SKELETAL SYSTEM

JUST THE FACTS

In this chapter, you will learn:

- Terminology related to the

anatomy of the skeletal system

- Terminology needed for the

examination of the skeletal system

- The important functions of the skeletal

system

Anatomy of the skeleton

The 206 bones of the skeletal system carry out six important anatomic and physiologic
functions:

They protect internal tissues and organs; for example, the 33 vertebrae surround and
protect the spinal cord, brain, and heart.
They stabilize and support the body.
They provide surfaces for muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment.
They move through lever action when contracted.
They produce red blood cells (RBCs) in the bone marrow (a process called
hematopoiesis, from the Greek haima, or blood, and poiesis, meaning making or
forming).
They store mineral salts; for example, approximately 99% of the body’s
calcium.
 Below is a list of key terms, along with the
correct way to pronounce them.

Calcaneus Kal-kay-nee-
uhs Coccyx Kok-siks
Hematopoiesis Hee-muh-toe-poy-ee-
sis Occipital Ok-sip-uh-tuhl
Periosteum Per-ee-os-tee-uhm
Xiphoid process Zeye-foyd Prah-sess

Bones-r-us
The skeleton isdivided into twoparts: the axial (from the Latin axis, meaning
axle or wheel) and appendicular (from the Latin appendare, meaning to add or
append). The axial skeleton forms the body’s vertical axis and contains 74 bones
in the head and torso; it also includes 6 bones of the middle ear, for a total of 80
bones. (See the body’s bones.)
 Anatomically speaking
The body’s bones

Thehumanskeleton contains 206bones; 80 form the axial skeleton and 126 form the
appendicular skeleton. The illustrations below show some of the major bones and bone
groups.
 The appendicular skeleton contains 126 bones and
includes the body’s appendages, or upper and lower
extremities

The axial skeleton

The axial skeleton forms the long axis of the body and
includes bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib
cage. Fontanel, also spelled
fontanelle,derives from
The skull French and means little
The skull contains 28 irregular bones in two major fountain. It can alsorefer
areas: to any membrane-
the brain case, or cranium (from the Greek covered area between
kranion, twobones.
meaning upper part of the head), and the face. Eight
bones form the cranium, 14 bones make up the face, and
the inner ears
ossiculum, contain
meaning 6 ossicles
bone), (from
or 3 small the Latin
bones in each ear. The
jaw bone, or mandible (from the Latin mandibula,
meaning jaw) is the only movable bone in the skull. (See
Bones of the skull.)

Getting it together
Sutures are immobile joints that hold the skull bones
together.
The coronal suture unites the frontal bone and
the two parietal bones. In infants, this suture isn’t closed,
leaving a diamond-shaped area (called the anterior
fontanel), which is covered only by a membrane. This
soft spot closes between ages 10 and 18 months. At the
back of the head of infants, the posterior fontanel closes
by age 2 months.

A real airhead
Sinuses are air-filled spaces within the skull that lessen
the bone weight, moisten incoming air, and act as resonating
chambers for the voice.

Up front
The sinuses, the forehead, and the area directly behind it
are part of the frontal bone. This bone also forms the
orbits (eye sockets) and the front part of the cranial
floor.
Take it from the top
The main part of the skull consists of a number of bones
sutured together:

• The coronal suture connects the frontal bone with the

parietal bones.
• Two parietal bones crown the head, forming the roof
and the upper part of each side of the skull.
• The squamous suture connects the parietal bones
with the temporal bones.
• Temporal bones form the lower part of the sides of
the skull and part of its floor. They contain structures of the middle and inner
ear and the mastoid sinuses.

Anatomically speaking
Bones ofthe skull

The skull is a complex bony structure. It’s formed by two sets

of bones, the cranial bones and the facial bones
 • The lambdoid suture connects the parietal bones to
the occipital bone.
jogger
• The occipital bone forms the rear portion and the
As a way to
base of the skull and forms a movable joint with the remember
first cervical vertebra.
the bones of the
• A large opening at the base of the occipital bone, skull, use your
called head and think
“part of man”:
the foramen magnum (meaning large hole), allows the
spinal cord to pass from the encephalon into the spine. PARietal

Occipital
A bat in the belfry
The sphenoid bone looks like a bat with outstretched Frontal
wings and legs extended to the back. Located in the cranial MAlar
floor, this bone is an anchor for the frontal, parietal,
Nasal.
occipital, and ethmoid bones. It also supports part of the
eye sockets and forms the lateral walls of the skull. The
sphenoid sinuses are large air-filled spaces within the
sphenoid bone.

Facial bones
The bones of the face include: Joints between
• two maxillary bones that form the upper jaw, nose, the vertebrae
orbits, and roof of the mouth as well as the maxillary sinuses allow forward,
backward, and
• the cheekbones, called zygomatic or malar bones, sideways
that attach to chewing muscles movement. Not
all at once,
•two nasal bones that form the upper part of the bridge though!
of the nose (cartilage forms the lower part)
• the mandible that forms the lower jaw
•two lacrymal bones that contain the lacrymal bag
(part of the conduit through which tears drain in the
nasal cannula)
• the vomer that’s part of the nasal septum
•two palatine bones that form the posterior portion of
the hard palate, lateral side of the nasal cavity, and small
part of the orbit.
The spinal column
The flexible spinal column contains 24 vertebrae (plural
of vertebra), the sacrum, and the coccyx. (See Some
thorny words of the spine.)
Joints between the vertebrae allow forward, backward,
and sideways movement. The spinal column supports
the head while suspending the ribs and organs in

Spine comes fromthe Latin word spina, which means

thorn, and is related to spike as well. Latin writers likened
the thorn to the prickly bones in animals and fish and, thus,
the word also be- came the designation for the vertebral
column.

Also from Latin, vertebraderives from a verb meaning to

turn. Therefore, it formerly connoted any joint—not just
those of the spine. A Greek word, spondylos, has thesame
meaning as verte- bra. It shows up in words like
spondylitis, which is an inflammation of thevertebrae.
Sacrum and coccyx bringing up the rear
The sacrum was formerly known as the os sacrum,
literally the holy bone, so called because it was thought to
be a particularly choice bit and so was offered to the gods
in sacrifice. The coc- cyx derives its name from the Greek
word for the cuckoo, kokkyx.The Greek anatomist Galen
thought this triangular bone resembled the shape of the
bird’s bill.
front. It also anchors the pelvic girdle and provides
attachment points for many important muscles. The
spinal column contains:

•seven cervical (neck) vertebrae, which support the

skull and rotate
•twelve thoracic (chest) vertebrae, which attach to the
ribs
•five lumbar (lower back) vertebrae, which support the
small of the back
• the sacrum, a single bone that results from the fusion
of five vertebrae and attaches to the pelvic girdle
•the coccyx, or tailbone, which is located at the bottom
tip of the spinal column and is a single bone formed from
the fusion of four or five vertebrae.
The spinal column is curved to increase its strength
and make balance possible in an upright position. The
vertebrae are cushioned by intervertebral disks
composed
of cartilage.
The33 vertebrae of thespinalcolumn
surround and protect the spinal cord.
They’re divided into fivesections: cervical
vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar
vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx. Yep. I have 33
vertebrae----and
they’re all perfect
specimens, if I do say
so myself
 Sternum
Located in thecenter of thechest, thesternum is a flat, sword-
shapedbonethat’s attached totheclavicles (collar- bones) andtheinnermostpart
ofthefirsttwopairs of ribs.
Caged in
The sternum, ribs, and thoracic vertebrae form a protective enclosure around
the vital organs. Known as the thoracic cage, or thorax, this flexible structure
protects theheartandlungsandallowsthelungstoexpandduring respiration.

Ribs
Theflat, curvedbones attached
tothethoracicportion of thespinalcolumn arecalled
ribs.
Ribs—true or false?
Thetermcostalrefers toribs. Thefirstsevenpairs of
ribs are attached tothesternum by costal cartilage; The ulna and the
they’re called true ribs.Theremainingfivepairs of
radius articulate
ribs are called falseribs becausethey aren’t
attached directly to the sternum. All ribs are with the
independently attached to the spinal column. humerus to form
the elbow joint
Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton includes the upper and
lower extremities.

The upper extremities

The clavicles, or collarbones, are twoflat bones at-
tachedtothesternum ontheiranteriorsideandtothe
scapulae(shoulderblades)laterally.Thisformsthe
sternoclavicular joint.
The scapulae are a pair of large, triangular bones
that arelocated at theback of thethorax.
Thesebones, plus
the clavicles, form the shoulder girdles.
Armed and dangerous
The humerus, or upper armbone, is alongbone with
a shaft and twobulbousends. Thetwolongbones of
the lower armaretheulna,located on thelittlefinger
side of
thehumerus,andtheradius,onthethumbside.
These
 Anatomically speaking

Bones of the hand

A view of the right hand, illustrating the positions of the

carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.

bones articulate with the humerus to form the elbow

joint. The wrists are composed of eight small, irregular
carpal bones aligned in two rows. Ligaments bind the
carpals together.
A handful of terms
Thebones of the handare comprised of
metacarpal bones and phalanges. (See Bones of
the hand.)
The way thesebones come together enables
• move-
Five smalllong metacarpal bones attach to the
mentof thehand
andform
carpals the palm of the hand. Phalanges is the plural
Phalanges, or fingerbones,are miniaturelong bones. of theGreek word
Each fingerhas threephalanges, whilethe thumb has pha- lange, or
two. phalanx. The latter
• Thethumb metacarpal has afreely termwas applied to
Greek and Roman
movablejoint,allow- inga widerange
ofmovementbetweenthethumbmeta- carpal and the noted for their closely
trapezium, the carpal at the base of the joinedandunified
thumb.
Lower extremities ma- neuvers.
Thelowerextremities containbones of
It says here that
thehip,thigh,leg, ankle, and foot.
the word patella,
for kneecap, is a
Girdle words Latin word that
Three pairs of bones fuseduringchildhood to form the means a small, flat
pelvic girdle, the broadest bone in the body. This bone dish—just what
supports the trunk, protects the abdominal organs within the kneecap looks
its basin,andattaches thelowerextremities to thebody. like
The three pairs of fusedbones include the ilium, which
is thelargest anduppermostof thethree; theischium,
the lower and strongest set of bones; and the pubis, a
pair of anterior bones that meet at thesymphysis
pubis—a car - tilaginous joint.
Give ’em a leg up

The two femurs, or upper leg bones, are the longest

and heaviest bones in thebody. They connect at the
proximal endwith thehip,articulating with
theacetabulum, or hipsocket. Thefemurs connect
with the tibia at the dis- tal end. Thekneecap, or
patella, is asmall,flat bone that protects the kneejoint
andoverlaps thedistalend of the
femurandtheproximalend of thetibia.

Below the knee

The tibia, sometimes called the shinbone, is the
largest andstrongestof thelowerlegbones.
Itarticulates with thefemurat
 the talus at the distal end. The fibula connects with the
tibia at its proximal and distal ends. The fibula’s distal
end also articulates with the talus. The articulation of the
fibula, tibia, and talus bones creates the bony prominence
on the outside of the ankle, called the lateral malleolus.
Now, fleetly, to the foot
The foot bones form a strong, stable arch with lengthwise
and crosswise support. Strong ligaments and tendons of
the leg muscles help the foot bones maintain their arched
position:
• Seven short tarsal bones structurally resemble the
wrist, and they articulate with the tibia and fibula:
– The talus bone (astragalus) forms part of the
ankle
joint.
– The heel, called the calcaneus, is the largest tarsal
bone.
– The scaphoid bone is also called the navicular
because
of its boat shape.
– The cuneiforms (the lateral, intermediate, and medial)
are three wedge-shaped bones that form the arch of
the foot.
– The cuboid bone articulates in the front with the
metatarsal bones.
• Five metatarsal bones form the foot and
articulate
with the tarsal bone and the phalanges. Words will
• The fourteen phalanges (toes) are similar to fingers, never hurt
with three bones in each toe except the great toe, which, me. But let’s
Anatomy of bones
like the thumb, contains only two bones. keep sticks
out of it!
Bones are classified according to their shape:
• Long bones are the main bones of the limbs, except
the patella, and those of the wrists and ankles.
• Short bones are the bones of the wrists and ankles.
• Flat bones include the sternum, scapulae, and cranium,
among others.
• Irregular bones include the vertebrae and hip bones.
Boning up on bone material
All bones consist of two types of bone material: an outer
layer of dense, smooth compact bone and an inner layer
 of spongy, cancellous (porous) bone. Compact bone is
found especially in the shaft of long bones and in the outer
layers of short, flat, and irregular bones. Cancellous
bone fills the central regions of the epiphysis (the end of
a long bone where bone formation takes place) and the
inner portions of short, flat, and irregular bones.

Osteon,Greek forbone,provides a key word-formingrootfor medical termsrelating tobones, oste- or osteo-. Osteoblast is
a com- pound of osteo- and -blast; thelatter is another common medical rootderivedfrom a Greek word thatmeans a
bud or a shoot of a developing organism. An osteoblast is thus a cellthat buds forth new bone tissue. The Greek word clast,
on the other hand, means to break or fragment. Therefore, an osteoclast is a cellthat breaks down bone.

The Romans had a name for it

Another very common rootfor formingwords is the Latin word os, or oss-, alsomeaningbone. Thisroot is contained in
words like

ossify, meaning to change or to become bone, and ossification, the process of becoming bone.

As osteoblasts addnewtissue to theoutside of a bone,large

phagocytic cells called osteoclasts eat away bonytissuein
themedullarycavity to keep thebonefrom
becomingtoothick.Ahealthyboneisconstantly broken
down,resorbed,andrepairedlongafteritstopsgrowing in size.
Duringadulthood,boneformation (or ossifica- tion) and bone
resorption balance one another so that eachboneremainsaconstant
size.Duringchildhoodand adolescence, ossification is faster than
resorption and bonesgrowlarger.

Cartilage
Bones andjointsneedsupportas wellas shock absorp-
tion.Cartilageis adenseconnectivetissuethathas
thesecapabilities.It consistsof fibersembedded ina
strong, gel-like substance. Unlike rigid bone, cartilage
has the flexibility of firm plastic.

Cartilagesupports andshapesvarious structures, such

asthe auditory canaland the intervertebraldisks.
It alsocushionsandabsorbs
shock.Cartilagehasnoblood
or nerve supply.
Types of cartilage
Cartilage may be fibrous, hyaline, or elastic:

• Fibrouscartilage forms at themeniscus and the

inter- vertebraldisks.
• Hyaline cartilage covers articular bone surfaces
(where one or morebones meet at ajoint),
connects the ribs and sternum, andappears in the
trachea, bronchi, andnasalseptum.
•Elastic cartilage is located in the auditory canal,
ex- ternalear, andepiglottis.

Bone movement
Bones are rigid structures that can’t bend without being
damaged, so individual bones move at joint sites, or
Articulations. Every bone in the body except the hyoid
bone, which anchors the tongue, is connected to another
bone by flexible connective tissue.
How does it move?
Classifying joints
Joints canbeclassified by thetypeof movement they al- lowand by
their structure.
Thethreeclasses ofjointsidentifiedby therange of movement they allow
are:
• synarthrosis—immovable
• diarthrosis—freely
amphiarthrosis—slightly
movable.
movable Our joints are
jumpin’! It must
What is it made of?
be that
Bystructure,ajointmaybeclassifiedasfibrous,carti-
laginous, orsynovial. Infibrous joints, thearticularsur- diarthrosis
faces of the two bones are bound closely by fibrous
con- nective tissue and little movement is possible. The
cranial suturesareexamplesoffibrousjoints.
In cartilaginous joints, cartilage connects one
bone to another; thesejoints allow slight movement. An
example is the symphysis pubis (the junction of the
pelvicbones).
Body surfaces in the synovial joints are covered
by articularcartilageandjoined by ligaments(dense,
strong,flexiblebandsoffibrousconnectivetissuethat
bindbonesto otherbones)linedwithsynovialmem-
brane. Freely movable, synovial joints include most
joints of thearms andlegs.Synovialjointsalsoinclude
an ar- ticularcapsule—a saclikeenvelope, whose
outer layer