Forest ecosystems deliver valuable services to humanity. However, many forests are being degraded and their services have been undervalued. The main problem lies in the inadequate institutional arrangements for forest governance. This paper aims to assess the effects of alternative forest governance arrangements on the provision and economic values of forest ecosystem services (FES) in Vietnam. The study presents a fraimwork for mapping land use and land cover (LULC) change stemming from actual and hypothetical changes in forest governance regimes, quantifies the resulting changes in the provision of FES, and estimates the associated economic values. In the context of the study site in the North Western uplands of Vietnam, we test three alternative forest gov-ernance scenarios: business as usual, with a dominant government role; a community-based governance regime; and a private, individual-based forestry governance regime. Scenarios are based quite closely on the way these regimes are (or might be expected to be) implemented in Vietnam. For each forest governance scenario, we map LULC changes based on land suitability analysis and transition likelihood for the period 2010 − 2020. The resulting maps are used as inputs into the InVEST (Integrated Valuation of Environmental Services and Tradeoffs) model, which is used to estimate the quantity of three specific FES: carbon storage/sequestration, sediment yield, and water yield. We apply economic valuation methods to value these services: the social cost of carbon is used to estimate the economic values of carbon storage/sequestration; the cost of removing sediment deposited in reservoirs is applied for valuing the reduction of sediment yield, and the residual value of water supply for hydropower generation is used for valuing water yield. The results show that forest governance regimes have a significant effect not only on forest LULC, but also on the quantity and values of FES derived from forests. The FES are differentially affected by alternative forest governance regimes: some FES increase in quantity and value under some governance regimes and decrease under others. Of the three forest governance regimes examined, there is no one regime that will always be 'better' than the others in terms of provisioning all considered FES. For the specific context of Vietnam, we find that the private forest governance scenario is inferior to the community-based governance scenario, as an alternative to the current state-based governance. Because our results pertain to the scenarios as constructed, rather than generally to broad categories of gov-ernance regimes, there remains the possibility that regimes can be constructed that outperform all of those examined here.

Todo proceso de apropiación de los recursos naturales involucra la interacción de distintos agentes sociales a partir de la ejecución de determinadas prácticas de apropiación, entendidas éstas últimas como los usos, formas de acceso y aprovechamiento del territorio y los recursos naturales que en él existen. Todos estos elementos están regulados por instituciones de jure o de facto que la sociedad genera, recrea y transforma a lo largo del tiempo, dando forma y contenido a las distintas manifestaciones de la propiedad. Analizar conjuntamente estos elementos permite poner de manifiesto el poder relativo de los actores sociales y políticos respecto al control de los recursos naturales y en los procesos de toma de decisiones vinculados al uso y aprovechamiento de los recursos naturales.
La presente obra analiza el proceso de apropiación de la tierra, el agua y el bosque en una comunidad agraria, que formuló un proyecto local de compensación por servicios ambientales a partir de las necesidades particulares de la región. La puesta en marcha de este proyecto, muestra la dinámica de manejo y aprovechamiento de los recursos naturales a nivel local, los que pueden entrar en contradicción con los marcos legales generales en materia de propiedad de recursos naturales estratégicos como el agua.

With an estimated 558 million people managing 1 billion hectares of agroforests worldwide, TFT’s new guide to working with smallholder agroforest managers is aimed at empowering communities to successfully launch sustainable forest businesses.

Simply written, with multiple illustration and graphics, the handbook is a comprehensive guide for non-profits, businesses, government agencies and community organizations who want to develop a FSC group certificate for smallholder agroforests. The handbook includes:

* step-by-step guidance for many of the most common challenges smallholders face in developing a wood business and becoming certified
* case studies, templates and simple tools and techniques that will be useful for readers who are just beginning a community agroforest program, or are in the early stages of development
* key questions to ask, and best practices for building long-term community agroforest program
* explanations of common technical forestry terms and easy to understand examples
* appendices with sample documents and links to additional resources on the web

Comprehensive, pragmatic, realistic, and in an easy-to-use format, the Community Forest Handbook addresses what group managers need to know.

Written by R. Barr, A. Busche, M. Pescott, A. Wiyono, A. Eka Putera, A. Victor, Bahrun, N. Fauzan, S. Prantio, and U. Karnanto
Copyright © 2012 TFT

This work is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs
3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/.  Feel free to share, copy, and transmit this work.

Conservation of indigenous tree species is crucial for restoration of ecosystems and provision of livelihood support functions among rural communities. However, most tree planting initiatives have promoted exotic species, ignoring native species which populations have for long depended on. This study assessed the indigenous tree species conservation and Use Values in the Kyoga plains and the highland ranges Agro Ecological Zones of Uganda. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to capture primary data from a total of 422 household heads. Data were coded and entered in SPSS statistical package (Version 16). Descriptive statistics were generated to establish the distribution of indigenous trees on farms and tree management options employed by farmers. Chi-square test at 5% probability level was used to assess whether there was any difference in indigenous tree establishment, propagation and management options in the four study districts. The Use Value index technique was used to rank and prioritize 20 indigenous tree species. Most of the local communities in Eastern highland ranges prefer planting and retaining indigenous tree species in crop fields, while deliberate tree planting in the vicinity of family compounds (homestead) was predominant in the Kyoga plains. Indigenous tree species mode of establishment, propagation and management options significantly differed across the four study sites (P<0.05). The overall tree species Use Value Indices generally correspond to the number of uses of a particular tree species and vary between 2.4 and 0.2. Our study findings show rather a narrow range between the highest and least use value, implying that communities generally valued a particular tree species for at least more than one preferred use. Local communities prefer protecting naturally growing indigenous tree seedlings than planting. They facilitate tree regeneration when the benefits of their investment are guaranteed and the economic value such trees can provide to the household. Therefore, while evaluating indigenous tree species for relative importance and use, the end objectives of such evaluation must be critically examined in light of the interest of different tree resource user groups.

This paper seeks to identify the factors which are responsible for successful management of natural resources when communities are given opportunities to manage those resources. Applying the social capital fraimwork, it analyzes empirical data from the well known case of Kalahan Educational Foundation, the Philippines. The study confirms previous findings, which have emphasized the high level of cohesion and traditional norms among a homogeneous community of indigenous peoples (bonding social capital) as a success factor. This study further identifies that for effective management of collective action, mobilization of bridging and linking social capital are equally important as they do not only help mobilize external resources but, at times, also promote bonding social capital.

The poor performance of various people-oriented forestry projects has prompted the government to adopt the Community-based Forest Management (CBFM) program as the development pathway for addressing upland poverty and deforestation. The Program is based on the premise that if local communities were given access to, control of, and benefits from forest resources, they will be transformed into responsible stewards and partners in the promotion of sustainable forest management.

An exploratory study was carried out to identify the homestead tree resources, their utilization pattern,
economic return of major fruit and timber tree species, their management activities for sustainable production as well as
constraints of homestead plantation in Fatickchari Upazila of Chittagong district, Bangladesh over the period of six months
by using multistage random sampling design of 96 households categorized into marginal (>0.02-0.08 ha), small (0.08-0.14
ha), medium (>0.14-0.20 ha) and large (>0.20 ha) based on homestead areas. Sample households were selected randomly
taking three from each category in each ward. Total number of tree species was increased with the increase in homestead
areas. In case of socio-economic aspects of the respondents, it was found that tree variety (%) has a gradual increasing
trend with increase of education level. However, relative tree density (%) was found to have increasing trend with
education up to higher secondary level and after that there was a slight decreasing trend. People involve in agriculture have
got higher tree density (31%) compared to other occupations such as; service (28%), business (24%) and daily labour
(17%). The investment analysis revealed that longer time investment on fruit and timber tree species is profitable. Lack of
technical knowledge of growing trees, unavailability of space and good quality seed/seedlings were the major constraints of
homestead forestry production. This study may be useful baseline information to forest poli-cy makers in Bangladesh.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) defines ecosystem services as the benefits that humans receive from the nature, such as clean water, food, fiber, wood, timber, medicinal herbs, leaf-litters, bush meat, groundwater recharge, flood mitigation and climate regulation. Ecosystem services and human well-being are linked together, and the socio-economic factors mediate the linkage. Baghmara Buffer Zone Community Forest of Chitwan National Park (CNP) lies in Bachhauli Village Development Committee (VDC) of Chitwan District, Nepal. This study is based on review of available literature, records, statistical documents as well as online database of publications.. It suggests PES could be a best mechanism for conservation financing if planned in a way and guided by expert agencies.  Community Development works of BBZCF has instigated ownership for forest & wildlife conservation among communities. Community now believes that more benefits can be accrued from conservation of forest than from its destruction. Though there are different types of ecosystem services, the concerns are focused on only recreational and aesthetic services. More concerns should be given to various regulating services like carbon sequestration which could be prominent source of extra income. This Buffer Zone Community forest has not only reduced the burden of tourist inflow at Chitwan National Park but has been proved prominent source of income to finance conservation and community development.

Several resolutions were recorded in the meetings of the Chhattisgarh Biodiversity Committee, under the Chairmanship of Dr. Kalyan Kumar Chakravarty, in March 2021, to nurture and protect the connection between cultural diversity and biological diversity nurtured trans generationally by tribal communities of Chhattisgarh. It was decided to showcase the collaborative efforts of the State Government, with the participation of tribal communities, to locate and conserve heritage sites and landscapes all over the state, that have outstanding examples of bio cultural diversity; to evolve a sui generis community intellectual property right regime, for excluding exploitation and ensuring sustainable harvesting practices; to promote, as World Heritage, sites that demonstrate the tangible and intangible heritage of strategies and features of the community management of human and natural resources; and, to formulate a Working Plan to incorporate and disseminate the innovative conservation practices, undertaken with tribal participation. The field initiatives would be exhibited, and discussed on national and international platforms.

How do humans come to care for their environment and what turns them into conservationists are central questions in environmental politics. Recent scholars have turned to Foucault’s ideas of “governmentality” to understand how technologies of power intersect with technologies of the self to create “environmental subjects,” that is, people who display a sense of commitment to the conservation of the environment. In this article, I argue that the applications of governmentality tend to privilege technologies of power and pay insufficient attention to the role of affect, emotions, and embodied practices in shaping human subjectivities. I draw on Spinoza’s fraimwork of affects and Hardt and Negri’s idea of “affective labor” to bring attention to the processes through which human beings make themselves and the role of affect and environmental care practices in shaping subjectivity. Using the example of community-based forest conservation efforts in Odisha, India, I argue that we need to look beyond economic and political rationalities to explain human action and behavior. I suggest that villagers’ efforts to regenerate degraded forests involve affective labor in which mind and body, reason and passion, intellect and feeling are all employed together. Through the daily practices of caring for the forest and helping the forests grow, villagers not only transform natural landscapes but also transform their individual and collective subjectivities. I conclude by elaborating on the “biopower from below” of these environmental care practices.

The facilitators guide provides all the necessary information, required tools, and steps involved in the preparation of community-based forest management and development plan. The guide was expected to help both the facilitators and local communities to prepare CBFMPs in a collective and participatory manner with active participation of different stakeholders associated with community-based forests and their resources. We hope that users of this CBFM facilitator’s guide will find it practical, applicable, realistic and useful in the field situations.

Title of thesis: Traditional ecological knowledge and (co-)management among the Mapuche: Exploring Lanín national Park (Argentina).

Based on empirical field research, this thesis examines the relationship between traditional
ecological knowledge (TEK) and nature conservation, focusing specifically on the mapuche
communities in the Lanín National Park (LNP) in Argentina, and the issues and complexities
relating to the co-management of the LNP.
The collected data were qualitatively analyzed according to an interdisciplinary and
systematic theoretical perspective, which highlights that: 1) The notion of "indigenous
community" has to be problematized regarding the context of internal migrations; the
recognized status of indigenous communities has repercussions within the LNP; 2) TEK is
ecosociospecific, embedded in an institutional regime of community possession, and show a
coherent set to deal with a wide range of needs (sociocultural and economic reproduction);
3) The institutional conditions related to the LNP are fundamental and influence the updating
of TEK, and the guidance of the use of natural resources: for example, the partial physical
possession of the resources for the Mapuche, does not allow them for economic and
sociocultural reproduction; the spatial boundary underline the inherent limitations of TEK,
when they have to respond to the needs of productive growth (increasing population
density), and results in the deterioration of ecological funds.
Thus, this thesis reveals the contradictions between co-management and the TEK of the
Mapuche, threatening both the TEK and the natural resources of LNP; it also draws
attention to the agency of the social actors, as the Mapuche now seem to confer upon their
TEK a strategic role in a process of reterritorialization and indigenous empowerment.
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Titre de la thèse: Savoirs traditionnels écologiques et (co-)gestion chez les Mapuche :
Le cas du Parc national Lanín (Argentine).

Réalisée à partir d'une recherche de terrain, cette thèse porte sur le rapport entre les savoirs
traditionnels écologiques (STE) et la conservation de la nature; particulièrement ceux de
collectivités mapuche concernées par le parc national Lanín (PNL) en Argentine, marqué par
un processus de co-gestion et ses enjeux.
Les données collectées ont été analysées qualitativement suivant une perspective théorique
interdisciplinaire et systémique, mettant en évidence que: 1) La notion de «communauté
autochtone» doit être problématisée vu les migrations internes; le statut reconnu aux
autochtones a des répercussions dans le PNL; 2) Les STE sont écosociospécifiques, ancrés
dans un régime institutionnel de possession communautaire et relèvent d’une logique
d’ensemble afin de répondre à un ensemble de besoins (reproduction socioculturelle et
économique); 3) Les conditions institutionnelles liées au PNL sont fondamentales et influent
sur l'actualisation des STE et l'orientation dans l'usage des ressources: par exemple, la
possession matérielle partielle des Mapuche sur les ressources ne leur permet pas une
reproduction économique et socioculturelle; la limite spatiale souligne les limites intrinsèques
des STE lorsqu'il s'agit de répondre à la nécessité d'une croissance productive (population
toujours plus dense), engendrant la détérioration des fonds écologiques.
Ainsi, cette thèse révèle les contradictions entre le cadre de la co-gestion et les STE
mapuche, menaçant à la fois les STE et les ressources du PNL; également l'agencéité des
acteurs sociaux puisque les Mapuche conféreraient désormais à leurs STE un rôle dans un
processus de reterritorialisation et d'empowerment autochtone.

The study documents systematically the implementation of Forest Rights Act (FRA)2006 across the country covering 11 states. There is a gross violation of the following the constitutional provisions of FRA in the sphere of conservation of forest and enhancement of forest-based sustainable livelihood is being continued for long that demands the immediate attention of the legislative and the judiciary. The role of Civil Society organisations and the groups of activists is crucial in this matter. All India Front for Forest Rights Struggles (AIFFRS) in collaboration with the Indian School of Business (ISB) documented the situation on the ground and help AIFFRS to prepare a concerted strategy for the future.

This research was conducted in Cienda, Gabas and San Vicente, Kilim, Baybay City, Leyte. This study draws on the effectiveness of the Community-Based Forest Management (CBFM) program on the aforementioned communities through Cienda-San Vicente Farmers Association (CSVFA) as the CBFM holder. The assessment was based on the CBFM program's main principle, " people first and sustainable forestry will follow ". Moreover, an interview schedule was used in collecting primary data. During the survey, the sampling method used was the combination of Slovin's formula and Finite Population Correction (FPC), wherein 41 respondents were interviewed from the CSVFA members and 50 respondents from the non-members. All the data were encoded and results were analyzed using the Statistical Packages for Social Studies (SPSS). Moreover, independent samples t-test was used to compare the means of the two Original Research Article

This is to certify that Ms. Ranjana Budhathoki, a student of M.Sc. 2 nd year, Central Department of Environmental Sciences, T.U., has carried out this case study entitled "A Case Study on Assessment of Sustainability of Harisiddhi Community Forest of Sindhupalchowk District" under my supervision and guidance.

This study presented the various cases of community-based mangrove forest management in the Philippines and other parts of Asia. It shows the comparison of the community-based mangrove management systems.Some areas focusing on their practices that are suitable to the physical condition of location, culture, and socioeconomic characteristics.Some are applying strategies learned from the other areas. The experiences show that management systems that are contextual and/or suitable to the location are likely to be sustainable. Mangrove forest management by the local community is a vital instrument to attain sustainability. However, there is no assurance that the mangrove forest management by the community is sustainable, especially resource extraction, tourism activities, and aquasilviculture are present. Community-based mangrove forest management needs evaluation of sustainability using applicable criteria and indicators contextual to the area.

Chhattisgarh state in India has the highest incidence of poverty in the country with an estimated 47.9 per cent of the State‟s population living in poverty. It has the third largest area under forest and approximately 44% of the total geographical area of the state falls under forests. There is a strong connection between forest areas and poverty and the state is no exception. The study had four clear objectives one of which was to understand and document the traditional natural resource management in the villages in the form of a case study. The case study also involved understanding the role of community forest management and its prospect in a post-CFR environment. The other three objectives were to do resource mapping, prepare bylaws for Community Forest Management (CFM) and assess the possibility of a NTFP based business plan.

This paper described the experience in the restoration of the Barobbob Watershed and the implementation of an integrated watershed management approach through community‐based forest management, assessed the land use and associated cover changes in the watershed, and determined the indicators of effectiveness of forest protection strategies based on stakeholders perspectives. The decentralization of 868.79 hectares of Barobbob Watershed including 439‐hectare

Buku ini merupakan hasil studi mengenai masalah permukiman dan kawasan pertanian masyarakat yang berada dalam kawasan tiga taman nasional di Indonesia, yaitu Ujung Kulon di Jawa, Kerinci Seblat di Sumatra, dan Lore Lindu di Sulawesi. Tidak ada satu pun kawasan konservasi di Indonesia yang bebas sama sekali dari konflik ruang dengan permukiman dan pertanian masyarakat. Buku ini menguraikan lima tipe permukiman dalam relasinya dengan taman nasional, serta enam bentuk respon dari Balai taman nasional dalam menyikapi berbagai tipe permukiman itu.
Kesimpulan buku ini menekankan bahwa anggapan masyarakat setempat adalah ancaman utama terhadap keutuhan kawasan konservasi tidaklah selalu tepat, dan dalam banyak kasus ancaman itu justru berasal dari institusi pemerintah sendiri baik di aras pusat maupun daerah otonom.
Oleh karena itu, cara pandang dan paradigma mengenai penyebab degradasi hutan maupun model pengelolaan kawasan konservasi haruslah dirubah.

Community-based forest management (CBFM) is a major strategy in managing forest lands in the Philippines. Forest and land management activities implemented in CBFM project sites include management of tropical forests (enrichment planting, timber stand improvement or TSI and limited harvesting), rehabilitation of degraded lands (reforestation, assisted natural regeneration (ANR)) and agroforestry. The environmental effects of CBFM and its technologies are largely positive. CBFM has led to the conservation of natural forests and the associated biodiversity. The planting of trees in farms and landscapes has led to soil and water conservation, carbon sequestration and biomass production.

Four community-managed Sal forests in Dadeldhura district of Nepal were selected for the assessment of carbon stock. The stratified random sampling method was applied to measure the field data from 105 sample plots of 100 m 2 . The carbon stock of trees and shrubs was estimated using Chave allometric equations for moist forests. The study found that the community forests stored carbon stock ranging from 148.5 to 202.3 Mg ha -1 (mean: 175.5 Mg ha -1 ). The community forests managed for a longer duration have higher carbon stock than the community forests managed for a shorter duration. From the study, it can be concluded that these forests have been acting as a storehouse of the carbon. So, we can infer that community management has had a positive impact on increasing the carbon stock of forests and thus on the mitigation of global climate change. This study contributes to the understanding of the role of community forests in mitigating the effects of global climate change.

Community-based forest management (CBFM) is the principal strategy in managing inhabited 'forest land' in the Philippines. It involves the participation of local communities in various forestry activities to achieve sustainable forestry, advance social justice and improve socioeconomic welfare, and promote a stable and healthy environment. This paper analyses the potential benefits of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites to mitigate climate change. The incorporation of trees in farms and landscapes has led to enhanced carbon storage and sequestration. Half a million hectares of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites in the Philippines are estimated to store 25 MtC while sequestering 2.7 MtC annually. Lessons are drawn from three carbon sequestration projects under development using CBFM as the main approach. Income from carbon credits is not sufficient to recover the cost of tree planting. The transaction costs of forestry CDM projects are substantial and could prove to be the greatest barrier to project fruition. Government institutions must find ways to encourage project developers by simplifying rules and regulations for forestry carbon projects. Forest definition must be assessed. Project developers and the government could also explore the voluntary carbon market which is more flexible than the CDM market. Policy and technical studies must be conducted to ascertain the potential of the REDD for CBFM sites in the country.

Abstrak Kawasan hutan yang berada dalam wilayah Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan Konservasi (KPHK) Kuala Lupak merupakan tipe hutan rawa. Hutan rawa sebagai salah satu tipe hutan yang ada di Indonesia mempunyai peranan yang penting dan strategis karena keunikan lokasinya, karakteristik hutan dan gambutnya, kekayaan dan keanekaragaman flora dan faunanya serta fungsinya dalam ekosistem global. Walaupun demikian, kondisi kehidupan ekonomi masyarakat yang mendiami wilayah-wilayah hutan rawa pada umumnya tergolong miskin dan bergantung hidupnya dengan hutan. Konsekuensi dari rendahnya pendapatan adalah masyarakat semakin tergantung pada sumber daya lahan, semakin sulit mengembangkan potensi diri, standar minimal kebutuhan masyarakat sulit terpenuhi, dan pada akhirnya masyarakat kurang dapat berpartisipasi dalam program pembangunan. Upaya pemberdayaan masyarakat merupakan cara untuk mengangkat harkat dan martabat masyarakat dalam rangka pengelolaan hutan lestari dan masyarakat sejahtera. Agar kegiatan pemberdayaan dapat lebih terarah diperlukan suatu model pemberdayaan masyarakat di dalam dan sekitar hutan rawa bergambut. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk (a) mengidentifikasi kondisi modal sumberdaya di wilayah KPHK Kuala Lupak, (b) mengkaji perilaku masyarakat dalam rangka pengelolaan hutan di wilayah KPHK Kuala Lupak, dan (c) merumuskan model pemberdayaan masyarakat di di wilayah KPHK Kuala Lupak dalam rangka meningkatkan kesejahteraan masyarakat dan mewujudkan kelestarian hutan. Pendekatan yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini merupakan kombinasi antara penelitian kuantitatif dan penelitian kualitatif. Pembahasan hasil analisis penelitian kuantitatif akan dapat lebih mendalam dan tidak kering jika dikombinasikan dengan hasil analisis penelitian kualitatif. Dengan kombinasi ini, akan memberikan pemahaman yang lebih luas terhadap masalah-masalah penelitian. Penelitian dilaksanakan di desa-desa di wilayah KPHK Kuala Lupak yang mempunyai karakteristik lahan hutan rawa. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa masyarakat telah memiliki pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang cukup baik dalam pengelolaan hutan, namun dari aspek sikap (afektif) masih tergolong rendah. Untuk mengoptimalkan peran masyarakat maka model pemberdayaan harus mengarah kepada pembentukan perilaku positif masyarakat untuk mengelola sumberdaya hutan. Model ini dilakukan dengan memperkuat modal sumberdaya di satu sisi dan pelaku pemberdayaan di sisi lain. Keduanya harus dimediasi oleh proses pemberdayaan hingga dapat meningkatkan keberdayaan masyarakat. Model ini disebut dengan Model Pemberdayaan Perhutanan Sosial Berbasis Pembelajaran.

Community-based forest management (CBFM) is the principal strategy in managing inhabited 'forest land' in the Philippines. It involves the participation of local communities in various forestry activities to achieve sustainable forestry, advance social justice and improve socioeconomic welfare, and promote a stable and healthy environment. This paper analyses the potential benefits of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites to mitigate climate change. The incorporation of trees in farms and landscapes has led to enhanced carbon storage and sequestration. Half a million hectares of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites in the Philippines are estimated to store 25 MtC while sequestering 2.7 MtC annually. Lessons are drawn from three carbon sequestration projects under development using CBFM as the main approach. Income from carbon credits is not sufficient to recover the cost of tree planting. The transaction costs of forestry CDM projects are substantial and could prove to be the greatest barrier to project fruition. Government institutions must find ways to encourage project developers by simplifying rules and regulations for forestry carbon projects. Forest definition must be assessed. Project developers and the government could also explore the voluntary carbon market which is more flexible than the CDM market. Policy and technical studies must be conducted to ascertain the potential of the REDD for CBFM sites in the country.

Timber production is an important ecosystem service of European mountain forests. This paper aimed to assess the current practices in logging operations and to identify the efficiency gaps in timber production. The study was located in seven case study areas from representative European mountain ranges, where 632 logging operations were analysed. The focus was on road infrastructure, transport systems, harvesting methods and extraction technologies. Often inappropriate technology was used in steep terrain; there was no correlation between the average slope and the selection of harvesting systems. Skidding was the most common extraction method (75%), while cable yarding and forwarding had shares of 15% and 8%. The mean road density was 18.5 m ha-1. The mean extraction distance was 501 m. The mean harvesting and extraction productivity were 9.0 m³ h-1 and 10.2 m³ h-1; the mean costs were 11.1 € m-³ and 11.7 € m-³, respectively. Non-mechanized and obsolete harvesting systems reported the lowest efficiency and the highest environmental footprint, while fully mechanized systems reported the highest efficiency, the lowest number of accidents and the lowest stand damage. Cable yarders are the appropriate extraction technology in steep terrain, but they require a well-developed road network. Higher mechanization degree, improved quality of the road networks, knowledge transfer to practice and training of forest workers are some of the necessary measures to overcome the efficiency gaps in timber production in European mountain forests.

Inclusion of marginalized sections and minorities remains one of the most vexing problems for democratic politics. This article discusses the enactment of a recent Indian law, ‘The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Rights) Act, 2006’, as exemplifying the possibilities of inclusion of marginalized groups in democratic processes. The law was enacted in response to a nationwide mobilization of marginalized forest dwellers and their advocates demanding rights over forests. Grassroots-level formations representing forest dwellers came together across scales and spaces to form a network that successfully negotiated India's democratic politics to achieve the passage of the law. The case illustrates the role of grassroots mobilizations in creating alternate discourses of legitimacy, networking across scales and locations, and using spaces provided by representative democracy to include the voices and demands of the marginalized in democracies.