EARTH

THE EARTH IS A SPHEROID HAVING AN EQUATORIAL DIAMETER 7926.7

STATUTE MILES & POLAR DIAMETER 7899.5 STATUTE MILES.

AXIS: THE DIAMETER ABOUT WHICH THE EARTH ROTATES IN A COUNTER

CLOCKWISE DIRECTION.

 POLES: THE POINTS WHERE THE EARTH’S AXIS MEETS THE EARTH
SURFACE, NAMED NORTH POLE & SOUTH POLE
 GREAT CIRCLE: A CIRCLE WHOSE PLANE PASSES THROUGH THE
CENTRE OF THE EARTH
 SMALL CIRCLE: A CIRCLE WHOSE PLANE DOES NOT PASS THROUGH
THE CENTRE OF THE EARTH

EQUATOR : A GREAT CIRCLE DIVIDING THE EARTH INTO TWO

HEMISPHERES; NORTH & SOUTH

 LATITUDE: SMALL CIRCLES PARALLEL TO THE EQUATOR AND

NUMBERED 0° TO 90° FOLLOWED BY THE RESPECTIVE HEMISPHERE
 LONGITUDE / MERIDIAN: SEMI GREAT CIRCLE JOINING THE TWO POLES
AND NUMBERED FROM THE PRIME OR GREENWICH MERIDIAN 0° TO
180° EAST OR WEST

PRIME MERIDIAN: MERIDIAN PASSING THROUGH GREENWICH.

POSITION OF A PLACE:
LATITUDE 0 ° TO 90° N/ S
LONGITUDE 0 ° TO 180 ° E / W
 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY

CELESTIAL SPHERE: A SPHERE OF INFINITE RADIUS HAVING THE SAME

CENTRE AS THE EARTH’S CENTRE

CELESTIAL POLE: THE POINTS ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE WHERE THE

AXIS OF THE EARTH MEETS THE CELESTIAL SPHERE

EQUINOCTIAL: A GREAT CIRCLE ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE IN THE SAME

PLANE AS THE EARTH’S EQUATOR.

PARALLEL OF DECLINATION: SMALL CIRCLES ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE

PARALLEL TO THE EQUINOCTIAL

CELESTIAL MERIDIANS: SEMI GREAT CIRCLES ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE

PASSING THROUGH THE CELESTIAL POLES WHICH CORRESPOND TO THE
MERIDIANS ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE

ECLIPTIC: GREAT CIRCLE ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE IN THE SAME ORBIT

AS THE EARTH’S ORBIT

OBILIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC: THE ANGLE BETWEEN THE EQUINOCTIAL

AND THE ECLIPTIC WHICH IS 23°26.7’ [23½°]

FIRST POINT OF ARIES: POINT ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE WHERE ECLIPTIC

INTERSECTS THE EQUINOCIAL FROM SOUTH TO NORTH.

FIRST POINT OF LIBRA: POINT ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE WHERE ECLIPTIC

INTERSECTS THE EQUINOCIAL FROM NORTH TO SOUTH.

EQUINOCTIAL SYSTEM
DECLINATION: IS THE ARC OF THE MERIDIAN MEASURED FROM THE
EQUINOCTIAL TO THE PARALLEL OF DECLINATION PASSING THROUGH THE
BODY, MEASURED NORTH OR SOUTH OF THE EQUINOCTIAL [0° TO 90°
N/S]

SIDEREAL HOUR ANGLE: SHA : IS THE ARC OF THE EQUINOCTIAL OR THE

ANGLE AT THE CELESTIAL POLE MEASURED BETWEEN THE CELESTIAL
MERIDIAN PASSING THROUGH THE FIRST POINT OF ARIES AND THE
CELESTIAL MERIDIAN PASSING THROUGH THE BODY MEASURED
WESTWARD FROM ARIES.

GREENWICH HOUR ANGLE: GHA : IS THE ARC OF THE EQUINOCTIAL OR

THE ANGLE AT THE CELESTIAL POLE MEASURED BETWEEN THE CELESTIAL
MERIDIAN PASSING THROUGH GREENWICH AND THE CELESTIAL MERIDIAN
PASSING THROUGH THE BODY MEASURED WESTWARD FROM
GREENWICH.

LOCAL HOUR ANGLE: LHA : IS THE ARC OF THE EQUINOCTIAL OR THE

ANGLE AT THE CELESTIAL POLE MEASURED BETWEEN THE OBSERVER’S
CELESTIAL MERIDIAN AND THE CELESTIAL MERIDIAN PASSING THROUGH
THE BODY MEASURED WESTWARD FROM THE OBSERVER.

RIGHT ASCENSION: RA : IS THE ARC OF THE EQUINOCTIAL OR THE ANGLE

AT THE CELESTIAL POLE MEASURED BETWEEN THE CELESTIAL MERIDIAN
PASSING THROUGH THE FIRST POINT OF ARIES AND THE CELESTIAL
MERIDIAN PASSING THROUGH THE BODY MEASURED EASTWARD FROM
ARIES.

EASTERLY HOUR ANGLE: EHA : IS THE ARC OF THE EQUINOCTIAL OR THE

ANGLE AT THE CELESTIAL POLE MEASURED BETWEEN THE OBSERVER’S
CELESTIAL MERIDIAN AND THE CELESTIAL MERIDIAN PASSING THROUGH
THE BODY MEASURED EASTWARD FROM THE OBSERVER.
GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF A CELESTIAL BODY.
LATITUDE IS SAME AS DECL OF THE BODY
LONGITUDE IS SIMILAR TO GHA OF THE BODY
IF GHA LESS THAN 180° , THEN LONG. IS WEST
IF GHA MORE THAN 180 °,
THEN LONG IS [360 ° - GHA] AND WILL TAKE THE NAME EAST.

HORIZON SYSTEM

OBSERVER’S ZENITH: POINT ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE VERTICALLY

ABOVE THE OBSERVER

OBSERVER’S NADIR: POINT ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE VERTICALLY

BELOW THE OBSERVER OR VERTICALLY OPPOSITE THE ZENITH

VERTICAL CIRCLES: GREAT CIRCLE ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE PASSING

THROUGH THE OBSERVER’S ZENITH AND NADIR.

PRIME VERTICAL: VERTICAL CIRCLE PASSING THROUGH THE OBSERVER’S

EAST WEST POINTS OF HIS RATIONAL HORIZON

RATIONAL HORIZON: GREAT CIRCLE ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE 90°

AWAY FROM THE OBSERVER’S ZENITH

TRUE ALTITUDE: ARC ON THE VERTICAL CIRCLE BETWEEN OBSERVER’S

HORIZON AND CENTRE OF BODY
ZENITH DISTANCE: ARC ON THE VERTICAL CIRCLE BETWEEN OBSERVER’S
ZENITH AND CENTRE OF BODY

AZIMUTH: ARC OF THE RATIONAL HORIZON OR ANGLE AT THE ZENITH

BETWEEN OBSERVER’S MERIDIAN AND VERTICAL CIRCLE THROUGH THE
BODY
Eg. N ___ E

AMPLITUDE: ARC OF THE RATIONAL HORIZON OR ANGLE AT THE ZENITH

BETWEEN PRIME VERTICAL CIRCLE AND VERTICAL CIRCLE THROUGH THE
BODY WHEN THE BODY IS RISING OR SETTING.
Eg. E ____ S
S O L A R SYSTEM
KEPLER’S FIRST LAW
 ALL PLANETS REVOLVE ABOUT THE SUN IN ELLIPTICAL ORBITS WITH
THE SUN SITUATED AT ONE OF THE FOCI OF THE ELLIPSE
 An Ellipse is a locus of points, such that the sum of the distance from
any point on the ellipse to the two foci is constant.

KEPLER’S SECOND LAW

 THE RADIUS VECTOR OF A PLANET SWEEPS OUT EQUAL AREA IN EQUAL
PERIODS
 PLANETS MOVE FASTER WHEN CLOSER TO THE SUN THAN WHEN AWAY
FROM THE SUN

KEPLER’S THIRD LAW

 PLANETS WHICH ARE CLOSER TO THE SUN HAVE A GREATER ANGULAR
ORBITAL VELOCITY THAN PLANETS WHICH ARE FURTHER AWAY.
 INFERIOR PLANETS HAVE A GREATER ANGULAR VELOCITY THAN
SUPERIOR PLANETS.

TERMS TO EXPRESS DISTANCE

 APHELION: A PLANET IS SAID TO BE IN APHELION WHEN IN ITS ORBIT IT

IS FARTHEST FROM THE SUN, THE EARTH IS 94.45 MILION MILES

 PERIHELION: A PLANET IS SAID T BE IN PERIHELION WHEN IN ITS ORBIT

IT IS NEAREST TO THE SUN, THE EARTH IS 91.35 MILION MILES AT
PERIHELION
 APHELION & PERIHELION ARE DISTANCES EXPRESSED FROM THE SUN

 CONJUNCTION: A PLANET OR MOON IS SAID TO BE IN CONJUNCTION
WITH THE SUN WHEN AS VIEWED FROM THE EARTH ARE IN THE SAME
DIRECTION AS THE SUN

 INFERIOR CONJUNCTION: PLANETS CLOSER TO THE EARTH IN IT’S

ORBIT
 lSUPERIOR CONJUNCTION: PLANETS AWAY FROM THE EARTH IN IT’S
ORBIT

 OPPOSITION: A PLANET OR MOON IS SAID TO BE IN OPPOSITION WITH
THE SUN WHEN AS VIEWED FROM THE EARTH ARE IN THE OPPOSITE
DIRECTION OF THE SUN

 ELONGATION: THE ANGLE AT THE CENTRE OF THE EARTH CONTAINED

BETWEEN THE CENTRE OF THE SUN AND THE CENTRE OF THE PLANET.
 INFERIOR PLANETS HAVE SMALL ELONGATION [MAX 47˚]
 SUPERIOR PLANETS HAVE ELONGATION UPTO 180 ˚

 QUADRATURE: A PLANET OR MOON IS SAID TO BE IN QUADRATURE

WITH THE SUN WHEN IT’S ELONGATION ANGLE IS EXACTLY 90˚
SEASONS
 On 21 June [Summer Solstice] the North end of the earth’s axis is tilted
st

towards the Sun by maximum amount (23 ½°). The sun rays falls
directly on the Tropic of Cancer and places on the N.H. will experience
the longest day. Summer seasons starts
 On 23 Sept. [Autumnal Equinox] the North end of the earth’s axis is at
rd

right angles from the Sun. The sun rays falls directly on the Equator
and places on the N.H. will experience equal day and night. Autumn
season starts.
 On 22 Dec. [Winter Solstice] the South end of the earth’s axis is tilted
nd

towards the Sun by maximum amount (23 ½°). The Sun rays falls
directly on the Tropic of Capricorn and places on the N.H. will
experience the shortest day. Winter season starts
 On 21 March [Vernal Equinox] the North end of the earth’s axis is at
st

right angles from the Sun. The sun rays falls directly on the Equator
and places on the N.H. will experience equal day and night. Spring
season starts
VENUS : MORNING & EVENING STAR

 Venus is an inferior planet.

 When Venus is at superior or inferior conjunction with the Sun, Venus
cannot be seen in the sky due to brightness of the Sun.
 As the earth rotates on its axis and the observer reaches position Z1 ,
Venus is seen on the eastern horizon at position V1.
 As the earth rotates further and the observer reaches position Z2 , the
Sun will now rise.
 Since Venus will rise in the morning a few hours before the Sun it is
termed as a MORNING STAR.

 Then as the Sun rises, the sky brightens and Venus fades away in the
daytime sky. In the evening, as the earth rotates on its axis and the
observer reaches position Z3 , the Sun sets and now Venus can be
seen on the western horizon at position V2.
 As the earth rotates further and the observer reaches position Z4 ,
Venus sets on the western horizon.
 Since Venus will set in the evening a few hours after the Sun it is
termed as a EVENING STAR.
 Venus has a maximum elongation of 47° and is seen above the horizon
approximately 3 hrs before Sunrise or after Sunset.
Stars culminate 4 minutes earlier each day

 At E1 the Observer on the Earth, Sun and Aries are in transit.

 As the Earth rotates 360° and also moves along its orbit and comes to
position E2, Aries is again in transit because of its infinite distance from
the Earth and one Sidereal day is completed.
 However for the Sun to come in transit the Observer on the Earth has
to rotate an additional amount.
 Since the Earth completes a revolution of 360° around the Sun in 1
year [365¼ days] and average additional angular motion of the Earth
would be 360°/365¼=59’
 To complete a Solar day the observer on the Earth has to rotate
360°+59’.
 Since time is measured by the Sun, our clock show 24hours from one
transit to the next transit of the Sun.
Hence all stars and Aries culminate on completion of a rotation of 360°
which is equivalent to 23h 56m 04s which is about 4 minutes earlier
each day.
 ALTITUDES
HORIZONS
 VISIBLE HORIZON: A SMALL CIRCLE ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE
BOUNDING THE OBSERVER’S VISION AT SEA

 SENSIBLE HORIZON: A SMALL CIRCLE ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE IN

THE PLANE OF THE OBSERVER’S EYE AND PARALLEL TO THE RATIONAL
HORIZON

OBSERVER’S RATIONAL HORIZON OR CELESTIAL HORIZON: GREAT CIRCLE

ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE 90° AWAY FROM THE OBSERVER’S ZENITH

 OBSERVER’S ZENITH: THE POINT ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE

VERTICALLY ABOVE THE OBSERVER
 SEXTANT ALTITUDE: THE ALTITUDE OF A BODY ABOVE THE VISIBLE
HORIZON
 OBSERVED ALTITUDE: THE ALTITUDE OF A BODY ABOVE THE VISIBLE
HORIZON CORRECTED FOR INDEX ERROR IF ANY
 APPARENT ALTITUDE: THE ALTITUDE OF A BODY ABOVE THE SENSIBLE
HORIZON CORRECTED FOR INDEX ERROR IF ANY AND DIP

TRUE ALTITUDE: THE ANGLE AT THE CENTRE OF THE EARTH CONTAINED

BETWEEN THE RATIONAL HORIZON AND THE CENTRE OF THE BODY

 INDEX ERROR: INSTRUMENTAL ERROR WHICH IS CHECKED AT

REGULAR INTERVALS AND APPLIED TO THE SEXTANT ALTITUDE
 ON THE ARC IS SUBTRACTED
 OFF THE ARC IS ADDED
DIP: THE ANGLE AT THE OBSERVER BETWEEN THE OBSERVER’S SENSIBLE
HORIZON AND THE VISIBLE HORIZON. DIP IS ALWAYS NEGATIVE


 REFRACTION: THE DEVIATION OF LIGHT AS IT PASSES FROM ONE
MEDIUM TO THE OTHER. DUE TO REFRACTION WE OBSERVE THE BODY
AT A LARGER ALTITUDE, HENCE REFRACTION IS ALWAYS NEGATIVE
 REFRACTION IS NIL AT ZENITH AND MAXIMUM AT HORIZON [34.5’]

SEMI DIAMETER: APPLIED ONLY FOR SUN AND MOON AS PER VALUES
INDICATED IN THE ALMANAC

 FOR LOWER LIMB SEMI DIAMETER IS POSITIVE

 FOR UPPER LIMB SEMI DIAMETER IS NEGATIVE
 PARALLAX IN ALTITUDE : THE ANGLE AT THE CENTRE OF THE BODY
CONTAINED BETWEEN CENTRE OF THE EARTH AND THE OBSERVER ON
THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH WHEN THE BODY IS AT ANY ALTITUDE

HORIZONTAL PARALLAX : THE ANGLE AT THE CENTRE OF THE BODY

CONTAINED BETWEEN THE CENTRE OF THE EARTH AND THE OBSERVER
AT THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH WHEN THE BODY IS ON THE OBSERVER’S
SENSIBLE HORIZON

Parallax in Altitude

Horizontal Parallax

INDEX ERROR OF SEXTANT

1. HORIZON METHOD : CLAMP THE INDEX BAR TO ZERO, HOLD SEXTANT

VERTICALLY. VIEW THE DIRECT AND REFLECTED IMAGE OF THE
HORIZON, TURN THE MICROMETER UNTIL THE DIRECT AND REFLECTED
IMAGE IS IN A LINE. READ OUT THE INDEX ERROR FROM THE
MICROMETER.
IF THE INDEX BAR IS ON THE ARC [ MORE THAN ZERO] IT IS TERMED AS
ON THE ARC AND THE ERROR TAKES A NEGATIVE SIGN
IF THE INDEX BAR IS OFF THE ARC [ LESS THAN ZERO] IT IS TERMED AS
OFF THE ARC AND THE ERROR TAKES A POSITIVE SIGN

2) BY OBSERVING THE SUN :

Set the index at about 32’ ON the arc. Hold sextant vertical and look at
the sun, using shades. The reflected image of the sun would appear below
the direct image. Turn the micrometer until their closer limbs just touch.
Note reading ON the arc.
Set the index at about 32’ OFF the arc and look at the Sun. The reflected
image of the sun would appear above the direct image. Turn the
micrometer until their closer limbs just touch. Note reading OFF the arc.
The difference is the index error.
The name of IE is the name of the reading having the higher numerical
value.
AUGUMENTATION OF MOON’S SEMI DIAMETER

 THE TABULATED SEMI DIAMETER IS FROM THE CENTRE OF THE EARTH

 WHEN THE OBSERVER ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH OBSERVES THE
MOON, HE IS CLOSER TO THE MOON BY AN AMOUNT EQUAL TO THE
RADIUS OF THE EARTH WHICH IS 4000’
HENCE THE SEMI DIAMETER OF THE MOON SHOULD BE LARGER THAN
TABULATED AND WILL VARY WITH ALTITUDE.

 AT THE HORIZON AUGMENTATION IS NIL AND INCREASE WITH

ALTITUDE AND BECOMES MAXIMUM AT THE OBSERVER’S ZENITH BY A
VALUE OF 0.3’
THE AUGUMENTATED SEMI DIAMETER IS THEN APPLIED TO CORRECT THE
TABULATED ALTITUDE WHICH ARE INDICATED IN THE NORIE’S TABLES.
 SINCE THE SUN IS 93 MILLION MILES FROM THE EARTH, THE
OBSERVER ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH IS 4000’ CLOSER TO THE
SUN. THIS VALUE WILL MAKE A NEGILABLE CHANGE IN THE
TABULATED S.D. OF THE SUN. HENCE THERE IS NO AUGUMENTATION
CORRECTION APPLIED TO THE SUN.
MOREOVER THE TABULATED SEMI DIAMETER OF THE SUN IS ASSUMED TO
BE THE SAME FOR 3 DAYS.

When Moon on Zenith observer closer to moon by 4000’ and the

correction is + 0.3’ to the tabulated semi diameter

THEORETICAL SUN RISE / SUN SET : IS WHEN THE CENTRE OF THE SUN IS
ON THE RATIONAL HORIZON
VISIBLE SUN RISE / SUN SET: IS WHEN THE UPPER LIMB OF THE SUN IS
JUST TOUCHING THE VISIBLE HORIZON
WE HAVE VISIBLE SUNRISE, THOERTICAL SUNRISE, THOERETICAL
SUNSET , VISIBLE SUNSET
SOLAR ECLIPSE

WHEN THE MOON IS IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE SUN IT BLOCKS THE

LIGHT OF THE SUN FROM THE EARTH AND SO TERMED AS SOLAR ECLIPSE
UMBRA IS THAT PART WHERE NO LIGHT OF THE SUN REACHES THE EARTH

PENUMBRA IS THAT PART WHERE PART LIGHT FROM THE SUN REACHES
THE EARTH

PLACES ON THE EARTH WITHIN THE UMBRA REGION WILL EXPERIENCE

TOTAL ECLIPSE
PLACES ON THE EARTH WITHIN THE PENUMBRA REGION WILL EXPERIENCE
PARTIAL ECLIPSE

WHEN THE MOON IS IN APOGEE WITH THE EARTH, IT MAY HAPPEN THAT
DURING THE ECLIPSE THERE IS NO UMBRA REGION AND THE OBSERVER
ON THE EARTH CAN SEE THE SUN WITH THE MOON OBSCURING THE
CENTRAL PORTION. THIS TYPE OF ECLIPSE IS TERMED AS ANNULAR
ECLIPSE

FOR SOLAR ECLIPSE TO OCCUR THE SUN & MOON MUST BE IN

CONJUNCTION, THE SHA’S OR GHA’S EQUAL AND DECLINATION HAVING
TH SAME NAME AND VALUE
AS THE MOON’S ORBIT IS INCLINED BY 5¼º TO THE ECLIPTIC, A SOLAR
ECLIPSE CAN OCCUR ONLY WHEN THE MOON IS IN CONJUCTION AND VERY
NEAR TO ONE OF HER NODES OR NEAR THE ECLIPTIC ON A NEW MOON
DAY

Total and Partial Solar Eclipse

Annular Eclipse

LUNAR ECLIPSE
A LUNAR ECLIPSE TAKES PLACE WHEN THE MOON PASSES THROUGH THE
EARTH’S SHADOW WHICH CAN TAKE PLACE AT OPPOSITION

UMBRA IS THAT PART WHERE NO LIGHT OF THE SUN REACHES THE MOON

PENUMBRA IS THAT PART WHERE PART LIGHT FROM THE SUN REACHES
THE MOON
WHEN THE MOON IS WITHIN THE UMBRA REGION , IT IS TERMED AS TOTAL
ECLIPSE AND THE MOON BECOMES INVISIBLE
WHEN THE MOON IS WITHIN THE PENUMBRA REGION , IT IS TERMED AS
PENUMBRAL ECLIPSE AND THE FULL MOON BECOMES VISIBLE WITH
DEMINISHED BRILLIANCE
WHEN THE MOON IS PARTLY WITHIN THE UMBRA REGEION AND THE
OTHER PART WITHIN THE PENUMBRA REGION , IT IS TERMED AS PARTIAL
ECLIPSE AS THAT PART WITHIN THE UMBRA WILL NOT BE VISIBLE AND
THE OTHER PART WITHIN THE PENUMBRA WILL BE VISIBLE WITH
DEMINISHED BRILLIANCE

FOR LUNAR ECLIPSE TO OCCUR THE SUN & MOON MUST BE IN

OPPOSITION, THE SHA’S OR GHA’S MUST DIFFER BY NAERLY 180º
AND DECLINATION HAVING TH OPPOSITE NAME AND SAME VALUE

A LUNAR ECLIPSE CAN OCCUR ONLY WHEN THE MOON IS ON OR NEAR

THE ECLIPTIC ON A FULL MOON DAY
Partial Lunar Eclipse

Total and Penumbral Lunar Eclipse

MAXIMUN ECLIPSE 7 IN A YEAR

SOLAR ECLIPSE MAX 4 OR 5 ; MINIMUM ECLIPSE 2 IN A YEAR BOTH
SOLAR
EVEN THOUGH SOLAR ECLIPSE ARE MORE THAN LUNAR ECLIPSE , MORE
PEOPLE ON THE EARTH SEE LUNAR ECLIPSE.
DURING LUNAR ECLIPSE 50% OF THE EARTH IS FACING THE MOON AND
SO THE ENTIRE 50% OF THE EARTH OBSERVE LUNAR ECLIPSE AT THE
SAME TIME COMPARED TO DURING SOLAR ECLIPSE ONLY THAT PART OF
THE EARTH WHICH EXPERIENCES THE SOLAR ECLIPSE WILL OBSERVE IT.
DURING LUNAR ECLIPSE THE MOON PASSES THROUGH A LARGER
SHADOW CAST BY THE EARTH COMPARED TO DURING SOLAR ECLIPSE
WHERE A SMALLER SHADOW IS CAST BY THE MOON
PHASES OF THE MOON
 THE ILLUMINATED PORTION OF THE MOON FROM THE EARTH IS
TERMED AS PHASES OF THE MOON
 NEW MOON, CRESENT, HALF, GIBBOUS, FULL, GIBBOUS, HALF,
CRESENT, NEW MOON
 TOTAL TIME IS 29½ DAYS

 WAXING : FROM NEW TO FULL, VISIBLE AREA INCREASING , WESTERN

PORTION OF MOON VISIBLE
 WANING : FROM FULL TO NEW , VISIBLE AREA DECREASING , EASTERN
PORTION OF MOON VISIBLE
 AGE OF MOON: TIME ELAPSED SINCE LAST NEW MOON

SYNODIC PERIOD OF THE MOON:

TIME BETWEEN TWO CONSECUTIVE NEW MOONS OR TWO CONSECUTIVE
FULL MOONS WHICH IS ABOUT 29 DAYS 12 HOURS 44 MINS AND
VARIES DUE TO THE ECCENTRICITY OF THE MOON’S ORBIT AND THE
EARTH’S ORBIT. THIS IS ALSO CALLED LUNAR MONTH, LUNATION OR
SYNODIC MONTH

SIDEREAL PERIOD OF THE MOON:

TIME TAKEN BY THE MOON TO COMPLETE ONE REVOLUTION OF 360˚
AROUND THE EARTH WHICH IS 27DAYS 07HOURS 43 MINUTES AND 12
SECONDS AND IS CONSTANT, APPROX 27.33 DAYS
DAILY RETARDATION OF THE MOON:
AT NEW MOON, THE SUN AND MOON ARE IN CONJUCTION AND WOULD
CULMINATE AT THE SAME TIME.
AS THE SYNODIC PERIOD OF THE MOON IS 29½DAYS, IT MEANS IN ONE
DAY THE MOON MOVES EASTWARD BY AN AMOUNT 360º/ 29½=12.2º
FOR THE MOON TO CULMINATE AGAIN THE EARTH HAS TO ROTATE
FURTHER ROTATE 12.2º
SINCE THE EARTH ROTATES AT A RATE OF 15º AN HOUR,IT TAKES 49
MINUTES TO ROTATE THE FURTHER 12.2º
FOT THIS REASON THE MOON CULMINATES ABOUT 50MINUTES LATER
EACH DAY
THE AVERAGE LENGTH OF THE LUNAR DAY IS ABOUT 24HRS 50MINS OF
THE MEAN SOLAR TIME

CIRCUMPOLAR BODIES
A body is said to be circumpolar if it never sets OR the body is always
within the Rational Horizon. There are two requirements.
LAT & DECL SAME NAMES
LAT + DECL ≥ 90
 UNDER ABOVE CONDITIONS CELESTIAL BODY MAY REMAIN ABOVE THE
RATIONAL HORIZON AND DOES NOT SET
 THE OBSERVER IS ABLE TO SEE BOTH THE MERIDIAN PASSAGES
(UPPER-CLOSER TO OBSERVER & LOWER AWAY FROM OBSERVER)
 2 POLAR DIST = DIST BET UPPER & LOWER MER ALTITUDE
 LAT = POLAR DIST + LOWER MER ALT
DECL = 90 – POLAR DIST

Bearing North at both transits

 Bearing North and South at transits

TWILIGHT
 LIGHT RECEIVED FROM THE SUN WHEN BELOW THE HORIZON
 CIVIL TWILIGHT WHEN SUN’S CENTRE IS 6° BELOW THE RATIONAL
HORIZON
 NAUTICAL TWILIGHT WHEN SUN’S CENTRE IS 12° BELOW THE
RATIONAL HORIZON
 ASTRONOMICAL TWILIGHT WHEN SUN’S CENTRE IS 18° BELOW THE
RATIONAL HORIZON
 TWILIGHT LAST UNTIL VISIBLE SUNRISE
VISIBLE SUNRISE IS WHEN SUN’S UPPER LIMB APPEARS OVER THE VISIBLE

MIDNIGHT SUN

 OBSERVERS IN LAT [90 – DECL] WOULD EXPERIENCE MIDNIGHT SUN IN

THE SAME HEMISPHERE AS THE SUN’S DECL
 THE SUN WOULD BE ON THE HORIZON THROUGHT THE DAY AND
NIGHT, HOWEVER THE AZIMUTH WOULD CHANGE ACCORDINGLY

For continuous darkness
Lat & Decl must be of the opposite name
Lat + Decl = 90 ⁰
Once we know the declination, we can calculate the latitude.
The calculated latitude and above upto the pole will have continuous
darkness.
For a North declination, continuous darkness will only be in a high
latitude in the S.H.

Conditions for Twilight to last all night:

Lat and Decl same name
Lat + Decl + 18 = 90⁰ ;
Lat1 + Decl not less than 72⁰
Lat + Decl = 90⁰ ;
Lat2 + Decl not less than 90⁰
Once we know the declination, we can calculate both the upper and the
lower latitude for nautical twilight to last all night.
V CORRECTION
 THE HOURLY CHANGE IN GHA OF THE CELESTIAL BODIES ARE AS
FOLLOWS
 GHA SUN & PLANETS 15˚ 00.0’
 GHA ARIES 15˚ 02.5’
 GHA MOON 14˚ 19.0’

THE “V” CORRECTION IS APPLIED TO THE GHA OF PLANETS & MOON. THIS
IS THE EXCESS CORRECTION WHICH HAS TO BE APPLIED.

 SINCE PLANETS USE THE INCREMENT TABLES OF SUN, THE DIFFERENCE

BETWEEN SUN AND THE RESPECTIVE PLANET IS THE “V” CORRECTION
WHICH IS INDICATED FOR EVERY 3 DAYS.
VENUS BEING AN INFERIOR PLANET, IT SOMETIMES HAS “V” CORRECTON
WITH A NEGATIVE SIGN AS INDICATED FOR EVERY 3 DAYS AT THE
BOTTOM OF EACH PAGE.

 MOON DUE TO ITS CLOSE PROXIMITY HAS “V” CORRECTION INDICATED

HOURLY. THE “V” CORRECTION OF MOON IS ALWAYS POSITIVE AS THE
HOURLY INCREASE OF GHA OF MOON IS 14˚ 19.0’
 THERE IS NO SEPARATE “V” CORRECTION FOR SUN BUT THE “V”
CORRECTION IF ANY IS INDICATED IN THE GHA OF THE SUN ITSELF.
TO APPLY “V” CORRECTION WE GO TO THE RESPECTIVE MINUTE AND
LOOK AT CORRESPONDING VALUE FOR THAT “V” VALUE WHICH IS
APPLIED TO THE GHA & INCREMENT OF THE CELESTIAL BODY.

D CORRECTION
 THIS IS APPLIED TO THE DECLINATION OF SUN, MOON AND PLANETS
 TO APPLY “D” CORRECTION WE GO TO THE RESPECTIVE MINUTE AND
LOOK AT CORRESPONDING VALUE FOR THAT “D” VALUE .

 THE SIGN OF THE “D” CORRECTION DEPENDS ON THE CHANGE IN

DECLINATION FOR THE NEXT HOUR.
FOR SUN AND PLANETS THE “D” CORRECTION IS APPLIED EVERY 3 DAYS
HOWEVER THE “D” CORRECTION FOR MOON IS APPLIED HOURLY.

EQ OF TIME=MEAN TIME–APPARENT TIME

EQ OF TIME IS AN INTERVAL OF TIME OR THE ANGLE BETWEEN THE
MERIDIAN OF THE TRUE SUN AND THE MEAN SUN

AS TIME IS MEASURED WESTWARD AND GHA & SHA ARE ALSO MEASURED
WESTWARD
EQ OF TIME = GHAMS - GHATS
= LHAMS - LHATS
= SHAMS - SHATS
= RATS - RAMS
[AS RA IS MEASURED EASTWARD FROM ARIES]
INTL DATE LINE : APPROX 180 º
IT PASSES ON THE 180 MERIDIAN AROUND A GROUP OF ISLANDS SO
THAT ALL COUNTRIES IN THAT GROUP FOLLOW THE SAME DATE
IN EASTWARD DIRECTION SHIP’S HAVE TO ADVANCE HER CLOCKS BY ONE
HOUR FOR EVERY 15º
IN WESTWARD DIRECTION SHIP’S HAVE TO RETARD HER CLOCKS BY ONE
HOUR FOR EVERY 15º
SHIP’S ON AN EASTERLY COURSE RETARD THE DATE BY ONE DAY
SHIP’S ON AN WESTERLY COURSE ADVANCE THE DATE BY ONE DAY

DAYLIGHT SAVING TIME (DST)

Daylight Saving Time (DST) is the practice of setting clocks forward one
hour from standard time during the summer months, and back again in
the fall, in order to make better use of natural daylight. Many countries in
the Northern Hemisphere use DST in the summer time, but not all.
Daylight saving time usually starts in March-April and ends in September-
November when countries return to standard time.

DST is used to reduce the amount of energy needed for artificial lighting
during the evening hours. The main purpose of Daylight saving time is to
make better use of the daylight.

What should be the position of Sun’s LL when taking amplitude & why?
Refraction is maximum at the horizon when the body is rising which is
34.5’
The average semi diameter of the Sun is 16’ , which mean diameter of the
Sun is 32’.
Amplitude must be taken when the centre of the Sun is on the Rational
Horizon.
In order to allow for the refraction of 34.5’, when the lower limb (LL) of the
Sun is semi diameter (16’) above the visible horizon, at that time the
centre of the Sun is 32’ above the visible, which indicates the centre of
the Sun is almost on the Rational Horizon.
For this reason Amplitude is taken when the Sun’s LL is semi diameter
above the visible horizon.