Chapter 6

TISSUES
From the last chapter, we recall that all living There are noticeable differences between
organisms are made of cells. In unicellular the two. Plants are stationary or fixed – they
organisms, a single cell performs all basic don’t move. Since they have to be upright, they
functions. For example, in Amoeba, a single have a large quantity of supportive tissue. The
cell carries out movement, intake of food, supportive tissue generally has dead cells.
gaseous exchange and excretion. But in multi- Animals on the other hand move around
cellular organisms there are millions of cells. in search of food, mates and shelter. They
Most of these cells are specialised to carry out
consume more energy as compared to plants.
specific functions. Each specialised function
Most of the tissues they contain are living.
is taken up by a different group of cells. Since
Another difference between animals and
these cells carry out only a particular function,
they do it very efficiently. In human beings, plants is in the pattern of growth. The growth
muscle cells contract and relax to cause in plants is limited to certain regions, while this
movement, nerve cells carry messages, blood is not so in animals. There are some tissues in
flows to transport oxygen, food, hormones and plants that divide throughout their life. These
waste material and so on. In plants, vascular tissues are localised in certain regions. Based
tissues conduct food and water from one part on the dividing capacity of the tissues, various
of the plant to other parts. So, multi-cellular plant tissues can be classified as growing or
organisms show division of labour. Cells meristematic tissue and permanent tissue. Cell
specialising in one function are often grouped growth in animals is more uniform. So, there
together in the body. This means that a is no such demarcation of dividing and non-
particular function is carried out by a cluster dividing regions in animals.
of cells at a definite place in the body. This
The structural organisation of organs and
cluster of cells, called a tissue, is arranged and
organ systems is far more specialised and
designed so as to give the highest possible
localised in complex animals than even in very
efficiency of function. Blood, phloem and
muscle are all examples of tissues. complex plants. This fundamental difference
A group of cells that are similar in structure reflects the different modes of life pursued by
and/or work together to achieve a particular these two major groups of organisms,
function forms a tissue. particularly in their different feeding methods.
Also, they are differently adapted for a
6.1 Are Plants and Animals Made sedentary existence on one hand (plants) and
active locomotion on the other (animals),
of Same Types of Tissues? contributing to this difference in organ system
Let us compare their structure and functions. design.
Do plants and animals have the same It is with reference to these complex animal
structure? Do they both perform similar and plant bodies that we will now talk about
functions? the concept of tissues in some detail.

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Q
• From the above observations, answer
uestions the following questions:
1. What is a tissue? 1. Which of the two onions has longer
2. What is the utility of tissues in roots? Why?
2. Do the roots continue growing
multi-cellular organisms?
even after we have removed their
tips?
3. Why would the tips stop growing
in jar 2 after we cut them?
6.2 Plant Tissues
The growth of plants occurs only in certain
6.2.1 MERISTEMATIC TISSUE specific regions. This is because the dividing
tissue, also known as meristematic tissue, is
located only at these points. Depending on
the region where they are present,
meristematic tissues are classified as apical,
lateral and intercalary (Fig. 6.2). New cells
produced by meristem are initially like those
of meristem itself, but as they grow and
mature, their characteristics slowly change and
they become differentiated as components of
other tissues.

Apical meristem

Jar 1 Jar 2

Fig. 6.1: Growth of roots in onion bulbs

Intercalary meristem
Activity ______________ 6.1
• Take two glass jars and fill them with
water.
• Now, take two onion bulbs and place
one on each jar, as shown in
Fig. 6.1.
• Observe the growth of roots in both
the bulbs for a few days.
• Measure the length of roots on day 1,
2 and 3.
• On day 4, cut the root tips of the onion
bulb in jar 2 by about 1 cm. After this, Lateral meristem
observe the growth of roots in both the
jars and measure their lengths each
day for five more days and record the
observations in tables, like the table Fig. 6.2: Location of meristematic tissue in plant body
below: Apical meristem is present at the growing
tips of stems and roots and increases the
Length Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 length of the stem and the root. The girth of
the stem or root increases due to lateral
Jar 1
meristem (cambium). Intercalary meristem
Jar 2 seen in some plants is located near the node.

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 Cells of meristematic tissue are very active, 3. Can we think of reasons why there
they have dense cytoplasm, thin cellulose walls would be so many types of cells?
and prominent nuclei. They lack vacuoles. Can • We can also try to cut sections of plant
we think why they would lack vacuoles? (You roots. We can even try cutting sections
might want to refer to the functions of vacuoles of root and stem of different plants.
in the chapter on cells.)
6.2.2 (i) SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE
6.2.2 PERMANENT TISSUE A few layers of cells beneath the epidermis are
What happens to the cells formed by generally simple permanent tissue.
meristematic tissue? They take up a specific Parenchyma is the most common simple
role and lose the ability to divide. As a result, permanent tissue. It consists of relatively
they form a permanent tissue. This process unspecialised cells with thin cell walls. They
of taking up a permanent shape, size, and a are living cells. They are usually loosely
function is called differentiation. Differentiation arranged, thus large spaces between cells
leads to the development of various types of (intercellular spaces) are found in this tissue
permanent tissues. (Fig. 6.4 a). This tissue generally stores food.

Cuticle
Epidermis
Collenchyma
Parenchyma

Phloem

Xylem
Vascular bundle

Fig. 6.3: Section of a stem

Activity ______________ 6.2 In some situations, it contains chlorophyll and

performs photosynthesis, and then it is called
• Take a plant stem and with the help chlorenchyma. In aquatic plants, large air
of your teacher cut into very thin slices cavities are present in parenchyma to help
or sections. them float. Such a parenchyma type is called
• Now, stain the slices with safranin. aerenchyma.
Place one neatly cut section on a slide, The flexibility in plants is due to another
and put a drop of glycerine. permanent tissue, collenchyma. It allows
• Cover with a cover-slip and observe bending of various parts of a plant like tendrils
under a microscope. Observe the and stems of climbers without breaking. It
various types of cells and their also provides mechanical support. We can find
arrangement. Compare it with Fig. 6.3.
this tissue in leaf stalks below the epidermis.
• Now, answer the following on the
The cells of this tissue are living, elongated
basis of your observation:
1. Are all cells similar in structure?
and irregularly thickened at the
2. How many types of cells can corners. There is very little intercellular space
be seen? (Fig. 6.4 b).

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 Intercellular spaces
Wall thickenings
Nucleus
Thick lignified
Vacuole walls Narrow lumen
Cell wall
Lignified
thick wall

a b c (i) c (ii)

Fig. 6.4: Various types of simple tissues: (a) Parenchyma (b) Collenchyma (c) Sclerenchyma (i) transverse section,
(ii) longitudinal section.

Yet another type of permanent tissue is

sclerenchyma. It is the tissue which makes the
plant hard and stiff. We have seen the husk of
a coconut. It is made of sclerenchymatous
tissue. The cells of this tissue are dead. They
are long and narrow as the walls are thickened Guard
due to lignin. Often these walls are so thick cells

that there is no internal space inside the cell Stoma

(Fig. 6.4 c). This tissue is present in stems,
Epidermal
around vascular bundles, in the veins of leaves cell
Guard
and in the hard covering of seeds and nuts. It cell
provides strength to the plant parts. (a) (b)

Activity ______________ 6.3

Fig. 6.5: Guard cells and epidermal cells: (a) lateral
• Take a freshly plucked leaf of Rhoeo. view, (b) surface view
• Stretch and break it by applying
pressure. parts of the plant often secrete a waxy, water-
• While breaking it, keep it stretched resistant layer on their outer surface. This aids
gently so that some peel or skin
in protection against loss of water, mechanical
projects out from the cut.
• Remove this peel and put it in a petri
injury and invasion by parasitic fungi. Since
dish filled with water. it has a protective role to play, cells of
• Add a few drops of safranin. epidermal tissue form a continuous layer
• Wait for a couple of minutes and then without intercellular spaces. Most epidermal
transfer it onto a slide. Gently place cells are relatively flat. Often their outer and
a cover slip over it. side walls are thicker than the inner wall.
• Observe under microscope. We can observe small pores here and
What you observe is the outermost layer there in the epidermis of the leaf. These pores
of cells, called epidermis. The epidermis is are called stomata (Fig. 6.5). Stomata are
usually made of a single layer of cells. In some enclosed by two kidney-shaped cells
plants living in very dry habitats, the epidermis called guard cells. They are necessary for
may be thicker since protection against water exchanging gases with the atmosphere.
loss is critical. The entire surface of a plant has Transpiration (loss of water in the form of
an outer covering epidermis. It protects all the water vapour) also takes place through
parts of the plant. Epidermal cells on the aerial stomata.

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 is a distinctive feature of the complex plants,
Recall which gas is required for
photosynthesis. one that has made possible their survival in
Find out the role of transpiration in plants. the terrestrial environment. In Fig. 6.3 showing
a section of stem, can you see different types
Epidermal cells of the roots, whose function of cells in the vascular bundle?
is water absorption, commonly bear long hair- Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem
like parts that greatly increase the total parenchyma (Fig. 6.7 a,b,c) and xylem fibres.
absorptive surface area. Tracheids and vessels have thick walls, and
In some plants like desert plants, many are dead cells when mature. Tracheids
epidermis has a thick waxy coating of cutin and vessels are tubular structures. This allows
(chemical substance with waterproof quality) them to transport water and minerals
on its outer surface. Can we think of a reason vertically. The parenchyma stores food. Xylem
for this? fibres are mainly supportive in function.
Is the outer layer of a branch of a tree Phloem is made up of five types of cells:
different from the outer layer of a young stem? sieve cells, sieve tubes, companion cells,
As plants grow older, the outer protective phloem fibres and the phloem parenchyma
tissue undergoes certain changes. A strip of [Fig. 6.7 (d)]. Sieve tubes are tubular cells with
secondary meristem located in the cortex forms perforated walls. Phloem transports food from
layers of cells which constitute the cork. Cells leaves to other parts of the plant. Except
of cork are dead and compactly arranged phloem fibres, other phloem cells are living cells.
without intercellular spaces (Fig. 6.6). They
also have a substance called suberin in their
walls that makes them impervious to gases
and water. Nucleus
Cork cells Ruptured epidermis
Pit

Pits
Cytoplasm

(a) Tracheid (b) Vessel (c) Xylem parenchyma

Fig. 6.6: Protective tissue

6.2.2 (ii) COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUE Sieve plate

Sieve tube
The different types of tissues we have discussed
until now are all made of one type of cells,
which look like each other. Such tissues are Phloem
called simple permanent tissue. Yet another parenchyma
type of permanent tissue is complex tissue.
Companion cell
Complex tissues are made of more than one
type of cells. All these cells coordinate to
perform a common function. Xylem and
phloem are examples of such complex tissues.
They are both conducting tissues and (d) Section of phloem
constitute a vascular bundle. Vascular tissue Fig. 6.7: Types of complex tissue

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 uestions

Q
During breathing we inhale oxygen. Where
does this oxygen go? It is absorbed in the lungs
1. Name types of simple tissues. and then is transported to all the body cells
2. Where is apical meristem found? through blood. Why would cells need oxygen?
3. Which tissue makes up the husk The functions of mitochondria we studied
of coconut? earlier provide a clue to this question. Blood
4. What are the constituents of flows and carries various substances from one
phloem? part of the body to the other. For example, it
carries oxygen and food to all cells. It also
collects wastes from all parts of the body and
6.3 Animal Tissues carries them to the liver and kidney for
disposal.
When we breathe we can actually feel the Blood and muscles are both examples of
movement of our chest. How do these body tissues found in our body. On the basis of the
parts move? For this we have specialised cells functions they perform we can think of different
called muscle cells (Fig. 6.8). The contraction types of animal tissues, such as epithelial
and relaxation of these cells result in tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue and
movement. nervous tissue. Blood is a type of connective
tissue, and muscle forms muscular tissue.

6.3.1 EPITHELIAL TISSUE

The covering or protective tissues in the animal

body are epithelial tissues. Epithelium covers
most organs and cavities within the body. It
also forms a barrier to keep different body
systems separate. The skin, the lining of the
mouth, the lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli
and kidney tubules are all made of epithelial
tissue. Epithelial tissue cells are tightly packed
and form a continuous sheet. They have only
a small amount of cementing material between
them and almost no intercellular spaces.
Obviously, anything entering or leaving the
body must cross at least one layer of
epithelium. As a result, the permeability of the
cells of various epithelia play an important role
in regulating the exchange of materials
between the body and the external
environment and also between different parts
of the body. Regardless of the type, all
Smooth muscle fibres
epithelium is usually separated from the
underlying tissue by an extracellular fibrous
basement membrane.
Nucleus Different epithelia (Fig. 6.9) show differing
Smooth muscle fibre structures that correlate with their unique
functions. For example, in cells lining blood
(Cell)
vessels or lung alveoli, where transportation
of substances occurs through a selectively
Fig. 6.8: Location of muscle fibres permeable surface, there is a simple flat kind

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of epithelium. This is called the simple of skin). Simple squamous epithelial cells are
squamous epithelium (squama means scale extremely thin and flat and form a delicate
lining. The oesophagus and the lining of the
mouth are also covered with squamous
epithelium. The skin, which protects the body,
is also made of squamous epithelium. Skin
epithelial cells are arranged in many layers to
(a) Squamous prevent wear and tear. Since they are arranged
in a pattern of layers, the epithelium is called
stratified squamous epithelium.
Where absorption and secretion occur, as
in the inner lining of the intestine, tall epithelial
cells are present. This columnar (meaning
‘pillar-like’) epithelium facilitates movement
across the epithelial barrier. In the respiratory
tract, the columnar epithelial tissue also has
cilia, which are hair-like projections on the
outer surfaces of epithelial cells. These cilia can
move, and their movement pushes the mucus
forward to clear it. This type of epithelium is
thus ciliated columnar epithelium.
Cuboidal epithelium (with cube-shaped
cells) forms the lining of kidney tubules and
ducts of salivary glands, where it provides
(b) Stratified squamous mechanical support. Epithelial cells often
acquire additional specialisation as gland cells,
which can secrete substances at the epithelial
surface. Sometimes a portion of the epithelial
tissue folds inward, and a multicellular gland
is formed. This is glandular epithelium.

6.3.2 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Blood is a type of connective tissue. Why would
it be called ‘connective’ tissue? A clue is
(c) Cuboidal
provided in the introduction of this chapter!
Now, let us look at this type of tissue in some
more detail. The cells of connective tissue are
loosely spaced and embedded in an
intercellular matrix (Fig. 6.10). The matrix may
be jelly like, fluid, dense or rigid. The nature
of matrix differs in concordance with the
function of the particular connective tissue.

Activity 6.4
(d) Columnar (Ciliated) Take a drop of blood on a slide and
observe different cells present in it
Fig. 6.9: Different types of epithelial tissues under a microscope.

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 Cytoplasm
Blood has a fluid (liquid) matrix called
Nucleus plasma, in which red blood corpuscles (RBCs),
white blood corpuscles (WBCs) and platelets
Neutrophil Eosinophil Basophil
are suspended. The plasma contains proteins,
Different white (polynuclear
leucocyte)
salts and hormones. Blood flows and
blood corpuscles
transports gases, digested food, hormones
and waste materials to different parts of the
body.
Bone is another example of a connective
Lymphocyte Monocyte Platelets
(a) tissue. It forms the framework that supports
Haversian canal the body. It also anchors the muscles and
(contains blood vessels
Chondrocyte
supports the main organs of the body. It is a
and nerve fibres) strong and nonflexible tissue (what would be
Hyaline matrix
the advantage of these properties for bone
functions?). Bone cells are embedded in a
hard matrix that is composed of calcium and
phosphorus compounds.
Canaliculus (contains (c) Two bones can be connected to each other
slender process of bone
cell or osteocyte) by another type of connective tissue called the
(b)
ligament. This tissue is very elastic. It has
Red blood
corpuscle
considerable strength. Ligaments contain
very little matrix and connect bones with
Reticular fibre Fibroblast bones. Tendons connect muscles to bones and
are another type of connective tissue. Tendons
are fibrous tissue with great strength but
limited flexibility.
Another type of connective tissue,
cartilage, has widely spaced cells. The solid
matrix is composed of proteins and sugars.
Macrophage
Cartilage smoothens bone surfaces at joints
and is also present in the nose, ear, trachea
Collagen fibre and larynx. We can fold the cartilage of the ears,
Mast cell Plasma cell
(d)
but we cannot bend the bones in our arms.
Nucleus Think of how the two tissues are different!
Fat droplet
Areolar connective tissue is found between
the skin and muscles, around blood vessels
and nerves and in the bone marrow. It fills
the space inside the organs, supports internal
organs and helps in repair of tissues.
Where are fats stored in our body? Fat-
storing adipose tissue is found below the skin
and between internal organs. The cells of this
tissue are filled with fat globules. Storage of
fats also lets it act as an insulator.
Adipocyte
(e) 6.3.3 MUSCULAR TISSUE

Fig. 6.10: Types of connective tissues: (a) types of blood Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells,
cells, (b) compact bone, (c) hyaline cartilage, also called muscle fibres. This tissue is
(d) areolar tissue, (e) adipose tissue responsible for movement in our body.

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Muscles contain special proteins called [Fig. 6.11(a)]. These muscles are also called
contractile proteins, which contract and relax skeletal muscles as they are mostly attached
to cause movement. to bones and help in body movement. Under
Nuclei
the microscope, these muscles show alternate
light and dark bands or striations when
Striations stained appropriately. As a result, they are
also called striated muscles. The cells of this
tissue are long, cylindrical, unbranched and
multinucleate (having many nuclei).
(a) The movement of food in the alimentary
canal or the contraction and relaxation of blood
Spindle shaped vessels are involuntary movements. We cannot
muscle cell really start them or stop them simply by
wanting to do so! Smooth muscles [Fig.
6.11(b)] or involuntary muscles control such
movements. They are also found in the iris of
the eye, in ureters and in the bronchi of the
lungs. The cells are long with pointed ends
(spindle-shaped) and uninucleate (having a
single nucleus). They are also called unstriated
muscles – why would they be called that?
Nucleus
The muscles of the heart show rhythmic
(b)
contraction and relaxation throughout life.
These involuntary muscles are called cardiac
muscles [Fig. 6.11(c)]. Heart muscle cells are
cylindrical, branched and uninucleate.
Striations
Activity 6.5
Compare the structures of different
types of muscular tissues. Note down
their shape, number of nuclei and
Nuclei position of nuclei within the cell in
the Table 6.1.

Table 6.1:

Features Striated Smooth Cardiac

Shape
Number of nuclei
(c)
Position of nuclei
Fig. 6.11: Types of muscles fibres: (a) striated muscle,
(b) smooth muscle, (c) cardiac muscle
6.3.4 NERVOUS TISSUE
We can move some muscles by conscious
will. Muscles present in our limbs move when All cells possess the ability to respond to
we want them to, and stop when we so decide. stimuli. However, cells of the nervous tissue
Such muscles are called voluntary muscles are highly specialised for being stimulated and

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then transmitting the stimulus very rapidly (processes) called dendrites. An individual
from one place to another within the body. The nerve cell may be up to a metre long. Many
brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed nerve fibres bound together by connective
of the nervous tissue. The cells of this tissue tissue make up a nerve.
are called nerve cells or neurons. A neuron The signal that passes along the nerve fibre
consists of a cell body with a nucleus and is called a nerve impulse. Nerve impulses allow
cytoplasm, from which long thin hair-like us to move our muscles when we want to. The
parts arise (Fig. 6.12). Usually each neuron functional combination of nerve and muscle
has a single long part (process), called the tissue is fundamental to most animals. This
axon, and many short, branched parts combination enables animals to move rapidly
in response to stimuli.
Nucleus

uestions

Q
Dendrite

1. Name the tissue responsible for

movement in our body.
Axon
Nerve ending
2. What does a neuron look like?
3. Give three features of cardiac
muscles.
Cell body
4. What are the functions of
Fig. 6.12: Neuron-unit of nervous tissue areolar tissue?

What
you have
learnt
• Tissue is a group of cells similar in structure and function.
• Plant tissues are of two main types – meristematic and
permanent.
• Meristematic tissue is the dividing tissue present in the
growing regions of the plant.
• Permanent tissues are derived from meristematic tissue once
they lose the ability to divide. They are classified as simple
and complex tissues.
• Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma are three types
of simple tissues. Xylem and phloem are types of complex
tissues.
• Animal tissues can be epithelial, connective, muscular and
nervous tissue.
• Depending on shape and function, epithelial tissue is
classified as squamous, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated and
glandular.

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 • The different types of connective tissues in our body include
areolar tissue, adipose tissue, bone, tendon, ligament,
cartilage and blood.
• Striated, unstriated and cardiac are three types of muscle
tissues.
• Nervous tissue is made of neurons that receive and conduct
impulses.

Exercises
1. Define the term “tissue”.
2. How many types of elements together make up the xylem
tissue? Name them.
3. How are simple tissues different from complex tissues in
plants?
4. Differentiate between parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma on the basis of their cell wall.
5. What are the functions of the stomata?
6. Diagrammatically show the difference between the three
types of muscle fibres.
7. What is the specific function of the cardiac muscle?
8. Differentiate between striated, unstriated and cardiac
muscles on the basis of their structure and site/location in
the body.
9. Draw a labelled diagram of a neuron.
10. Name the following.
(a) Tissue that forms the inner lining of our mouth.
(b) Tissue that connects muscle to bone in humans.
(c) Tissue that transports food in plants.
(d) Tissue that stores fat in our body.
(e) Connective tissue with a fluid matrix.
(f) Tissue present in the brain.
11. Identify the type of tissue in the following: skin, bark of
tree, bone, lining of kidney tubule, vascular bundle.

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 12. Name the regions in which parenchyma tissue is present.
13. What is the role of epidermis in plants?
14. How does the cork act as a protective tissue?
15. Complete the following chart:

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