Adal Sultanate

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For other uses, see Adal.
Sultanate of Adal
1415�1577
Flag of Adal
The combined three banners used by Ahmad al-Ghazi's forces
Approximate extension of the Adal Sultanate.
Approximate extension of the Adal Sultanate.
Capital
Zeila(original capital, as Emirate under Ifat Sultanate from 1415�1420)
Dakkar(new capital, as Sultanate from 1420�1520) Harar(1520�1577) Aussa(1577-1577

Common languages Somali, Harari, Afar and Arabic

Religion Islam
Government Kingdom
Sultan, Imam, Emir
Historical era Middle Ages
� Established
1415
� War against Yeshaq I
1415�1429
� Capital moved to Dakkar
1433
� Succession Crisis
1518�1526
� Capital moved to Harar
1520
� Abyssinian�Adal war
1529�1543
� Disestablished
1577
Preceded by Succeeded by
Ifat Sultanate
Ottoman Empire
Sultanate of Harar
Today part of Horn of Africa
The Adal Sultanate, or Kingdom of Adal (alt. spelling Adel Sultanate), was a Muslim
Somali kingdom and sultanate located in the Horn of Africa. It was founded by Sabr
ad-Din II after the fall of the Sultanate of Ifat. The kingdom flourished from
around 1415 to 1577.[1] The sultanate and state were established by the local
inhabitants of Zeila.[2][3][4] At its height, the polity controlled most of the
territory in the Horn region immediately east of the Ethiopian Empire (Abyssinia).
The Adal Empire maintained a robust commercial and political relationship with the
Ottoman Empire.[5]

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Kingdom established
2.1.1 Islamic influence
2.2 Rise of the sultanate
3 Sultans of Adal
4 Ethnicity
5 Languages
6 Economy
7 Military
8 Abyssinian�Adal conflict
9 Collapse of the sultanate
10 Oromo expansion
11 Legacy
12 See also
13 Notes
Etymology
Adal is believed to be an abbreviation of Havilah.[6]

Eidal or Aw Abdal, was the Emir of Harar in the eleventh century.[7] In the
thirteenth century, Arab writer Al Dimashqi refers to the Adal Sultanate's capital,
Zeila,[8] by its Somali name "Awdal" (Somali: "Awdal").[9] The modern Awdal region,
which was part of the Adal Sultanate, bears the kingdom's name.

History
Kingdom established
The Kingdom of Adal (also Awdal, Adl, or Adel)[10] was centered around Zeila, its
capital.[11][12][13] It was established by the local Somali tribes in the early 9th
century. Zeila attracted merchants from around the world, contributing to the
wealth of the city. Zeila is an ancient city and it was one of the earliest cities
in the world to embrace Islam.[14][10][15]

In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi, an Armenian Muslim scholar and traveller, wrote
that the Kingdom of Adal was a small wealthy kingdom and that Zeila served as the
headquarters for the kingdom, which dated back to the beginning of the century.[16]
[17]

Islamic influence
Islam was introduced to the Horn region early on from the Arabian peninsula,
shortly after the hijra. Zeila's two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to about the
7th century, and is the oldest mosque in Africa.[18] In the late 9th century, Al-
Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard.[16][17]
The polity was governed by local Somali dynasties established by the Adelites.[19]
Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a
succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia.[17]

Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn was born in Zeila during the Adal Kingdom period. Al-
Kawneyn is a Somali Muslim saint.[20] He is believed to be the founder and ancestor
of the royal family known as the Walashma Dynasty, which later governed both the
Ifat Sultanate and the Adal Sultanate during the Middle Ages.[20][21]

Rise of the sultanate

Ruins of the Adal Sultanate in Zeila, Awdal

According to the 16th-century explorer Leo Africanus, the Adal Sultanate's realm
encompassed the geographical area between the Bab el Mandeb and Cape Guardafui. It
was therefore flanked to the south by the Ajuran Empire (Kingdom of Ajuuran) and to
the west by the Abyssinian Empire (Abassin Empire).[19][22]

Adal is mentioned by name in the 14th century in the context of the battles between
the Muslims of the Somali and Afar seaboard and the Abyssinian King Amda Seyon I's
Christian troops.[23] Adal originally had its capital in the port city of Zeila,
situated in the northwestern Awdal region. The polity at the time was an Emirate in
the larger Ifat Sultanate ruled by the Walashma dynasty.[8]

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Approximate extension of the Kingdom of Adal

The Sultan of Adal (right) and his troops battling King Yagbea-Sion and his men.
From Le Livre des Merveilles, 15th century.
In 1332, the King of Adal was slain in a military campaign aimed at halting Amda
Seyon's march toward Zeila.[23] When the last Sultan of Ifat, Sa'ad ad-Din II, was
killed by Dawit I of Ethiopia at the port city of Zeila in 1410, his children
escaped to Yemen, before later returning in 1415.[24] In the early 15th century,
Adal's capital was moved further inland to the town of Dakkar,[8] where Sabr ad-Din
II, the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new Adal administration after
his return from Yemen.[8][25] During this period, Adal emerged as a center of
Muslim resistance against the expanding Christian Abyssinian kingdom.[8] Adal would
thereafter govern all of the territory formerly ruled by the Ifat Sultanate,[26]
[27] as well as the land further east all the way to Cape Guardafui, according to
Leo Africanus.[19]

After 1468, a new breed of rulers emerged on the Adal political scene. The
dissidents opposed Walashma rule owing to a treaty that Sultan Muhammad ibn Badlay
had signed with Emperor Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia, wherein Badlay agreed to submit
yearly tribute. This was done to achieve peace in the region, though tribute was
never sent. Adal's Emirs, who administered the provinces, interpreted the agreement
as a betrayal of their independence and a retreat from the polity's longstanding
policy of resistance to Abyssinian incursions. The main leader of this opposition
was the Emir of Zeila, the Sultanate's richest province. As such, he was expected
to pay the highest share of the annual tribute to be given to the Abyssinian
Emperor.[28] Emir Laday Usman subsequently marched to Dakkar and seized power in
1471. However, Usman did not dismiss the Sultan from office, but instead gave him a
ceremonial position while retaining the real power for himself. Adal now came under
the leadership of a powerful Emir who governed from the palace of a nominal Sultan.
[29]

Adalite armies under the leadership of rulers such as Sabr ad-Din II, Mansur ad-
Din, Jamal ad-Din II, Shams ad-Din and general Mahfuz subsequently continued the
struggle against Abyssinian expansionism.

Emir Mahfuz, who would fight with successive emperors, caused the death of Emperor
Na'od in 1508, but he was in turn killed by the forces of Emperor Dawit II (Lebna
Dengel) in 1517. After the death of Mahfuz, a civil war started for the office of
Highest Emir of Adal. Five Emirs came to power in only two years. But at last, a
matured and powerful leader called Garad Abuun Addus (Garad Abogne) assumed power.
When Garad Abogne was in power he was defeated and killed by Sultan Abu Bakr ibn
Muhammad, and In 1554, under his initiative, Harar became the capital of Adal.[8]
This time not only the young Emirs revolted, but the whole country of Adal rose
against Sultan Abu Bakr, because Garad Abogne was loved by the people of the
sultanate. Many people went to join the force of a young imam called Ahmad ibn
Ibrahim al-Ghazi, who claimed revenge for Garad Abogne. Al-Ghazi assumed power in
Adal in 1527, however he did not remove the Sultan, but instead left him in his
nominal office. Yet, when Abu Bakr waged war on him, Ahmad ibn Ibrahim killed Abu
Bakr, and replaced him with his brother Umar Din.[30] They fought under a
combination of three banners used by Ahmad al-Ghazi[31]
In the 16th century, Adal organised an effective army led by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim
al-Ghazi that invaded the Abyssinian empire.[8] This campaign is historically known
as the Conquest of Abyssinia or Futuh al Habash. During the war, Ahmed pioneered
the use of cannons supplied by the Ottoman Empire, which were deployed against
Solomonic forces and their Portuguese allies led by Crist�v�o da Gama. Some
scholars argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the
value of firearms such as the matchlock musket, cannons and the arquebus over
traditional weapons.[32]

Sultans of Adal
Name Reign Note
1 Sul?an SabiradDin Sa?adadDin 1415�1422 Son of Sa?adadDin A?med. Won some
early victories before being soundly defeated by Emperor Yeshaq.
2 Sul?an Mansur Sa?adadDin 1422�1424 Son of Sa?adadDin A?med. Defeated
the Abyssinians at Yedaya, only to be defeated and imprisoned by Yeshaq.
3 Sul?an JamaladDin Sa?adadDin 1424�1433 Won several important battles
before being defeated at Harjai, he was assassinated in 1433.
4 Sul?an A?medudDin "Badlay" Sa?adadDin 1433�1445 Son of Sa?adadDin A?med,
known to the Abyssinians as "Arwe Badlay" ("Badlay the Monster"). A?medudDin turned
the tide of war against the Abyssinians and decisively defeated the forces of
Emperor Yeshaq and liberated the land of Ifat. A?medudDin founded a new capital at
Dakkar in the Adal region, near Harar, creating the Sultanate of Adal. He was
killed in battle after he had launched a jihad to push the Abyssinians back out of
Dawaro.
5 Sul?an Ma?amed A?medudDin 1445�1472 Son of A?medudDin "Badlay" Sa?
adadDin, Ma?amed asked for help from the Mameluk Sultanate of Egypt in 1452, though
this assistance was not forthcoming. He ended up signing a very short-lived truce
with Baeda Maryam.
6 Sul?an ShamsadDin Ma?amed 1472�1488 Son of Ma?amed A?medudDin, he was
attacked by Emperor Eskender of Abyssinia in 1479, who sacked Dakkar and destroyed
much of the city, though the Abyssinians did not attempt to occupy the city and
were ambushed on the way home with heavy losses.
7 Sul?an Ma?amed ?AsharadDin 1488�1518 Great-grandson of Sa?adadDin A?med
of Ifat, he continued to fight to liberate Dawaro along with Garad Ma?fu? of Zeila.
He was assassinated after a disastrous campaign in 1518 and the death of Garad Ma?
fu?.
8 Sultan Ma?amed Abubakar Ma?fu? 1518�1519 Seized the throne, sparking a
conflict between the Karanle and Walashma
9 Sul?an Abubakar Ma?amed 1518�1526 He killed Garad Abun and restored the
Walashma dynasty, but Garad Abun's cousin Imam A?med Gurey avenged his cousin's
death and killed him. While Garad Abun ruled in Dakkar, Abubakar Ma?amed
established himself at Harar in 1520, and this is often cited as when the capital
moved. Abubakar Ma?amed was the last Walashma sultan to have any real power.
10 Garad Abun ?Adadshe 1519�1525 Successor to Ma?amed Abubakar Ma?fu? and
the Karanle party of the struggle for the throne.
11 Sul?an ?UmarDin Ma?amed 1526�1553 Son of Ma?amed ?AsharadDin, Imam A?med
Gurey put Ma?amed ?AsharadDin's young son ?UmarDin on the throne as puppet king in
Imam A?med Gurey's capital at Harar. This essentially is the end of the Walashma
dynasty as a ruling dynasty in all but name, though the dynasty hobbled on in a de
jure capacity. Many king lists don't even bother with Walashma rulers after this
and just list Imam A?med Gurey and then Amir Nur Mujahid.
12 Sul?an ?Ali ?UmarDin 1553�1555 Son of ?UmarDin Ma?amed
13 Sul?an Barakat ?UmarDin 1555�1559 Son of ?UmarDin Ma?amed, last of the
Walashma Sultans, assisted Amir Nur Mujahid in his attempt to retake Dawaro. He was
killed defending Harar from Emperor Gelawdewos, ending the dynasty.
Ethnicity
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The Walashma dynasty of the Ifat and Adal sultanates all possessed Somali
genealogical traditions.[33][34]

During Adal's initial period, when it was centered in city of Zeila in the present-
day northwestern Awdal region, the kingdom was primarily composed of Somalis
(Predominantly), Afars, Hararis and Arabs.[3][35][36]

Here the Portuguese infantries had their first glimpse of Ahmad and document their
observations, as recorded by Castanhoso:

While his camp was being pitched, the king of Zeila Imam Ahmad ascended a hill with
several horse and some foot to examine us: he halted on the top with three hundred
horse and three large banners, two white with red moons, and one red with a white
moon, which always accompanied him, and [by] which he was recognized.[37]

Among the earliest mentions of the Somali by name had come through a victory poem
written by emperor Yeshaq I of Abyssinia against the king of Adal, as the simmur
are said to have submitted and paid tribute. "Dr Enrico Cerulli has shown that
Simur was an old Harari name for the Somali, who are still known by them as Tumur.*
Hence, it is most probable that the mention of the Somali and the Simur in relation
to Yishaq refers to the king's military campaigns against Adal, where the Somali
seem to have constituted a major section of the population." [38]

On his background:

Of the early history of the Imam Ahmad but little is known. He was the son of one
Ibrahim el Ghazi, and both he and his father were common soldiers in the troop of
Garad Aboun. Nothing even is said as to his nationality. He was certainly not an
Arab : probably he was a Somali, for we find him closely connected with many who
were Somalis.[39]

According to Leo Africanus (1526) and George Sale (1760), the Adelites were of a
tawny brown or olive complexion on the northern littoral, and grew swarthier
towards the southern interior. They generally had long, lank hair. Most wore a
cotton sarong but no headpiece or sandals, with lots of glass and amber trinkets
around their necks, wrists, arms and ankles. The king and other aristocrats often
donned instead a body-length garment topped with a headdress. All were Muslims.[19]
[40] In the southern hinterland, the Adelites lived beside pagan "Negroes", with
whom they bartered various commodities.[41][42]

Languages
Various languages from the Afro-Asiatic family were spoken in the vast Adal
Sultanate. Arabic served as a lingua franca, and was used by the ruling Walashma
dynasty.[43]

Somali was the most commonly used language of government and social life while
Arabic was most prominently used for religious studies.[44][45]
Economy
During its existence, Adal had relations and engaged in trade with other polities
in Northeast Africa, the Near East, Europe and South Asia. Many of the historic
cities in the Horn of Africa such as Abasa and Berbera flourished under its reign
with courtyard houses, mosques, shrines, walled enclosures and cisterns. Adal
attained its peak in the 14th century, trading in slaves, ivory and other
commodities with Abyssinia and kingdoms in Arabia through its chief port of Zeila.
[8] The cities of the empire imported intricately colored glass bracelets and
Chinese celadon for palace and home decoration.[46]

Military
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The Adalite military was divided into several sections such as the infantry
consisting of swordsmen, archers and lancers that were commanded by various
generals and lieutenants. These forces were complimented by a cavalry force and
eventually, later in the empire's history, by matchlock-technology and cannons
during the Conquest of Abyssinia. The various divisions were symbolised with a
distinct flag.

The Adal soldiers donned elaborate helmets and steel armour made up of chain-mail
with overlapping tiers.[47] The Horsemen of Adal wore protective helmets that
covered the entire face except for the eyes, and breastplates on their body, while
they harnessed their horses in a similar fashion.[citation needed] In siege
warfare, ladders were employed to scale buildings and other high positions such as
hills and mountains.[citation needed]

M. Lewis writes:

Somali forces contributed much to the Imam�s victories. Shihab ad-Din, the Muslim
chronicler of the period, writing between 1540 and 1560, mentions them frequently
(Futu? al-?abasha, ed. And trs. R. Besset Paris, 1897). The most prominent Somali
groups in the campaigns were the Geri, Marrehan, and Harti � all Darod clans.
Shihab ad-Din is very vague as to their distribution and grazing areas, but
describes the Harti as at the time in possession of the ancient eastern port of
Mait. Of the Isaq only the Habar Magadle clan seem to have been involved and their
distribution is not recorded. Finally, several Dir clans also took part.[48]

Ethnic Somalis being the majority of the army is further evidenced in the Oxford
History of Islam:
The sultanate of Adal, which emerged as the major Muslim principality from 1420 to
1560, seems to have recruited its military force mainly from among the Somalis.[49]

Abyssinian�Adal conflict
Main article: Abyssinian�Adal war

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Ruins of the Sultanate of Adal in Zeila

The Abyssinian�Adal war was a military conflict between the Ethiopian Empire and
the Adal Sultanate that took place from 1529 until 1543. Abyssinian troops
consisted of Amhara, Tigrayan and Agew ethnic groups. Adal forces consisted mostly
of Afar, Somali, Harla, Argobba, Arab, formations supported by the Ottomans.[50]

In the mid-1520s, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi assumed control of Adal and
launched a war against Abyssinia (Ethiopian Empire), which was then under the
leadership of Dawit II (Lebna Dengel). Supplied by the Ottoman Empire with
firearms, Ahmad was able to defeat the Abyssinians at the Battle of Shimbra Kure in
1529 and seize control of the wealthy Ethiopian highlands, though the Abyssinians
continued to resist from the highlands. In 1541, the Portuguese, who had vested
interests in the Indian Ocean, finally sent aid to the Abyssinians in the form of
400 musketeers. Adal, in response, received 900 from the Ottomans.

Imam Ahmad was initially successful against the Abyssinians while campaigning in
the Autumn of 1542, killing the Portuguese commander Crist�v�o da Gama in August
that year. However, Portuguese musketry proved decisive in Adal's defeat at the
Battle of Wayna Daga, near Lake Tana, in February 1543, where Ahmad was killed in
battle. The Abyssinians subsequently retook the Amhara plateau and recouped their
losses against Adal. The Ottomans, who had their own troubles to deal with in the
Mediterranean, were unable to help Ahmad's successors. When Adal collapsed in 1577,
the seat of the Sultanate shifted from Harar to Aussa[51] in the desert region of
Afar and a new sultanate began.[52][53]

Collapse of the sultanate

After the death of Imam Ahmad, the Adal Sultanate lost most of its territory in
Abyssnian lands. In 1550 Nur ibn Mujahid assumed power after he killed Abyssinian
emperor Gelawdewos.[54] Due to constant Oromo raids both Adal and Abyssinian rulers
struggled to consolidate power outside of their realms. During the rule of Muhammed
Jasa in 1577 he transferred the capital from Harar to Aussa. The Adal Sultanate
subsequently ended due to infighting with Somali tribes.[55]

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Oromo expansion
Main article: Oromo migrations
After the conflict between Adal and Abyssinia had subsided, the conquest of the
highland regions of Abyssinia and Adal by the Oromo (namely, through military
expansion and the installation of the Gadaa socio-political system) ended in the
contraction of both powers and changed regional dynamics for centuries to come. In
essence, what had happened is that the populations of the highlands had not ceased
to exist as a result of the Gadaa expansion, but were simply incorporated into a
different socio-political system.

Legacy

A sword symbol on a stele at Tiya

The Adal Sultanate left behind many structures and artefacts from its heyday.
Numerous such historical edifices and items are found in the northwestern Awdal
province of Somalia, as well as other parts of the Horn region where the polity
held sway.[56]

Archaeological excavations in the late 19th century and early 20th century at over
fourteen sites in the vicinity of Borama in modern-day northwestern Somalia
unearthed, among other artefacts, silver coins identified as having been derived
from Qaitbay (1468�89), the eighteenth Burji Mamluk Sultan of Egypt.[56][57] Most
of these finds are associated with the medieval Adal Sultanate.[58] They were sent
to the British Museum for preservation shortly after their discovery.[57]

In 1950, the British Somaliland protectorate government commissioned an

archaeological survey in twelve desert towns in present-day Somaliland, near the
border with Ethiopia. According to the expedition team, the sites yielded the most
salient evidence of late medieval period affluence. They contained ruins of what
were evidently once large cities belonging to the Adal Sultanate. Three of the
towns in particular, Abasa, Gogesa and Amud, featured between 200 and 300 stone
houses. The walls of certain sites still reportedly stood 18 meters high.
Excavations in the area yielded 26 silver coins, unlike the copper pieces that were
more common in polities below the Horn region. The earliest of these recovered
coins had been minted by Sultan Barquq (1382�99), also of the Egyptian Burji
dynasty, and the latest were again Sultan Qaitbay issues. All of the pieces had
been struck in either Cairo or Damascus. A few gold coins were also discovered
during the expedition, making the area the only place in the wider region to yield
such pieces. Besides coinage, high quality porcelain was recovered from the Adal
sites. The fine celadon ware was found either lying on the surface, or buried at a
depth of seven and a half inches, or ensconced within dense middens four to five
feet high. Among the artefacts were grey granular sherds with a crackled blue-green
or sea-green glaze, and white crystalline fragments with an uncrackled green-white
glaze. Some Ming dynasty ware was also discovered, including many early Ming blue-
and-white bowl sherds. They were adorned with tendril scrolls on a bluish ground
and ornamented with black spotting, while other bowls had floral patterns outlined
by grey or black-blue designs. Additionally, a few Ming red-and-white sherds were
found, as well as white porcelain fragments with bluish highlights. The Adal sites
appeared to reach an Indian Ocean terminus at the Sa'ad ad-Din Islands, named for
Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din II of the Ifat Sultanate.[59]

Additionally, local tradition identifies the archaeological site of Tiya in central

Ethiopia as Yegragn Dingay ("Gran's stone") in reference to Imam Al-Ghazi.
According to Joussaume (1995), who led archaeological work there, the site is
relatively recent. It has been dated to between the 11th and 13th centuries CE.
Tiya contains a number of megalithic pillars, including anthropomorphic and non-
anthropomorphic/non-phallic stelae. Flat in form, these structures are
characterized by distinctive, elaborate decorations, among which are swords, a
standing human figure with arms akimbo, and plant-like symbols.[60]
See also
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
Notes
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Empires
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Kingdoms and dynasties of the medieval Horn of Africa
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Djibouti articles
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Categories: Adal SultanateFormer sultanates in the medieval Horn of AfricaHistory
of DjiboutiHistory of Eritrea15th century in Ethiopia16th century in Ethiopia900
establishments1559 disestablishments in Africa9th-century establishments in Africa
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