of the stimulus that
can be sensed within acceptable errors
⚫ Input full scale (IFS) = span
⚫ Output full scale (OFS): difference between
the upper and lower ranges of the output of the
sensor corresponding to the span of the sensor
⚫ Dynamic range: ratio between the upper and
lower limits and is usually expressed in db
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Range and Span (Cont)
⚫ Example: a sensors is designed for: − C to +80 C
to output 2.5V to 1.2V
⚫ Range: −C and +80 C
⚫ Span: 80− (−30)=110 C
⚫ Input full scale = 110 C
⚫ Output full scale = 2.5V-1.2V=1.3V
⚫ Dynamic range=20log(110/30)=11.285db

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Range and Span (cont.)
⚫ Range, span, full scale and dynamic range may
be applied to actuators in the same way
⚫ Span and full scale may also be given in db
when the scale is large.
⚫ In actuators, there are other properties that
come into play:
◼ Maximum force, torque, displacement
◼ Acceleration
◼ Time response, delays, etc.

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
5. BIAS
 Constant error which occurs during the
measurement of an instrument.
 This error is usually rectified through calibration.
Example :
A weighing scale always gives a bias reading. This
equipment always gives a reading of 1 kg even
without any load applied. Therefore, if A with a
weight of 70 kg weighs himself, the given reading
would be 71 kg. This would indicate that there is a
constant bias of 1 kg to be corrected.

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
6. LINEARITY
 Maximum deviation from linear relation between input
and output.
 The output of an instrument has to be linearly
proportionate to the measured quantity.
 Normally shown in the form of full scale percentage
(% fs).
 The graph shows the output reading of an instrument
when a few input readings are entered.
 Linearity = maximum deviation from the reading of x
and the straight line.

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Linearity

Output
Readings

Measured Quantity
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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
7. Sensitivity
 Defined as the ratio of change in output towards
the change in input at a steady state condition.
 Sensitivity (K) = Δθο
Δθi
Δθο : change in output; Δθi : change in input
Example 1:
The resistance value of a Platinum Resistance
Thermometer changes when the temperature
increases. Therefore, the unit of sensitivity for
this equipment is Ohm/°C.

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Sensitivity
Most sensitive

Variation of the physical variables

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example 2:
Pressure sensor A with a value of 2 bar
caused a deviation of 10 degrees.
Therefore, the sensitivity of the equipment
is 5 degrees/bar.
Sensitivity of the whole system is (k) = k1 x
k2 x k3 x .. x kn

θi k1 k2 k3 θo

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example:
Consider a measuring system consisting of a transducer, amplifier
and a recorder, with sensitivity for each equipment given below:
Transducer sensitivity 0.2 mV/°C
Amplifier gain 2.0 V/mV
Recorder sensitivity 5.0 mV/V

Therefore,
Sensitivity of the whole system:
(k) = k1 x k2 x k3
k = 0.2 mV x 2.0 V x 5.0 mV
°C mV V
k = 2.0 mV/°C

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 Example :
The output of a platinum resistance thermometer (RTD)
is as follows:

Input(°C) Output(Ohm)

0 0
100 200
200 400
300 600
400 800

Calculate the sensitivity of the equipment.

Answer :
Draw an input versus output graph. From that graph, the
sensitivity is the slope of the graph.
K = Δθο graph = (400-200) ohm = 2 ohm/°C
Δθi slope (200-100) °C

4/22/2018 Mechatronic 2017 Raafat S Habeeb 28

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
8. DEAD SPACE / DEAD BAND
Output
Reading

- +

Measured
Variables

Dead Space

 Defined as the range of input reading when there is no

change in output (unresponsive system).

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
9. RESOLUTION

 The smallest change in input reading

that can be traced accurately.
 Given in the form ‘% of full scale (%
fs)’.
 Available in digital instrumentation.

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

10. THRESHOLD

 When the reading of an input is increased

from zero, the input reading will reach a
certain value before change occurs in the
output.
 The minimum limit of the input reading is
‘threshold’.

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Sensor Static characteristics
11- Hysteresis
deviation of the sensor’s output at a specified point of
the input signal when it is approached from the
opposite directions

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 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
 Explains the behaviour system of
instruments system when the input
signal is changed.
 Depends on a few standard input
signals such as ‘step input’, ‘ramp
input’ and ‘sine-wave input’.

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DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Step Input
Sudden change in input signal from
steady state.
The output signal for this kind of input is
known as ‘transient response’.
Input

Time

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 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Ramp Input
 The signal changes linearly.
 The output signal for ramp input is
‘ramp response’.
Input

Time

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 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Sine-wave Input
 The signal is harmonic.
 The output signal is ‘frequency response’.

Input

Time

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Response time

One would like to have a

measurement system with
fast response.
In other words, the effect
of the measurement
system on the
measurement should be as
small as possible.

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EXAMPLE OF DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Response from a 2nd order instrument:
Output

100%

90%

10%
tr
Time

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EXAMPLE OF DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Response from a 2nd order instrument:

1. Rise Time ( tr )
 Time taken for the output to rise
from 10% to 90 % of the steady
state value.
2. Settling time (ts)
 Time taken for output to reach a
steady state value.

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