Invertebrates

Topic to be discussed:

Introductions of Invertebrates

Phylum Porifera

Phylum Cnidaria

Composed of:

-Class Anthazoa

-Class Scyphozoa

-Class zoa

-Class Hydrozoa

Nematoda

Phylum Annelida

Phylum Platyhelminthes

Phylum Mollusca

Phylum Anthropoda

Composed of:

-Subphylum Hexapoda

-Subphylum Myriapoda

-Subphylum Crustacea

- Subphylum Chelicerata

Phylum Echinodermata

Objectives:

 Discuss the general characteristics of Invertebrates

 Describe the distinguishing characteristics of invertebrates
 Explain the various body forms and body functions of invertebrates
 To understand the example of invertebrates
 Explain the examples and characteristics of the 8 Invertebrate Phylum
Questions
1. What type of animals that are large number of invertebrates? Aquatic Aimals
2.  are animals that do not contain bony structures, such as the cranium and vertebrae?
Invertebrates
3.  Are the simplest of all the invertebrates Parazoan

Terms

1.AQUATIC ANIMALS  may breathe air or extract oxygen that dissolved

in water through specialised organs called gills, or
directly through the skin.

2.INVERTEBRATES, are animals that do not contain bony structures,

OR INVERTEBRATA such as the cranium and vertebrae

3.PARAZOANS (“beside animals”) do not display tissue-level

organization, although they do have specialized
cells that perform specific functions. 
4.OSCULOM Water entering the spongocoel is extruded via a
large common opening
5.PINACOCYTES which are epithelial-like cells, form the outermost
layer of sponges and enclose a jelly-like
substance called mesohyl.
6.MESOHYL  is an extracellular matrix consisting of a collagen-
like gel with suspended cells that perform various
functions. 
7.CHOANOCYTES  (“collar cells”) are present at various locations,
depending on the type of sponge, but they
always line the inner portions of some space
through which water flows
8. AMOEBOCYTES (OR  are motile cells that can transform themselves
ARCHAEOCYTES) into any other cell. They play a vital role in
structure, digestion, reproduction, and
regeneration.
9.GEMMULES  are environmentally resistant structures
produced by adult sponges wherein the typical
sponge morphology is inverted. In gemmules, an
inner layer of amoebocytes is surrounded by a
layer of collagen (spongin) that may be reinforced
by spicules

10.GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY , enzymes are secreted into the cavity, and the

 cells lining the cavity absorb nutrients
11.POLYMORPHIC , because they exhibit both a medusal and
polypoid body plan at some point in their life
cycle.
12.PHYLUM CNIDARIA  includes animals that show radial or biradial
symmetry and are diploblastic, that is, they
develop from two embryonic layers. Nearly all
(about 99 percent) cnidarians are marine species.
13.MASTAX (pharynx with jaw-like structures) where the food
enters to the mouth and travels to it
14.Platyhilminthes Members of this phylum are soft, thin-bodied,
leaf or ribbonlike worms, including the familiar
planaria of ponds and streams, as well as the
flukes and tapeworms parasitic in human and
other animal bodies.
15.ROTIFERS are pseudocoelomates commonly found in fresh
water and some salt water environments
throughout the world.
16.PSEUDOCOELOMATE  Describing any invertebrate animal whose body
cavity is a pseudocoel, a cavity between the gut
and the outer body wall derived from a persistent
blastocoel (see blastula), rather than a true
coelom.
17.MORPHOLOGY . the branch of biology that deals with the form of
living organisms, and with relationships between
their structures
18.COELOM the body cavity in metazoans, located between
the intestinal canal and the body wall
19.A RADULA, which bears chitinous tooth-like ornamentation,
is present in many species, and serves to shred or
scrape food. 
20.RESPIRATION IS FACILITATED that are present ventrally. These animals possess
BY CTENIDIA (GILLS) a radula that is modified for scraping. The
nervous system is rudimentary with only buccal
or “cheek” ganglia present at the anterior end. 

21.PHYLUM ANNELIDA  includes segmented worms. These animals are

found in marine, terrestrial, and freshwater
habitats, but a presence of water or humidity is a
critical factor for their survival, especially in
terrestrial habitats.
22.NEMATODA , like most other animal phyla, are triploblastic
and possess an embryonic mesoderm that is
sandwiched between the ectoderm and
endoderm. 
 23.EMOCOEL  (or blood cavity), is present, and the open
circulatory system is regulated by a tubular or
single-chambered heart. 

24.HERMAPHRODITES. Serial hermaphroditism, where the gonad can

switch from producing sperm to ova, may also be
seen in some species.
25.CHELICERAE (FIGURE 12),. which are specialized, claw-like or fang-like
mouthparts
26. WATER VASCULAR SYSTEM. .  These animals possess a true coelom that is
modified into a unique circulatory system called
a 
27.  ELEGANS  is a monoecious species and shows development
of ova contained in a uterus as well as sperm
contained in the spermatheca.
28.ECYDSXZOAAN arthropod of the large, mainly aquatic group
Crustacea, such as a crab, lobster, shrimp, or
barnacle.
29.CHELICERATES (CHELICERATA) are a group of arthropods that includes
harvestmen, scorpions, mites, spiders, horseshoe
crabs, sea spiders, and ticks.
30.MOLLUSCA : a large phylum of invertebrate animals (as
snails, clams, and mussels) that have a soft
unsegmented body lacking segmented
appendages and commonly protected by a
calcareous shell

  Porifera. Sponges.
 Cnidarian. Jellyfish.
 Platyhelminthes. Flatworms.
 Nematoda. Roundworms.
 Annelida. Segmented worms.
 Mollusca. Clams oysters squid snails.
 Arthropods. Insects crabs lobster ticks.
 Echinoderms. Starfish sea urchins sand dollars.

All Lophotrochozoans and Ecdysozoans share these characteristics:

 bilateral symmetry.
 triploblastic embryo develops. ectoderm. endoderm. mesoderm.
 protostome characteristics.
 may be either coelomate or pseudocoelomate (depending on phylum)
 true tissues, true organs and true organ systems: integumentary system.
digestive system.
Invertebrates
A large number of invertebrates are aquatic animals
 In addition to lacking a spine, most invertebrates also lack an endoskeleton.
A large number of invertebrates are aquatic animals

Phylum Porifera
 The simplest of all the invertebrates are the Parazoans, which include only the
phylum Porifera:
  Parazoans (“beside animals”) do not display tissue-level organization, although they do
have specialized cells that perform specific functions.
 The morphology of the simplest sponges takes the shape of a cylinder with a large
central cavity, the spongocoel, occupying the inside of the cylinder.
 Water entering the spongocoel is extruded via a large common opening called
the osculum
 Pinacocytes, which are epithelial-like cells, form the outermost layer of sponges and
enclose a jelly-like substance called mesohyl. 
  Mesohyl is an extracellular matrix consisting of a collagen-like gel with suspended cells
that perform various functions.
 Choanocytes (“collar cells”) are present at various locations, depending on the type of
sponge, but they always line the inner portions of some space through which water flows
 The cell body is embedded in mesohyl and contains all organelles required for normal
cell function, but protruding into the “open space” inside of the sponge is a mesh-like
collar composed of microvilli with a single flagellum in the center of the column.
 The second crucial cells in sponges are called amoebocytes (or archaeocytes), named
for the fact that they move throughout the mesohyl in an amoeba-like fashion.
 These cells produce collagen to maintain the consistency of the mesohyl. 
 Choanocytes have flagella that propel water through the body.
 Lophocytes secrete collagen.
 Porocytes control the flow of water through pores in the sponge body.
  In some sponges, sclerocytes secrete small spicules into the mesohyl, which are
composed of either calcium carbonate or silica, depending on the type of sponge.
  Class Calcarea contains calcium carbonate spicules and no spongin, class
Hexactinellida contains six-rayed siliceous spicules and no spongin, and class
Demospongia contains spongin and may or may not have spicules; if present, those
spicules are siliceous.
 Spicules are most conspicuously present in class Hexactinellida, the order consisting of
glass sponges. Some of the spicules may attain giant proportions 
 Sponges reproduce by sexual as well as asexual methods. The typical means of asexual
reproduction is either fragmentation (where a piece of the sponge breaks off, settles on a
new substrate, and develops into a new individual) or budding (a genetically identical
outgrowth grows from the parent and eventually detaches or remains attached to form a
colony).
 Gemmules are environmentally resistant structures produced by adult sponges wherein
the typical sponge morphology is inverted. 
 Sponges are generally sessile as adults and spend their lives attached to a fixed
substratum.
 They do not show movement over large distances like other free-swimming marine
invertebrates.. 
 In summary, Animals included in phylum Porifera are Parazoans because they do not
show the formation of true tissues (except in class Hexactinellida). These organisms
show very simple organization, with a rudimentary endoskeleton. Sponges have multiple
cell types that are geared toward executing various metabolic functions. Although these
animals are very simple, they perform several complex physiological functions.

Phylum Cnidaria

 Phylum Cnidaria includes animals that show radial or biradial symmetry and are

diploblastic, that is, they develop from two embryonic layers.
 Cnidarians contain specialized cells known as cnidocytes (“stinging cells”) containing
organelles called nematocysts (stingers). 
 Animals in this phylum display two distinct morphological body plans: polyp or “stalk”
and medusa or “bell”
 An example of the polyp form is Hydra spp.; perhaps the most well-known medusoid
animals are the jellies (jellyfish). Polyp forms are sessile as adults, with a single opening
to the digestive system (the mouth) facing up with tentacles surrounding it. Medusa
 forms are motile, with the mouth and tentacles hanging down from an umbrella-shaped
bell.
 Some cnidarians are polymorphic, that is, they have two body plans during their life
cycle. An example is the colonial hydroid called an Obelia. 
 The sessile polyp form has, in fact, two types of polyps, shown in Figure 3. The first is
the gastrozooid, which is adapted for capturing prey and feeding; the other type of polyp
is the gonozooid, adapted for the asexual budding of medusa. 
 ll cnidarians show the presence of two membrane layers in the body that are derived
from the endoderm and ectoderm of the embryo. The outer layer (from ectoderm) is
called the epidermis and lines the outside of the animal, whereas the inner layer (from
endoderm) is called the gastrodermis and lines the digestive cavity. Between these two
membrane layers is a non-living, jelly-like mesoglea connective layer. 
 The nervous system is primitive, with nerve cells scattered across the body. This nerve
net may show the presence of groups of cells in the form of nerve plexi (singular plexus)
or nerve cords. 
 The cnidarians perform extracellular digestion in which the food is taken into
the gastrovascular cavity, enzymes are secreted into the cavity, and the cells lining the
cavity absorb nutrients. 
 he phylum Cnidaria contains about 10,000 described species divided into four classes:

Anthozoa, Scyphozoa, Cubozoa, and Hydrozoa. 

Class Anthozoa

 The class Anthozoa includes all cnidarians that exhibit a polyp body plan only; in
other words, there is no medusa stage within their life cycle

 These animals are usually cylindrical in shape and are attached to a substrate. A
mouth opening is surrounded by tentacles bearing cnidocytes.

 The mouth of a sea anemone is surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes. The slit-
like mouth opening and pharynx are lined by a groove called a siphonophore.
 Sea anemones feed on small fish and shrimp, usually by immobilizing their prey using
the cnidocytes. Some sea anemones establish a mutualistic relationship with hermit
crabs by attaching to the crab’s shell. 
 Examples include sea anemones, sea pens, and corals.
Class Scyphozoa
 The defining characteristic of this class is that the medusa is the prominent stage in the
life cycle, although there is a polyp stage present.
 Scyphozoans display a characteristic bell-like morphology 
 The life cycles pf these animals can be describe as polymorphic because they exhibit
both a medusa and polypoid body plan at some pointin their life cycle.

Class Cubozoa
 This class includes jellies that have a box-shaped medusa, or a bell that is square in
cross-section; hence, are colloquially known as “box jellyfish.
  Cubozoans display overall morphological and anatomical characteristics that are similar
to those of the scyphozoans. A prominent difference between the two classes is the
arrangement of tentacles. This is the most venomous group of all the cnidarians

Class Hydrozoa
 Hydrozoa includes nearly 3,200 species; most are marine, although some freshwater
species are known (Figure 8).
 Animals in this class are polymorphs, and most exhibit both polypoid and medusoid
forms in their lifecycle, although this is variable.
 the polyp form in these animals often shows a cylindrical morphology with a central
gastrovascular cavity lined by the gastrodermis.
 The gastrodermis and epidermis have a simple layer of mesoglea sandwiched between
them. A mouth opening, surrounded by tentacles, is present at the oral end of the
animal. 
  Many hydrozoans form colonies that are composed of a branched colony of specialized
polyps that share a gastrovascular cavity, such as in the colonial hydroid Obelia.
 Colonies may also be free-floating and contain medusoid and polypoid individuals in the
colony as in Physalia (the Portuguese Man O’ War) or Velella (By-the-wind sailor)
 . Even other species are solitary polyps (Hydra) or solitary medusae (Gonionemus).

Cnidarians represent a more complex level of organization than Porifera. They possess outer
and inner tissue layers that sandwich a noncellular mesoglea. Cnidarians possess a well-formed
digestive system and carry out extracellular digestion. The cnidocyte is a specialized cell for
delivering toxins to prey as well as warning off predators. Cnidarians have separate sexes and
have a lifecycle that involves morphologically distinct forms. These animals also show two
distinct morphological forms—medusoid and polypoid—at various stages in their lifecycle.
Superphylum Lophotrochozoa
 Animals belonging to superphylum Lophotrochozoa are protostomes, in which the
blastopore, or the point of involution of the ectoderm or outer germ layer, becomes
the mouth opening to the alimentary canal.
 This is called protostomy or “first mouth.”
 This layer multiplies into a band and then splits internally to form the coelom; this
protostomic coelom is hence termed schizocoelom.
 The lophotrochozoans are triploblastic and possess an embryonic mesoderm
sandwiched between the ectoderm and endoderm found in the diploblastic
cnidarians.
 These phyla are also bilaterally symmetrical, meaning that a longitudinal section will
divide them into right and left sides that are symmetrical. 

Phylum Nematoda

 The Nematoda, like most other animal phyla, are triploblastic and possess an
embryonic mesoderm that is sandwiched between the ectoderm and endoderm. 

  They are also bilaterally symmetrical, meaning that a longitudinal section will
divide them into right and left sides that are symmetrical.

 Furthermore, the nematodes, or roundworms, possess a pseudocoelom and

consist of both free-living and parasitic forms.

  The name Nematoda is derived from the Greek word “Nemos,” which means
“thread” and includes roundworms.

 Nematodes are present in all habitats with a large number of individuals of each
species present in each. 

 The cuticle of Nematodes is rich in collagen and a carbohydrate-protein polymer

called chitin, and forms an external “skeleton” outside the epidermis.

 The cuticle also lines many of the organs internally, including the pharynx and
rectum. 

 The overall morphology of these worms is cylindrical, as seen in Figure 1. The

head is radially symmetrical. A mouth opening is present at the anterior end with
three or six lips as well as teeth in some species in the form of cuticle
extensions. 
 The muscles of nematodes differ from those of most animals: They have a
longitudinal layer only, which accounts for the whip-like motion of their
movement.

 In nematodes, specialized excretory systems are not well developed.

Nitrogenous wastes may be lost by diffusion through the entire body or into the
pseudocoelom (body cavity), where they are removed by specialized cells.

 Most nematodes possess four longitudinal nerve cords that run along the length
of the body in dorsal, ventral, and lateral positions. The ventral nerve cord is
better developed than the dorsal or lateral cords.

 All nerve cords fuse at the anterior end, around the pharynx, to form head
ganglia or the “brain” of the worm (which take the form of a ring around the
pharynx) as well as at the posterior end to form the tail ganglia.

 C. elegans is a monoecious species and shows development of ova contained in

a uterus as well as sperm contained in the spermatheca. The uterus has an
external opening known as the vulva.

 A number of common parasitic nematodes serve as prime examples of

parasitism. These animals exhibit complex lifecycles that involve multiple hosts,
and they can have significant medical and veterinary impacts. 

 Humans may become infected by Dracunculus medinensis, known as guinea

worms, when they drink unfiltered water containing copepods 

 Hookworms, such as Ancyclostoma and Necator, infest the intestines and feed

on the blood of mammals, especially in dogs, cats, and humans.

 Trichina worms (Trichinella) are the causal organism of trichinosis in humans,

often resulting from the consumption of undercooked pork; Trichinella can infect
other mammalian hosts as well. Ascaris, a large intestinal roundworm, steals
nutrition from its human host and may create physical blockage of the intestines.

 The filarial worms, such as Dirofilaria and Wuchereria, are commonly vectored by

mosquitoes, which pass the infective agents among mammals through their
blood-sucking activity. 

 Dirofilaria immitis, a blood-infective parasite, is the notorious dog heartworm

species.

  Wuchereria bancrofti infects the lymph nodes of humans, resulting in the non-

lethal but deforming condition called elephantiasis, in which parts of the body
become swelled to gigantic proportions due to obstruction of lymphatic drainage
and inflammation of lymphatic tissues.
  Nematodes are pseudocoelomate animals akin to flatworms, yet display more
advanced neuronal development, a complete digestive system, and a body
cavity. This phylum includes free-living as well as parasitic organisms
like Caenorhabditis elegans and Ascaris spp., respectively. They include
dioeceous as well as hermaphroditic species. Nematodes also possess an
excretory system that is not quite well developed. Embryonic development is
external and proceeds via three larval stages. A peculiar feature of nematodes is
the secretion of a collagenous/chitinous cuticle outside the body.

Phylum Platyhelminthes

The flatworms are acoelomate organisms that include many free-living and parasitic
forms. Most of the flatworms are classified in the superphylum Lophotrochozoa, which
also includes the mollusks and annelids. The Platyhelminthes consist of two lineages:
the Catenulida and the Rhabditophora. 

Many flatworms are parasitic, including important parasites of humans. Flatworms have
three embryonic tissue layers that give rise to surfaces that cover tissues (from
ectoderm), internal tissues (from mesoderm), and line the digestive system (from
endoderm). The free-living species of flatworms are predators or scavengers. Parasitic
forms feed on the tissues of their hosts. Most flatworms, such as the planarian shown
in Figure 1, have a gastrovascular cavity rather than a complete digestive system. In
such animals, the “mouth” is also used to expel waste materials from the digestive
system. Some species also have an anal opening. The gut may be a simple sac or
highly branched.

The epidermal tissue is a single layer cells or a layer of fused cells (syncytium) that
covers a layer of circular muscle above a layer of longitudinal muscle.

The free-living species of flatworms are predators or scavengers. Parasitic forms feed
on the tissues of their hosts.

There is neither a circulatory nor respiratory system, with gas and nutrient exchange
dependent on diffusion and cell-cell junctions. This necessarily limits the thickness of
the body in these organisms, constraining them to be “flat” worms.

Diversity of Flatworms

Platyhelminthes are traditionally divided into four classes: Turbellaria, Monogenea,

Trematoda, and Cestoda 

The class Turbellaria includes mainly free-living, marine species, although some
species live in freshwater or moist terrestrial environments. The ventral epidermis of
turbellarians is ciliated and facilitates their locomotion.
The monogeneans are ectoparasites, mostly of fish, with simple lifecycles that consist of
a free-swimming larva that attaches to a fish to begin transformation to the parasitic
adult form.

The trematodes, or flukes, are internal parasites of mollusks and many other groups,
including humans. Trematodes have complex lifecycles that involve a primary host in
which sexual reproduction occurs, and one or more secondary hosts in which asexual
reproduction occurs. The primary host is almost always a mollusks

The cestodes, or tapeworms, are also internal parasites, mainly of vertebrates

(Figure 3). Tapeworms live in the intestinal tract of the primary host and remain fixed
using a sucker on the anterior end, or scolex, of the tapeworm body.

Proglottids are produced at the scolex and gradually migrate to the end of the
tapeworm; at this point, they are “mature” and all structures except fertilized eggs have
degenerated. Most reproduction occurs by cross-fertilization.

There are several tapeworm parasites of humans that are trans

mitted by eating uncooked or poorly cooked pork, beef, and fish.

Phylum Mollusca
Phylum Mollusca is the predominant phylum in marine environments.
 The name “mollusca” signifies a soft body, since the earliest descriptions of mollusks
came from observations of unshelled cuttlefish.
Mollusks are predominantly a marine group of animals; however, they are known to
inhabit freshwater as well as terrestrial habitats.
Mollusks display a wide range of morphologies in each class and subclass, but share a
few key characteristics, including a muscular foot, a visceral mass containing internal
organs, and a mantle that may or may not secrete a shell of calcium carbonate.
Mollusks have a muscular foot, which is used for locomotion and anchorage, and varies
in shape and function, depending on the type of mollusk under study. In shelled
mollusks, this foot is usually the same size as the opening of the shell.
Mollusks are eucoelomate, but the coelomic cavity is restricted to a cavity around the
heart in adult animals. The mantle cavity develops independently of the coelomic cavity.
The visceral mass is present above the foot, in the visceral hump. This includes
digestive, nervous, excretory, reproductive, and respiratory systems.
Additionally, a tongue-like organ called a radula, which bears chitinous tooth-like
ornamentation, is present in many species, and serves to shred or scrape food.
The mantle (also known as the pallium) is the dorsal epidermis in mollusks; shelled
mollusks are specialized to secrete a chitinous and hard calcareous shell.
Additionally, a tongue-like organ called a radula, which bears chitinous tooth-like
ornamentation, is present in many species, and serves to shred or scrape food.
The mantle (also known as the pallium) is the dorsal epidermis in mollusks; shelled
mollusks are specialized to secrete a chitinous and hard calcareous shell.
This phylum can be segregated into seven classes: Aplacophora, Monoplacophora,
Polyplacophora, Bivalvia, Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, and Scaphopoda.
Class Aplacophora (“bearing no plates”) includes worm-like animals primarily found in
benthic marine habitats. These animals lack a calcareous shell but possess aragonite
spicules on their epidermis. They have a rudimentary mantle cavity and lack eyes,
tentacles, and nephridia (excretory organs).
Members of class Monoplacophora (“bearing one plate”) posses a single, cap-like shell
that encloses the body. A looped digestive system, multiple pairs of excretory organs,
many gills, and a pair of gonads are present in these animals.
Animals in the class Polyplacophora (“bearing many plates”) are commonly known as
“chitons” and bear an armor-like eight-plated shell.
Calcareous spines may be present on the girdle to offer protection from predators.
Respiration is facilitated by ctenidia (gills) that are present ventrally. 
The nervous system is rudimentary with only buccal or “cheek” ganglia present at the
anterior end. Eyespots are absent in these animals. A single pair of nephridia for
excretion is present.
Class Bivalvia (“two shells”) includes clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, and geoducks.
Members of this class are found in marine as well as freshwater habitats. 
the name suggests, bivalves are enclosed in a pair of shells (valves are commonly
called “shells”) that are hinged at the dorsal end by shell ligaments as well as shell
teeth.
One of the functions of the mantle is to secrete the shell. Some bivalves like oysters and
mussels possess the unique ability to secrete and deposit a calcareous nacre or
“mother of pearl” around foreign particles that may enter the mantle cavity. This property
has been commercially exploited to produce pearls.
Animals in class Gastropoda (“stomach foot”) include well-known mollusks like snails,
slugs, conchs, sea hares, and sea butterflies. Gastropoda includes shell-bearing
species as well as species with a reduced shell. These animals are asymmetrical and
usually present a coiled shell.Shells may be planospiral (like a garden hose wound up),
commonly seen in garden snails, or conispiral, (like a spiral staircase), commonly seen
in marine conches.
Class Cephalopoda (“head foot” animals), include octopi, squids, cuttlefish, and
nautilus. Cephalopods are a class of shell-bearing animals as well as mollusks with a
reduced shell. They display vivid coloration, typically seen in squids and octopi, which is
used for camouflage.
Locomotion in cephalopods is facilitated by ejecting a stream of water for propulsion.
This is called “jet” propulsion. 
Reproduction in cephalopods is different from other mollusks in that the egg hatches to
produce a juvenile adult without undergoing the trochophore and veliger larval stages.
In the shell-bearing Nautilus spp., the spiral shell is multi-chambered. These chambers
are filled with gas or water to regulate buoyancy. The shell structure in squids and
cuttlefish is reduced and is present internally in the form of a squid pen and cuttlefish
bone, respectively. 
Members of class Scaphopoda (“boat feet”) are known colloquially as “tusk shells” or
“tooth shells,” as evident when examining Dentalium, one of the few remaining
scaphopod genera.
Scaphopods are usually buried in sand with the anterior opening exposed to water. 
These animals do not possess eyes, but they have a radula, as well as a foot modified
into tentacles with a bulbous end, known as captaculae.
Captaculae serve to catch and manipulate prey. Ctenidia are absent in these animals.

Phylum Annelida
 Phylum Annelida includes segmented worms. These animals are found in
marine, terrestrial, and freshwater habitats, but a presence of water or humidity is
a critical factor for their survival, especially in terrestrial habitats.
 The name of the phylum is derived from the Latin word annellus, which means a
small ring. Animals in this phylum show parasitic and commensal symbioses with
other species in their habitat.
 Approximately 16,500 species have been described in phylum Annelida. 
 The phylum includes earthworms, polychaete worms, and leeches.
 Annelids show protostomic development in embryonic stages and are often
called “segmented worms” due to their key characteristic of metamerism, or true
segmentation.
 Annelids display bilateral symmetry and are worm-like in overall morphology.
  Metamerism allows animals to become bigger by adding “compartments” while
making their movement more efficient.
 This metamerism is thought to arise from identical teloblast cells in the embryonic
stage, which give rise to identical mesodermal structures.
 The overall body can be divided into head, body, and pygidium (or tail).
 The clitellum is a reproductive structure that generates mucus that aids in sperm
transfer and gives rise to a cocoon within which fertilization occurs
 Chitinous hairlike extensions, anchored in the epidermis and projecting from the
cuticle, called setae/chaetae are present in every segment.
 Annelids show the presence of a true coelom, derived from embryonic mesoderm
and protostomy. Hence, they are the most advanced worms.
 A well-developed and complete digestive system is present in earthworms
(oligochaetes) with a mouth, muscular pharynx, esophagus, crop, and gizzard
being present. The gizzard leads to the intestine and ends in an anal opening. 
 Annelids possess a closed circulatory system of dorsal and ventral blood vessels
that run parallel to the alimentary canal as well as capillaries that service
individual tissues.
  Excretion is facilitated by a pair of metanephridia (a type of primitive “kidney”
that consists of a convoluted tubule and an open,
 Annelids show well-developed nervous systems with a nerve ring of fused
ganglia present around the pharynx.
 The nerve cord is ventral in position and bears enlarged nodes or ganglia in each
segment.
Classification of Phylum Annelida

 Phylum Annelida contains the class Polychaeta (the polychaetes) and the class
Oligochaeta (the earthworms, leeches and their relatives).

Earthworms are the most abundant members of the class Oligochaeta,

distinguished by the presence of the clitellum as well as few, reduced chaetae
(“oligo- = “few”; -chaetae = “hairs”). The number and size of chaetae are greatly
diminished in Oligochaeta compared to the polychaetes (poly=many, chaetae =
hairs).
 The many chetae of polychaetes are also arranged within fleshy, flat, paired
appendages that protrude from each segment called parapodia
 The subclass Hirudinea includes leeches such as Hirudo
medicinalis and Hemiclepsis marginata.
 The class Oligochaeta includes the subclass Hirudinia and the subclass
Brachiobdella. 
 This adaptation possibly helps the leeches to elongate when they ingest copious
quantities of blood from host vertebrates.
 The subclass Brachiobdella includes species like Branchiobdella balcanica
sketi and Branchiobdella astaci, worms that show similarity with leeches as well
as oligochaetes.
Summary
 Phylum Annelida includes vermiform, segmented animals. Segmentation is seen
in internal anatomy as well, which is called metamerism. Annelids are
protostomes. These animals have well-developed neuronal and digestive
systems.
 Reproductive strategies include sexual dimorphism, hermaphroditism, and serial
hermaphroditism. Internal segmentation is absent in class Hirudinea.
 There are four traditional classes of flatworms, the largely free-living
turbellarians, the ectoparasitic monogeneans, and the endoparasitic trematodes
and cestodes. Trematodes have complex lifecycles involving a molluscan
secondary host and a primary host in which sexual reproduction takes place.
Cestodes, or tapeworms, infect the digestive systems of primary vertebrate
hosts.
 The rotifers are microscopic, multicellular, mostly aquatic organisms that are
currently under taxonomic revision. 
 Phylum Mollusca is a large, marine group of invertebrates. Mollusks show a
variety of morphological variations within the phylum. 
 Mollusks are protostomes. The dorsal epidermis in mollusks is modified to form
the mantle, which encloses the mantle cavity and visceral organs. This cavity is
quite distinct from the coelomic cavity, which in the adult animal surrounds the
heart. Respiration is facilitated by gills known as ctenidia. A chitinous-toothed
tongue called the radula is present in most mollusks.
Phylum Arthropoda
 The name “arthropoda” means “jointed legs” (in the Greek, “arthros” means
“joint” and “podos” means “leg”); it aptly describes the enormous number of
invertebrates included in this phylum. Arthropoda dominate the animal kingdom
with an estimated 85 percent of known species included in this phylum and many
arthropods yet undocumented. 
 Phylum Arthropoda is the largest phylum in the animal world, and insects form
the single largest class within this phylum. Arthropods are eucoelomate,
protostomic organisms
 hylum Arthropoda includes animals that have been successful in colonizing
terrestrial, aquatic, and aerial habitats. This phylum is further classified into five
subphyla: Trilobitomorpha (trilobites, all extinct), Hexapoda (insects and
relatives), Myriapoda (millipedes, centipedes, and relatives), Crustaceans (crabs,
lobsters, crayfish, isopods, barnacles, and some zooplankton), and Chelicerata
(horseshoe crabs, arachnids, scorpions, and daddy longlegs). Trilobites are an
extinct group of arthropods found chiefly in the pre-Cambrian Era that are
probably most closely related to the Chelicerata. These are identified based on
fossil records
 A unique feature of animals in the arthropod phylum is the presence of a
segmented body and fusion of sets of segments that give rise to functional body
regions called tagma. 
 A central cavity, called the hemocoel (or blood cavity), is present, and the open
circulatory system is regulated by a tubular or single-chambered heart. 
 The book lungs of arachnids (scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites) contain a
vertical stack of hemocoel wall tissue that somewhat resembles the pages of a
book. Between each of the “pages” of tissue is an air space.
 Chitin is a tough, flexible polysaccharide. In order to grow, the arthropod must
shed the exoskeleton during a process called ecdysis (“to strip off”); this is a
cumbersome method of growth, and during this time, the animal is vulnerable to
predation

Subphylum Hexapoda

The name Hexapoda denotes the presence of six legs (three pairs) in these animals as
differentiated from the number of pairs present in other arthropods. Hexapods are
characterized by the presence of a head, thorax, and abdomen, constituting three
tagma. The thorax bears the wings as well as six legs in three pairs. Many of the
common insects we encounter on a daily basis—including ants, cockroaches,
butterflies, and flies—are examples of Hexapoda.

Amongst the hexapods, the insects (Figure 6) are the largest class in terms of species
diversity as well as biomass in terrestrial habitats. Typically, the head bears one pair of
sensory antennae, mandibles as mouthparts, a pair of compound eyes, and some ocelli
(simple eyes) along with numerous sensory hairs. 
Subphylum Myriapoda

Subphylum Myriapoda includes arthropods with numerous legs. Although the name is
hyperbolic in suggesting that myriad legs are present in these invertebrates, the number
of legs may vary from 10 to 750. This subphylum includes 13,000 species; the most
commonly found examples are millipedes and centipedes. All myriapods are terrestrial
animals and prefer a humid environment.

Myriapods are typically found in moist soils, decaying biological material, and leaf litter.
Subphylum Myriapoda is divided into four classes: Chilopoda, Symphyla, Diplopoda,
and Pauropoda. 

Centipedes like Scutigera coleoptrata (Figure 7a) are classified as chilopods. These

animals bear one pair of legs per segment, mandibles as mouthparts, and are
somewhat dorsoventrally flattened. The legs in the first segment are modified to form
forcipules (poison claws) that deliver poison to prey like spiders and cockroaches, as
these animals are all predatory. Millipedes bear two pairs of legs per diplosegment, a
feature that results from embryonic fusion of adjacent pairs of body segments, are
usually rounder in cross-section, and are herbivores or detritivores. Millipedes have
visibly more numbers of legs as compared to centipedes, although they do not bear a
thousand legs

Subphylum Crustacea

Crustaceans are the most dominant aquatic arthropods, since the total number of
marine crustacean species stands at 67,000, but there are also freshwater and
terrestrial crustacean species. Krill, shrimp, lobsters, crabs, and crayfish are examples
of crustaceans (Figure 8). Terrestrial species like the wood lice (Armadillidium spp.)
(also called pill bugs, rolly pollies, potato bugs, or isopods) are also crustaceans,
although the number of non-aquatic species in this subphylum is relatively low.
rustaceans possess two pairs of antennae, mandibles as mouthparts,
and biramous (“two branched”) appendages, which means that their legs are formed in
two parts, as distinct from the uniramous (“one branched”) myriapods and hexapods
nlike that of the Hexapoda, the head and thorax of most crustaceans is fused to form
a cephalothorax (Figure 10), which is covered by a plate called the carapace, thus
producing a body structure of two tagma. Crustaceans have a chitinous exoskeleton
that is shed by molting whenever the animal increases in size. The exoskeletons of
many species are also infused with calcium carbonate, which makes them even
stronger than in other arthropods. Crustaceans have an open circulatory system where
blood is pumped into the hemocoel by the dorsally located heart.

Subphylum Chelicerata

This subphylum includes animals such as spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, and sea
spiders. This subphylum is predominantly terrestrial, although some marine species
also exist. An estimated 77,000 species are included in subphylum Chelicerata.
Chelicerates are found in almost all habitats.

he body of chelicerates may be divided into two parts: prosoma and opisthosoma, which
are basically the equivalents of cephalothorax (usually smaller) and abdomen (usually
larger). A “head” tagmum is not usually discernible. The phylum derives its name from
the first pair of appendages: the chelicerae (Figure 12), which are specialized, claw-like
or fang-like mouthparts. These animals do not possess antennae. The second pair of
appendages is known as pedipalps. In some species, like sea spiders, an additional
pair of appendages, called ovigers, is present between the chelicerae and pedipalps.

Chelicerae are mostly used for feeding, but in spiders, these are often modified into
fangs that inject venom into their prey before feeding (Figure 13). Members of this
subphylum have an open circulatory system with a heart that pumps blood into the
hemocoel. Aquatic species have gills, whereas terrestrial species have either trachea or
book lungs for gaseous exchange.

Arthropods represent the most successful phylum of animal on Earth, in terms of the
number of species as well as the number of individuals. These animals are
characterized by a segmented body as well as the presence of jointed appendages. In
the basic body plan, a pair of appendages is present per body segment. Within the
phylum, traditional classification is based on mouthparts, number of appendages, and
modifications of appendages present. Arthropods bear a chitinous exoskeleton. Gills,
trachea, and book lungs facilitate respiration. Sexual dimorphism is seen in this phylum,
and embryonic development includes multiple larval stages.

Phylum Echinodermata
Echinodermata are so named owing to their spiny skin (from the Greek “echinos”
meaning “spiny” and “dermos” meaning “skin”), and this phylum is a collection of about
7,000 described living species. Echinodermata are exclusively marine organisms. Sea
stars (Figure 1), sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars, and brittle stars are all
examples of echinoderms. To date, no freshwater or terrestrial echinoderms are known.
The endoskeleton is developed by epidermal cells and may possess pigment cells,
giving vivid colors to these animals, as well as cells laden with toxins. Gonads are
present in each arm. In echinoderms like sea stars, every arm bears two rows of tube
feet on the oral side.
These animals possess a true coelom that is modified into a unique circulatory system
called a water vascular system. An interesting feature of these animals is their power
to regenerate, even when over 75 percent of their body mass is lost.
The nervous system in these animals is a relatively simple structure with a nerve ring at
the center and five radial nerves extending outward along the arms. Structures
analogous to a brain or derived from fusion of ganglia are not present in these animals.
Echinoderms are sexually dimorphic and release their eggs and sperm cells into water;
fertilization is external. 

Classes of Echinoderms

This phylum is divided into five extant classes: Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea
(brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or feather
stars), and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers) 

he most well-known echinoderms are members of class Asteroidea, or sea stars. They
come in a large variety of shapes, colors, and sizes, with more than 1,800 species
known so far. The key characteristic of sea stars that distinguishes them from other
echinoderm classes includes thick arms (ambulacra) that extend from a central disk
where organs penetrate into the arms. Sea stars use their tube feet not only for gripping
surfaces but also for grasping prey. Sea stars have two stomachs, one of which can
protrude through their mouths and secrete digestive juices into or onto prey, even
before ingestion

Brittle stars belong to the class Ophiuroidea. Unlike sea stars, which have plump arms,
brittle stars have long, thin arms that are sharply demarcated from the central disk.

Sea urchins and sand dollars are examples of Echinoidea. These echinorderms do not
have have arms, but are hemispherical or flattened with five rows oftube feet that help
them inslow movement , tube feet are extrufed through pores of a continuous internal
shll called a test.

Sea lilies and feather stars are examples of Crinoidea. Both of these species are
suspension feeders. Sea cucumbers of class Holothuroidea are extended in the oral-
aboral axis and have five rows of tube feet. These are the only echinoderms that
demonstrate “functional” bilateral symmetry as adults, because the uniquely extended
oral-aboral axis compels the animal to lie horizontally rather than stand vertically.