PRESIDENCY DEGREE COLLEGE

B.COM (GEN, COMP,S) VI SEMESTER

SUBJECT : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROJECT REPORT
(MATERIAL)

Unit 1
ESSAY QUESTIONS:

1.What is the meaning and definition of Research?Explain the various types of

research?

Ans) Meaning of Research: Research is a process to discover new knowledge to find answers
to a question. The word research has two parts re (again) and search (find) which denote that
we are taking up an activity to look into an aspect once again or we want to look for some
new information about something.

E.g Front Office Executive has to learn about the facilities, timings, key features of products
and services available at the hotel if one wants to become a wonderful sales professional
other than being a host. "All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than
overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention" is a famous Hudson
Maxim in context of which the significance of research can well be understood.

Clifford Woody states that research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulation
of hypothesis; collection, organizing and evaluation of data; and reaching conclusions. Here it
is emphasized that all research has to be systematic and logical to arrive at expected outcome.
D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences Research define
research as "The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing
to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory
or in the practice of an art."

Definition of Research: Research: is defined as careful consideration of study regarding a

particular concern or problem using scientific methods. According to the American
sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict,
and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive research methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the
observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research, and deductive
methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.

1. Basic Research: is also called pure research or fundamental research, is a type of

scientific research with the aim of improving scientific theories for better understanding
and prediction of natural or other phenomena.

1
2. Applied Research: refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical
problems. 1 This type of research plays an important role in solving everyday problems
that often have an impact on life, work, health, and overall well-being
3. Empirical Research: is research that is based on observation and measurement of
phenomena, as directly experienced by the researcher. The data thus gathered may be
compared against a theory or hypothesis, but the results are still based on real life
experience.
4. Scientific Research: is the systematic investigation of scientific theories and hypotheses.
A hypothesis is a single assertion, a proposed explanation of something based on
available knowledge, for something yet to be explained. One that is subject to further
experimentation.

5. Behavioral and Social Sciences: research helps predict, prevent, and manage illness — in
individuals and in whole populations.
This research also helps people change their behaviors, understand treatments, and learn how
to stick with them. Society’s role is significant, too: access to health care affects decision
making and behavior.
6. Historical Research: includes two sources of data collection, such as primary and
secondary sources. Primary sources are the original first-hand resources such as
documents, oral or written records, witnesses to a fact, etc. These are of two types, such
as:1.present 2.past
7. Business Research :Example. Let say there’s an automobile company that is planning to
launch a car that runs on CNG. In order to promote cleaner fuel, ...
Importance of Business Research. Types & Methods.
Qualitative Research Methods. Quantitative Research Methods.
8. Normative research :seeks to clearly define the study population, outline the phenomena
under research and appropriately interpret the results. Scientists use the scientific method
to gather this data and apply it to the generated hypothesis. Doctors use it to determine
appropriate levels of care for a populated area, and advertisers use it to understand how
best to market products

9. Exploratory Research: is a methodology approach that investigates research questions that

have not previously been studied in depth. Exploratory research is often qualitative in
nature. However, a study with a large sample conducted in an exploratory manner can be
quantitative as well.
10. Descriptive Research: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at any given time. The term Ex post facto research is used in social
sciences and business research for descriptive research studies.
The researcher only reports about the factors identified and cannot modify the details
available thus it makes it clear that he does not have any control over such variables Most ex
post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher strives to
2
find out information about, for example, frequency of dining out, preferences of individuals,
etc
11. Causal Research : helps identify the causes behind processes taking place in the system.
...
Causal research provides the benefits of replication if there is a need for
it. Causal research helps identify the impacts of changing the processes
and existing methods.

2. What do you mean by qualitative and quantitative Research? distinguish between

them.?

Ans) Quantitative v/s Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of

quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
E.g. Studying the number of enquiries received for room bookings through different modes
like internet, emails, calls, letters, or different sources like travel and tours operators,
companies and government organizations etc.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. E.g. studying the stress levels and reasons
for variable performances of staff in different shifts in the same department of a hotel. The
same individuals may perform differently with the change of shift timings. It can involve
performing research about changing preferences of customers as per the change of season.
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH ―Method― plainly means a particular procedure for
accomplishing or approaching something, especially a systematic or established one. Thus
methodology can be understood as a set of specific procedures or techniques used to identify,
select, process, and analyze information about a topic. It is the systematic, theoretical analysis
of the methods applied to a field of study. It comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of
methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge.
The most important methodological choice researchers make is based on the distinction
between qualitative and quantitative data i.e whether it would collect descriptive data or a
quantifiable data. Before the research begins it is important to decide the methods of data
collection would be qualitative or quantitative.
Verifying existing theories or hypothesis, questioning them or measurement of variables
conveys that quantitative methods be adopted whereas any attempt to collect statistical data,
numbers or relative data means that one has t adopt quantitative methods.
The process of research addresses two major questions
i.e. what is to be found and how it is be found. It is like planning a journey where we first decide
where we are going and then we decide how we shall be travelling. We have to identify
important stopovers and routes, check points, modes available to reach the destination.
The steps involved in finding responses to the research questions comprise research
methodology. At each operational step in the research process one is required to choose from

3
a variety of methods, procedures and models of research methodology which help you to best
achieve the objectives.

3. Define Measurement and Scaling.State the objectives of Measurement and scaling.

Explain the properties of scales?

Ans)Meaning of Measurement :The measurement is the process of assigning numbers or

symbol to the
characteristics of the object as per the specified rules. Here, the researcher assigns numbers,
not to the object, but to its characteristics such as perceptions, attitudes, preferences, and other
relevant traits.
Measurement is the quantification of attributes of an object or event, which can be used to
compare with other objects or events.

In other words, measurement is a process of determining how large or small a physical

quantity is as compared to a basic reference quantity of the same kind. The scope and
application of measurement are dependent on the context and discipline.
In natural sciences and engineering, measurements do not apply to nominal properties of
objects or events, which is consistent with the guidelines of the International vocabulary of
metrology published by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.

However, in other fields such as statistics as well as the social and behavioural sciences,
measurements can have multiple levels, which would include nominal, ordinal, interval
and ratio scales.
Measurement is defined as the process of comparison of an unknown quantity with a known
or standard quantity.
Definition of Measurement : According to W.S
Torgerson,”measurement is the assignment of numbers to objects to represent amounts or
degrees of a property possessed by all of the objects”.
Definition of Scaling: is the procedure of measuring and assigning the objects to the numbers
according to the specified rules. In other words, the process of locating the measured objects
on the continuum, a continuous sequence of numbers to which the objects are assigned is
called as scaling.Scaling is considered as the extension of measurement.

Measurement of scale examples:

Nominal :-categories, identification, roll nos,
Ordinal:-ranking, preference, most popular brands

Interval:-temperature, grading in exams, user categories

Ratio:-length, marks in exams, distance, salaries

4
 Objectives of Measurement and Scaling:
There are two important objectives of measurement and scaling .first objective is to determine
what can be revealed about the object of the study and second objective is to determine the
appropriate statistic to be applied to analyse the information .Following are the other
objectives of measurement and scaling.
1. Reliability : the measurement should be reliable by producing consistent results when
certain research methods are repeated.
2. Validity: an instrument is valid when it measures what it is supposed to measure ,but
since attitudes are elusive,validity is not possible.
3. Sensitivity:the measurement should lead to identification of changes or differences.
4. Relevance:it should facilitate the decision-maker by producing relevant information.
5. Versatility :versatility of measurement for various statistical interpretations is a desired
goal especially for assessing the results validity and for drawing maximum,measurement
should possess versatility.
Properties of scales
The measurement scales has the following properties, Distinctive Classification: Distinctive
classification is the property of a measure which is used to differentiate objects or its
characteristics into various categories the individuals into two different groups such as males
and females .
1. Order: a measure that can be used to arrange the objects or their characteristics in a
meaningful order is said to have order properly.example:the arrangement of students marks
in an ascending or descending order.
2. Equal distance :the measure is used to have equal distance property ,if the difference
between two consecutive categories of a measured scale are equal.example:the difference
between the temperatures 40 c and 50c is equal to the difference between temperatures,60c
and 70c i.e ,…1.
3. Fixed origin:a measurement scale is used for measuring a characteristic is used to have the
property of “fixed origin” when there exists a meaningful zero or absence of
characteristic.example:sales of a company where zero sales describes that there is no sales
or absence of sales.

4. What is Research Design ?Explain the types of it.

Ans) Research Design : Refers to the framework of market research methods and techniques that
are selected by a researcher. The design that is selected by the researchers allow them to utilise
the methods that are suitable for the study and to set up their studies successfully in the future as
well.

5
Research Design Definition
Research design refers to the overall strategy utilized to carry out research that defines a
logical plan to tackle established research question through the collection, interpretation,
analysis, and discussion of data
Research Design Objectives
What Is the Purpose of Research Design? The purpose of research design is to provide a clear
plan of the research, based on independent and dependent variables, and to consider the cause
and effect evoked by these variables.
Types of Research Design
1. Exploratory Research Design:The exploratory research design format is useful when you
don't have a clearly defined problem to study. Often, this type of research design is less
structured than other research design options, and you can use it as a guide for your initial
research to uncover your research problem.
2. Descriptive Research Design:The goal of using a descriptive research design is to describe
a research topic, so this type of research is useful when you need more information about
your topic. Descriptive research design can also help you understand the "what," "where,"
"when" and "how" of your research topic.
3. Experimental Research Design:The experimental research design is especially useful when
you want to test how different factors affect a situation, making this design type very
versatile. The experimental research design uses the scientific method.
4. Diagnostic Research Design:The diagnostic research design attempts to find the underlying
factors that cause events or phenomena to occur. This research type is useful to help you
understand what's causing problems so you can find solutions.

5. What is Research Process ? Explain the steps involved in Research Process?

Ans) Research Process:The Research Process is a process of multiple scientific steps in

conducting the research work. Each step is interlinked with other steps. The process starts
with the research problem at first. Then it advances in the next steps sequentially. 1.
Selecting the Research Area: If you find a research area and research problem that is
genuinely interesting to you it is for sure that the whole process of writing your dissertation
will be much easier. Therefore, it is never too early to start thinking about the research area
for your dissertation.
2. Formulating Research Aim: The choice between the formulation of research questions
and the development of hypotheses depends on your research approach as it is discussed
further below in more details. Appropriate research aims and objectives or hypotheses usually
result from several attempts and revisions.
3. Conducting the Literature Review: Actually, the literature review starts even before the
formulation of research aims and objective. This is because you have to check if exactly the
same research problem has been addressed before and this task is a part of the literature
review. Nevertheless, you will conduct the main part of the literature review after the

6
 formulation of research aim and objectives. You have to use a wide range of secondary data
sources such as books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online articles etc.
4. Selecting Data Collection Methods: Data collection method(s) need to be selected on the
basis of critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages associated with several alternative
methods. In studies involving primary data collection.
5. Collecting the Primary Data: You will have to start primary data collection only after
detailed preparation. Sampling is an important element of this stage. You may have to
conduct pilot data collection if you chose questionnaire primary data collection method.
Primary data collection is not a compulsory stage for all dissertations and you will skip this
stage if you are conducting a desk-based research.
6. Data Analysis:This stage involves an extensive editing and coding of data. Data analysis
methods vary between secondary and primary studies, as well as, between qualitative and
quantitative studies. In data analysis coding of primary data plays an instrumental role to
reduce sample group responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing.

6. define hypothesis and its types

Ans. Hypothesis Meaning: A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of
limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

The word hypothesis consists of two words Hypo + thesis =Hypothesis

“Hypo” means tentative or subject to the verification and “Thesis” means statement about
solution of a problem .
The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement the solution of the problem
,Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on
some rationale.
Definition of Hypothesis: “Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the
relationship between two variables. it implies that there is a systematic relationship between
an independent and dependent variable”.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

1. Null hypothesis: A null hypothesis proposes no relationship between two variables.

Denoted by HO, it is a negative statement like "Attending physiotherapy sessions does not affect
athletes' on-field performance." Here, the author claims physiotherapy sessions have no effect
on on-field performances. Even if there is, it's only a coincidence.
2. Alternative hypothesis Considered to be the opposite of a null hypothesis, an alternative
hypothesis is donated as H1 or Ha. It explicitly states that the dependent variable affects the
independent variable. A good alternative hypothesis example is "Attending physiotherapy
sessions improves athletes' on-field performance." or "Water evaporates at
100°C."
The alternative hypothesis further branches into directional and non-directional.
7
• Directional hypothesis: A hypothesis that states the result would be either positive or
negative is called directional hypothesis. It accompanies H1 with either the '<' or '>' sign.
• Non-directional hypothesis: A non-directional hypothesis only claims an effect on the
dependent variable. It does not clarify whether the result would be positive or negative. The sign
for a non-directional hypothesis is '#!
3. Simple hypothesis A simple hypothesis is a statement made to reflect the relation
between exactly two variables. One independent and one dependent. Consider the example,
"Smoking is a prominent cause of lung cancer." The dependent variable, lung cancer, is
dependent on the independent variable, smoking.
4. Complex hypothesis In contrast to a simple hypothesis, a complex hypothesis implies
the relationship between multiple independent and dependent variables. For instance,
"Individuals who eat more fruits tend to have higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high
metabolism." The independent variable is eating more fruits, while the dependent variables are
higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high metabolism.
5. Associative and casual hypothesis Associative and casual hypotheses don't exhibit how
many variables there will be. They define the relationship between the variables. In an
associative hypothesis, changing any one variable, dependent or independent, affects others. In a
casual hypothesis, the independent variable directly affects the dependent.
6. Empirical hypothesis Also referred to as the working hypothesis, an empirical
hypothesis claims a theory's validation via experiments and observation.
This way, the statement appears justifiable and different from a wild guess.
Say, the hypothesis is "Women who take iron tablets face a lesser risk of anemia than those who
take vitamin B12." This is an example of an empirical hypothesis where the researcher the
statement after assessing a group of women who take iron tablets and charting the findings. 7.
Statistical hypothesis The point of a statistical hypothesis is to test an already existing
hypothesis by studying a population sample. Hypothesis like "44% of the Indian population
belong in the age group of 22-27." leverage evidence to prove or disprove a particular statement.

SHORT QUESTIONS:
1. What is Research?
Ans)Research is a process to discover new knowledge to find answers to a question. The
word research has two parts re (again) and search (find) which denote that we are taking up
an activity to look into an aspect once again or we want to look for some new information
about something.
Definition: Research is defined as careful consideration of study regarding a particular
concern or problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl
Robert Babble, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the
observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive research methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the
observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research, and deductive
methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.
8
2. Measurement.
Ans)Meaning of Measurement :The measurement is the process of assigning numbers or
symbol to the characteristics of the object as per the specified rules.
Here, the researcher assigns numbers, not to the object, but to its characteristics such as
perceptions, attitudes, preferences, and other relevant traits.
Measurement is the quantification of attributes of an object or event, which can be used to
compare with other objects or events.
In other words, measurement is a process of determining how large or small a physical
quantity is as compared to a basic reference quantity of the same kind. The scope and
application of measurement are dependent on the context and discipline.
In natural sciences and engineering, measurements do not apply to nominal properties of objects
or events, which is consistent with the guidelines of the International vocabulary of metrology
published by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.,However, in other fields such
as statistics as well as the social and behavioural sciences, measurements can have multiple
levels, which would include nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.
Measurement is defined as the process of comparison of an unknown quantity with a known
or standard quantity.
Definition of Measurement : According to W.S Torgerson,”measurement is the assignment of
numbers to objects to represent amounts or degrees of a property possessed by all of the
objects”.

3. Semantic Differential Scale

Ans)A semantic differential scale :is a survey or questionnaire rating scale that asks people to
rate a product, company, brand, or any 'entity' within the frames of a multi-point rating
option. These survey answering options are grammatically on opposite adjectives at each end.

4. Hypothesis.
Ans) Hypothesis Meaning: A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of
limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

The word hypothesis consists of two words Hypo + thesis =Hypothesis

“Hypo” means tentative or subject to the verification and “Thesis” means statement about
solution of a problem .
The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement the solution of the problem
,Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on
some rationale.
Definition of Hypothesis: “Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the
relationship between two variables. it implies that there is a systematic relationship between
an independent and dependent variable”.

9
 5. what is Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis?
Ans) The Null Hypothesis :is a typical statistical theory which suggests that no statistical
relationship and significance exists in a set of given single observed variable, between two
sets of observed data and measured phenomena
Alternative Hypothesis : is one of the proposed proposition in the hypothesis test. In general
the goal of hypothesis test is to demonstrate that in the given condition, there is sufficient
evidence supporting the credibility of alternative hypothesis instead of the exclusive
proposition in the test (null hypothesis) It is usually consistent with the research hypothesis
because it is constructed from literature review, previous studies, etc

UNIT -2

Essay Questions
1. Write the difference between Parametric and Non - Parametric tests?
Ans)

Parametric tests Non -Parametric tests

10
 1. Parametric test is defined as the study of 1. Non- Parametric test is defined as the
statistical tests concerning assumptions and study of statistical test that does not concern
estimation that are related to population assumption related to parameter estimation or
parameters. precise distribution.

2. This is also referred as “distribution tests”. 2. This is also referred as “distribution free

3. Assumptions are made in these tests”

tests i.e,null and alternative hypothesis. 3. No assumptions are made.
4. These tests employ a specific parameter of
the population such as mean,variance etc. 4.These tests do not employ the population
5.The data in these tests follow a parameters.
5. The data in these tests does not follow any
distribution which is either
specific distribution.
presumed or established

6. The population means are same 6. The population distribution are same for
for the null hypothesis the null hypothesis.

7. It is to measure in the terms of Interval or 7. It is measured in the terms of Normal or

Ratio scale. Ordinal scale.
8. It is used for both samples 8. It is used only for small samples.
i.e small and large

9. It is applied only for variables. 9. It is applied for both attributes and

variables.
10. The examples of parametric tests are Z-
test.T-test etc.
10.The examples of non - parametric tests are
Chi(x2)test.

2. write briefly about the various sampling methods?

Ans)The various sampling methods are as follows:

A.Probability Sampling Method: Probability sampling methods are also known as random
sampling methods.in these methods ,sampling process is random and the laws of probability
are used for sampling.it is used when research is conclusive in nature.these methods are
classified into various types as follows,

11
 1. Simple Random Sampling : in this technique ,each and every item of the population is
given an equal chance of being included in the sample .the selection is thus free from
personal bias.This method is also known as the method of chance selection or
unrestricted sampling Example:lottery.
2. Complex Random Sampling :the various types ofcomplex random sampling.
I. Stratified Sampling : this process divide the population into homogeneous groups or
classes called strata. A sample is taken from each group by simple random method
and the resulting sample is called a stratified sample.
II. Cluster Sampling : this method of sampling is done for small groups or units.whole
population is taken into consideration according to the given problem and is divided
into sub units which are known as “clusters”
III. Systematic Sampling: this is used in those cases where a complete list of the
population from which sample to be drawn is available .the method is used to select
every Kth item from the list ,where k refers to the sampling interval.
IV. Multistage Sampling :in this method ,sampling is carried out in several stages .it is
mostly used when population is very huge and simple random sampling is not
possible.
B.Non -Probability sampling methods: are also known as non random sampling methods in
this methods
,probability is not considered for selecting sample.
I. Convenience sampling:is also called as chunk .chunk is a fraction of one population
taken for investigation because of its convenient availability.a sample obtain from
readily available lists such as telephone directories etc.

II. Purposive sampling:sometimes sample cannot be obtained through convenience

sampling. the investigator may wish to choose sample according to research type.

3. Explain the F-test? Its Properties and Application?

Ans) A large number of research experiments are conducted to examine the effect of various
factors on the production and quality attributes of milk and milk products. F-test is used either
for testing the hypothesis about the equality of two population variances or the equality of two
or more population means. The equality of two population means was dealt with t-test. Besides
a t- test, we can also apply F-test for testing equality of two population means. Sir Ronald A.
Fisher defined a statistic Z which is based upon ratio of two sample variances. In this lesson we
will consider the distribution of ratio of two sample variances which was worked out by G.W.
Snedecor.

12
 F-Statistic

Let X1i (i=1,2,, n1) be a random sample of size n1from the first population with variance

σ1 1 and X2 (j=1,2, , n2 ) be another independent random sample of size n2 from the second

normal population with variance σ 22. The F- statistic is defined as the ratio of estimates of

two variances as given below:

where, S 12 > S 22 and are unbiased estimates of population variances which are given by:

It follows Snedecors F- distribution with (n1-1, n2-1) d.f. i.e., F~F (n1 1, n2 1). Further, if X is a
χ2-variate with n1 d.f. and Y is another independent χ2-variate with n2 d.f., then
Fstatistic is defined as:

i.e. F-statistic is the ratio of two independent Chi-square variates divided by their respective
degrees of freedom. This statistic follows G.W. Snedecor F distribution with (n 1,n2) d.f. The
sampling distribution of F-statistic does not involve any population parameter and depends only
on the degrees of freedom n1and n2.
Application of F- Distribution
F-distribution has a number of applications in statistics, some of which are given below
a) F-test for equality of population variances
b) F test for testing equality of several population means F -test for equality of population
variances
Suppose we are interested to find if two normal populations have same variance. Let X 1i
(i=1,2,, n1) be a random sample of size n1from the first population with variance σ12 and
X2j (j=1,2, , n2 ) be another independent random sample of size n2 from the second normal
population with variance σ 2. The two samples are2 independent= σ 2 = σ of each other.
Under the null hypothesis H0: σ 2 i.e., population variances are equal. In other words the two
independent estimates of the common population variance do not differ. The

1
/ S22) ~ F(n1 1, n2 11 )1 (S 12 > S22) ~
test statistic F = (S1

13
 Where S12 and S22 are unbiased estimates of the common population
variances σ2 are given by

It follows Snedecor s F- distribution with (n1-1, n2-1) d.f. i.e.,

F~F (n1 1, n2 1). Since F-test is based on the ratio of two variances it is
also known as Variance Ratio Test. If calculated value of F is greater
than tabulated value at α percent level of significance H0 is rejected at
α percent level of significance which implies that the two independent
estimates of population variances are heterogeneous. On the other hand
if calculated value of F is less than tabulated F then H 0 is not rejected
at α percent level of significance suggesting that the estimates of
population variances are homogeneous.

4. What is Chi-square(x²)?Explain its application ,test statistic and

assumption?

Ans) A chi-squared test (also chi-square or χ2 test) is a statistical

hypothesis test that is valid to perform when the test statistic is
chi-squared distributed under the null hypothesis, specifically
Pearson's chi-squared test and variants thereof.

Pearson's chi-squared test is used to determine whether there is a

statistically significant difference between the expected
frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more
categories of a contingency table.

In the standard applications of this test, the observations are classified

into mutually exclusive classes. If the null hypothesis that there are
no differences between the classes in the population is true, the test
statistic computed from the observations follows a χ2 frequency
distribution. The purpose of the test is to evaluate how likely the
observed frequencies would be assuming the null hypothesis is true.

14
 Test statistics that follow a χ2 distribution occur when the
observations are independent. There are also χ2 tests for testing the
null hypothesis of independence of a pair of random variables based
on observations of the pairs.
Chi-squared tests often refers to tests for which the distribution of the
test statistic approaches the χ2 distribution asymptotically, meaning
that the sampling distribution (if the null hypothesis is true) of the test
statistic approximates a chi-squared distribution more and more
closely as sample sizes increase.
CHI-SQUARE DISTRIBUTION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Karl Pearson (1857-1936) was a English Mathematician and Bio

statistician. He founded the world’s first university statistics
department at University College, London in 1911. He was the first to
examine whether the observed data support a given specification, in a
paper published in 1900. He called it ‘Chi- square goodness of fit’ test
which motivated research in statistical inference and led to the
development of statistics as separate discipline.

1. Application x² distribution

The square of standard normal variable is known as a chi-square

variable with 1 degree of freedom (d.f.). Thus

If X ~ N (µ, σ2), then it is known that ~N0,1 .

Further Z2is said to follow χ2– distribution with 1 degree of freedom
(χ2 – pronounced as chi-square)

Note:i) If Xi~N (μ,σ2) ,i= 1, 2, ..., n are n iid random variables then

2. Chi-square Test Statistic

A chi-square (χ2) statistic is a test that measures how a model

compares to actual observed data. The data used in calculating a
chisquare statistic must be random, raw, mutually exclusive, drawn

15
 from independent variables, and drawn from a large enough sample.
For example, the results of tossing a fair coin meet these criteria.

Chi-square tests are often used in hypothesis testing. The chi- square
statistic compares the size of any discrepancies between the expected
results and the actual results, given the size of the sample and the
number of variables in the relationship.

For these tests, degrees of freedom are utilized to determine if a

certain null hypothesis can be rejected based on the total number
of variables and samples within the experiment. As with any
statistic, the larger the sample size, the more reliable the results.
The Formula for Chi-Square Is

X2= Ʃ(O-E)²

e
Where O= Observed frequency.
E= Expected frequency.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• A chi-square (χ2) statistic is a measure of the difference between the

observed and expected frequencies of the outcomes of a set of events or
variables.
• Chi-square is useful for analyzing such differences in categorical variables,
especially those nominal in nature.
• χ2 depends on the size of the difference between actual and observed
values, the degrees of freedom, and the sample size.
• χ2 can be used to test whether two variables are related or independent
from one another.
• It can also be used to test the goodness-of-fit between an observed
distribution and a theoretical distribution of frequencies.

3. Assumptions of Chi-square test

To test the variance of the normal population, using the statistic in

note (ii)

16
· (i)To test the independence of attributes.

· (ii)To test the goodness of fit of a distribution.

· The sampling distributions of the test statistics used in the last two
applications are approximately chi-square distributions.

5.What is ANOVA? what are its assumptions and applications?

Ans) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a collection of statistical models

and their associated estimation procedures (such as the
"variation" among and between groups) used to analyze the differences
among means. ANOVA was developed by the statistician
Ronald Fisher. ANOVA is based on the law of total variance, where the
observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into
components attributable to different sources of variation. In its
simplest form, ANOVA provides a statistical test of whether two or
more population means are equal, and therefore generalizes the t-test
beyond two means. In other words, the ANOVA is used to test the
difference between two or more means.

Applications of ANOVA:

Suppose in the Manufacturing Process, we want to compare and check

which are the most reliable procedures, materials, etc. We can use the
ANOVA test to compare different suppliers and select the best
available.
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) is used when we have more than two
sample groups and determine whether there are any statistically
significant differences between the means of two or more independent
sample groups. In other words, we can say that it checks the impact of
one or more factors by comparing the means of different samples.
When we have less than or equal to two sample groups – we go for one
sample and two sample tests.
Assumptions of ANOVA: The analysis of variance has been studied
from several approaches, the most common of which uses a linear
model that relates the response to the treatments and blocks. Note that
the model is linear in parameters but may be nonlinear across factor

17
 levels. Interpretation is easy when data is balanced across factors but
much deeper understanding is needed for unbalanced data.

Short Questions:
1. What is F-Test?
Ans)A large number of research experiments are conducted to
examine the effect of various factors on the production and quality
attributes of milk and milk products. F-test is used either for testing
the hypothesis about the equality of two population variances or the
equality of two or more population means. The equality of two
population means was dealt with t-test. Besides a t- test, we can also
apply F-test for testing equality of two population means. Sir Ronald
A. Fisher defined a statistic Z which is based upon ratio of two sample
variances. In this lesson we will consider the distribution of ratio of
two sample variances which was worked out by G.W. Snedecor.

2. What is ANOVA?
Ans) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a collection of statistical
models and their associated estimation procedures (such as the
"variation" among and between groups) used to analyze the
differences among means.
ANOVA was developed by the statistician Ronald Fisher.
ANOVA is based on the law of total variance, where the
observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into
components attributable to different sources of variation. In its
simplest form, ANOVA provides a statistical test of whether two or
more population means are equal, and therefore generalizes the t-test
beyond two means. In other words, the ANOVA is used to test the
difference between two or more means.

3. What is Chi-square test?

Ans)A chi-squared test (also chi-square or χ2 test) is a statistical
hypothesis test that is valid to perform when the test statistic is
chisquared distributed under the null hypothesis, specifically
Pearson's chi-squared test and variants thereof.
Pearson's chi-squared test is used to determine whether there is a
statistically significant difference between the
expected frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more
categories of a contingency table.

18
In the standard applications of this test, the observations are
classified into mutually exclusive classes. If the null hypothesis that
there are no differences between the classes in the population is true,
the test statistic computed from the observations follows a χ2
frequency distribution. The purpose of the test is to evaluate how
likely the observed frequencies would be assuming the null
hypothesis is true.
Test statistics that follow a χ2 distribution occur when the
observations are independent. There are also χ2 tests for testing the
null hypothesis of independence of a pair of random variables based
on observations of the pairs.
Chi-squared tests often refers to tests for which the distribution of the
test statistic approaches the χ2 distribution asymptotically, meaning
that the sampling distribution (if the null hypothesis is true) of the test
statistic approximates a chi-squared distribution more and more
closely as sample sizes increase.

4. Explain about Parametric Tests of Significance?

Ans)1.Parametric test is defined as the study of statistical tests
concerning assumptions and estimation that are related to population
parameters.
2.This is also referred as “distribution tests”.
3.Assumptions are made in these tests i.e,null and alternative
hypothesis.
4. These tests employ a specific parameter of the population such as
mean,variance etc.
5. The data in these tests follow a distribution which is either presumed
or established
6. The population means are same for the null hypothesis

7.It is to measure in the terms of Interval or Ratio scale.

8.It is used for both samples i.e small and large
9.It is applied only for variables.
10.The examples of parametric tests are Z-test.T-test etc.

19
 Parametric Test Significance:
A statistical test or procedure using a quantitative measure standard
error, standard deviation, mean square error of v ariability or spread
in the data to establish a p-value T- tests.
ANOVA Parametric tests assume that the distribution of the observations or
datapoints known. For a parametric test to produce valid pvalues,
the data must have Gaussi an ("normal") distribution.
is
a
5.What is Research Report?Explain the steps involved in it?
Ans) A research report is a publication that reports on the findings of a
research project or alternatively scientific observations on or about a
subject.
Research reports are produced by many sectors including industry,
education, government and non-government organizations and may
be disseminated internally, or made public (i.e. published) however
they are not usually available from booksellers or through standard
commercial publishing channels.Research reports are also issued by
governmental and international organizations, such as UNESCO.
There are various distribution models for research reports with the
main ones being: public distribution for free or open access; limited
distribution to clients and customers; or sold commercially. For
example market research reports are often produced for sale by
specialist market research companies, investment companies may
provide research reports to
client, while government agencies and civil society organizations
such as UNESCO, the World Health Organization and many others
often provide free access to organization research reports in the
public interest or for a range of organization requirements and
objectives.
Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate
inductive work. The usual steps involved in writing report are:
1.logical analysis of the subject-matter;
2.preparation of the final outline;
3.preparation of the rough draft;
4.rewriting and polishing;
5.preparation of the final bibliography; and
6.writing the final draft.

20
Though all these steps are self explanatory, yet a brief mention of
each one of these will be appropriate for better understanding.
1.Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is
primarily concerned with the development of a subject. There are two
ways in which to develop a subject 1. logically and chronologically.
The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections
and associations between the one thing and another by means of
analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing the material
from the simple possible to the most complex structures. Chronological
development is based on a connection or sequence in time or
occurrence. The directions for doing or making something usually
follow the chronological order.
2. Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the
research report “Outlines are the framework upon which long
written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical
organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be
stressed in the report.”
3. Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of
the subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is
of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down
what he has done in the context of his research study. He will
write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the
material for his study along with various limitations faced by
him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings
and generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer
regarding the problem concerned.
4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to
be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step
requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The
careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a
good piece of writing.
While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for
weaknesses in logical development or
presentation. The researcher should also “see whether or not the
material, as it is presented, has unity and cohesion; does the report
stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like a marble
arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose
brick.” In addition the researcher should give due attention to the fact
that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should check
the mechanics of writing— grammar, spelling and usage.

21
 5. Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the
task of the preparation of the final bibliography. The
bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report,
is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has
been done. It should contain all those works which the researcher
has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged
alphabetically and may be divided into two parts; the first part
may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and the second
part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles.
Generally, this pattern of bibliography is considered convenient
and satisfactory from the point of view of reader, though it is not
the only way of presenting bibliography.

Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft
should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple
language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may
be”, and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must
avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon. Illustrations and
examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the
final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the
research findings to others. A research report should not be dull, but must
enthuse people and maintain interest and must show originality. It must
be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve some
intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem and
must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

UNIT-1 Essay Questions:

1. What is the meaning and definition of Research? Explain the various

types of research?
2. What do you mean by qualitative and quantitative Research? distinguish
between them.
22
3. Define Measurement and Scaling. State the objectives of Measurement
and scaling. Explain the properties of scales?
4. What is Research design? Explain the types of it
5. What is Research process ?Explain the steps involved in Research
process?

Short Questions:

1.What is Research?
2.Measurement
3.Semantic Differential scale
4.Hypothesis
5.What is Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis?

UNIT-2
Essay Questions

1. Write the difference between parametric tests and non-parametric tests

2. Write briefly about the various sampling methods?
3. Explain the F-test, its properties and applications.
4. What is chi-square (x2)? Explain its application , test statistic and
assumptions.
5. What is ANOVA? What are its assumptions and applications?

Short questions:
1. What is F-test?
2. What is ANOVA?
3. What is chi-square test?
4. Explain about parametric tests of significance.
5. What is Research Report ?Explain the steps involved in it.

23