Module 6

Item Analysis

Overview

Teachers normally prepare a draft of the tests. These drafts are subjected to item
analyses and validation in order to ensure that the final versions are useful and functional.
Hence, this module presents the procedures and the formula to test the Range of Difficulty of an
item in the tests.

Objectives

At the end of the module, it is expected that you should be able to:

1. Explain what is meant by “item analysis”

2. Enumerate the characteristics and importance of item analysis

3. Compute for the difficulty of test items to determine its difficulty and discrimination index.

Course Content

1. Item Analysis.

There are two important characteristics of an item that will be of interest to the teachers.
These are: (De Guzman-Santos, 2006)

 Item difficulty; and

 Discrimination index

The difficulty of an item/item difficulty is defined as the number of students who able to
answer the item correctly divided by the total number of students. Thus:

Item difficulty = No. of students with correct answer ÷ total number of students

It is usually expressed in percentage

Example: What is the item difficulty index of an item if 25 students are unable to answer it
correctly while 75 answered it correctly?

Here, the total number of students is 100, hence, the item difficulty index is 75/100 or 75%

One problem with this type of difficulty index is that it may not actually indicate that item is
difficult (or easy). A student who does not know the subject matter will naturally be unable to
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 answer the item correctly even if question is easy. How do we decide on the basis of this
index whether the item is too difficult or too easy? The following arbitrary rule is often used in
the literature:

Range of Difficulty Index Interpretation Action

0-0.25 Difficult Revise or discard
0.26-0.75 Right difficulty Retain
0.76-above Easy Revise or discard

Difficult items tend to discriminate between those who know and those who do not know
the answer. Conversely, easy items cannot discriminate between these two groups of students.
We are therefore interested in deriving a measure that will tell us whether an item can
discriminate between these two groups of students. Such a measure is called an index of
discrimination.

An easy way to derive such a measure is to measure how difficult an item is with respect
to those in upper 25% of the class and how difficult it is with respect to those in the lower 25% of
the class. If the upper 25% of the class found the item easy yet the lower 25% found it difficult,
then the item can discriminate properly between these two groups. Thus, Index of
discrimination =DU-DL

Example:

Obtain the Index of discrimination of an item if the upper 255 of the class had a
difficulty index of 0.60 (i.e 60% of the upper% got the correct answer) while the lower 25% of the
class had a difficulty index of 0.20. Here, DU=0.60, while DL = 0.20, thus the index of
discrimination=.60-0.20=0.40.

Theoretically, the index of discrimination can range from -1.0 (when DU=0 and DL = 1)
to 1.0 (when DU-1.0 and DL = 0). When the index of discrimination is to -1, then this means
that all of the lower 25% of the students got the correct answer while all of the other 25% got
the wrong answer. In a sense, such an index discriminates correctly between the two groups
but the item itself is highly questionable. Why should the bright ones get the wrong answer and
the poor ones get the right answer? On the other hand, if the index of discrimination is 1.0,
then this means that all of the lower 25% got the correct answer. . This is a perfectly
discriminating item and is the ideal item that should be included in the test. From these
discussions, let us agree to discard or revise all items that have negative discrimination index
for although they discriminate correctly between the upper and lower 25% of the class, the
content of the item itself may be highly dubious.

As in the case of the index of difficulty, we have the following rule:

Index Range Interpretation Action

-1.0 - -0.50 Can discriminate but item is questionable Discard
-0.55 - 0.45 Non-discriminating Revise
0.46 – 1.0 Discriminating item Include

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Example: Consider a multiple choice type of test of which the following data were obtained.
:

Item Options
A B* C D
0 40 20 20 Total
0 0 15 5 0 Upper 25%
0 5 10 5 Lower 25%

The correct response is B. Let us compute the difficulty index and index of
discrimination:

Difficulty Index = number of students getting correct response/total

= 40/100 = 40% within range of a “good item”

The discrimination index can similarly be computed:

DU = Number of students in upper 25% with correct response/number of students in

the upper 25%
= 15/20 = .75 or 75%

DL = Number of students in lower 75% with correct response/number of students in

the lower 25%

=5/20% = .25 or 25%

Discrimination Index = DU – DL = .75 - .25 = .50 or 50%

Thus, the item also has a “good discriminating power”.

It is also instructive to note that the distracter A is not an effective distracter since this
was never selected by the students. Distracter C and D appear to have good appeal as
distracters.

Basic Item Analysis Statistics

This Michigan State University Measurement and Evaluation Department reports a

number of item statistics which aid in evaluating the effectiveness of an item. The first of these
is the index of difficulty which MSU (http//www.msu.edu/dept in de Guzman-Santos. 2006)
defines as the proportion of the total group who got the item wrong. “Thus a high index
indicates a difficult item and a low index indicates an easy item. Some item analysts prefer an
index of difficulty which is the proportion of the total group who got an item right. This index
may be obtained by marking the PROPORTION RIGHT option on the item analysis header
sheet. Whichever index is selected is shown as the INDEX OF DIFFICULTY on the item
analysis print-out. For classroom achievement tests, most test constructors desire items with
indices of difficulty no lower than 20 nor higher than 80, with an average index of difficulty from
30 or 40 to a maximum 60.

The INDEX OF DISCRIMINATION is the difference between the proportion of the upper
 57

group who got an item right and the proportion of the lower group who got the item right. This
index is dependent upon the difficulty of an item. It may reach a maximum value of 100 for an
item with an index of difficulty of 50, that is, when 100% of the upper group and none of the
lower group answer the item correctly. For items of less than or greater than 50 difficulty, the
index of discrimination has a maximum value of less than 100. Interpreting the Index of
Discrimination document contains a more detailed discussion of the index of discrimination.”
(http//:www.msu.edu/dept, de Guzman-Santos, 2007).

2. In conclusion, the Item Analysis Procedure for Norm-Provides the following information:

2.1 the difficulty of the item

2.2 The discriminating power of the item
2.3 the effectiveness of each alternative

Benefits derived from Item Analysis

 It provides useful information for class discussion of the test
 It provides data which helps students improve their learning.
 It provides insights and skills that lead to the preparation of better tests in the
future

INDEX OF DIFFICULTY

P = Ru + RL x 100
T
Where: Ru the number in the upper group who answered the item correctly.

RL the number in the lower group who answered the item correctly.

T The total number who tried the item

Index of item discriminating Power

D = Ru + RL
½T

Where:
P percentage who answered the item correctly (index of difficulty)

R number who answered the item correctly

T total number who tried the item

P = 8 x 100 40%
20
REMEMBER: the smaller the percentage figure the more difficult the item.
 58

Estimate the item discriminating power using the formula below

D = Ru + RL = 6-2 = 0.40
½T 10

The discriminating power of an item is reported as a decimal fraction, maximum

discrimination power is indicated by an index of 1.00

Maximum discrimination is usually found at the 50 percent level of difficulty.

Here is the distribution (de Guzman-Santos, 2007):

0.00 – 0.20 Very difficult

0.21 - 0.80 Moderately difficult
0,81 – 1.00 Very Easy

Activity No. 1
Finding the Index of Difficulty

A. In your notebook, compute the Index of Difficulty

1. N = 60, number of wrong answers: Upper 25% = 2 lower 25% = 6
2. N = 80, number of wrong answers: upper 25% = 2 lower 25% =9
3. N = 30, number of wrong answers: upper 25% = 1 lower 25% =6
4. N = 50, number of wrong answers: upper 25% = 3 lower 25% = 8
5. N = 70, number of wrong answers, upper 25% = 4 lower 25% = 10

B. After the computation identify which items are most difficult.

C. Compute for the discrimination index for each of the items in Exercise A

Enhancement lesson for Validity and Reliability

Validation and Reliability these two are still part of determining the meaningfulness and
usefulness of a test.

In your previous modules, the test of validity was performed using statistical tools such
as Spearman rho, Pearson r etc, However, apart from these tools, Gronlund (De Guzman-
Santos, 2006) suggest using the so called EXPECTANCY TABLE.

This table is easy to construct and consist of the test (predictor) categories listed on the
left hand side and the criterion categories listed horizontally along the top of the chart. For
example, a mathematics achievement test is constructed and the scores are categorized as
high, average, and low. The criterion measured used is the final average grades of the students
in high school: Very Good, Good, and Needs Improvement. The two way table lists down the
number
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of students falling under each of the possible pairs of (test, grade) as shown below:

Expectancy Table

Grade Point Average

Test Scores Very Good Good Needs Improvement
High 20 10 5
Average 10 25 5
Low 1 10 14

The expectancy table above shows that there were 20 students getting high scores and
subsequently rated excellent in terms of their final grades; 25 of them got average scores and
subsequently rated good in their finals; and finally, 14 students obtained low test scores and
were later graded as needing improvement. The evidence fort this particular test tends to
indicate that students getting high scores on it would be graded excellent; average scores on it
would be rated good later; and students getting low scores on the test would be graded as
needing improvement.

Reliability

As we have already discussed, RELIABILITY refers to the consistency of scores

obtained – how consistent they are for each individual from one administration of an instrument
to another from one set items to another. Recall the Kuder-Richardson formulae (KR-20 or KR-
21)

Reliability and validity are related concepts. If an instrument is unreliable, it cannot yield
valid outcomes. As reliability improves, validity may improve (or it may not) However, if an
instrument is shown scientifically to be valid then, it is almost certain that it is also reliable. The
following table is a standard followed by almost universally in educational test and
measurement.

Reliability Interpretation
0.91 and Excellent reliability: at the level of the best standardized tests
above
0.81 -0.90 Very good for a classroom test
Good for a classroom test; in the range if most. There are probably a few items
0.71 -0.80 which could be improved.
Somewhat low. The test needs to be supplemented by other measures (e.g.,
0.61 -0.70 more tests) to determine grades. There are probably some items which could
be improved.
0.51 – 0.60 Suggests need for revision of test, unless it is quite short ( 10 or fewer items).
The test definitely needs to be supplemented by other measures (e.g. more
tests) for grading
0.50 or Questionable reliability. This test should not contribute heavily to the course
below grade, and needs revision
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Activity No. 2.

Validity and Reliability Test

In your notebook, answer the following questions (de Guzman-Santos, 2007)

1. A teacher constructed a test which would measure the student’s ability to apply previous
knowledge to certain situations. In particular, the evidence that a student is able to apply
previous knowledge are:

 Draw correct conclusions that are based on the information given;

 Identify one or more logical implications that follow from a given point of view;
 State whether two ideas are identical, just similar, unrelated or contradictory.

Having the above guide (draw, identify, state. . .) write 9 test items using the multiple
type tests, (three for each category). After having completed the task, get a partner
classmate, exchange work and judge each work whether the items indeed cover the
given application of knowledge. You may choose a particular subject where you have
a reference material. Each of you partner should write in ½ crosswise paper the test
items & then opposite, write whether correct or not as to the ability of the test item to
test a conclusion, an implication whether identical etc. after having completed this
task, take a picture of your partner’s work with your remarks and your name as the
judge, then send to; gsspup@yahoo.com

2. Notebook again. What is the relationship between validity and reliability? Can a test be
reliable and yet not valid? Explain

Assignment:

1. Be ready for an online quiz. Date to be announced in our GC

2. Memorize the following:

2.1 process of constructing an Expectancy Table;

2.2 three types of validity evidences; and
2.3 different measures of reliability.
References

Calmorin Laurentina.P. (2013) Assessment of Learning 1.

Manarang, L. Y., R. H. Manarang. (1985) Educational Measurement and Evaluation, QC

Santos, Rosita de Guzman. (2007) Assessment of Learning 1. Lorimar Publishing, Cubao, QC.
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 Module 7

Portfolio Assessment

Overview

Portfolio Assessment is a comprehensive purposeful collection of student’s performance

that ranges from most significant achievement or best work to expanded work record in
academic performance like in Mathematics, Science, English, Filipino, Economics, computer
and extracurricular activities where he excels. Portfolio assessment for students is more
accurate, reliable and valid because all of the student’s performance is recorded (Calmorin,
2013).

Objectives

At the end of this module, it is expected that you should be able to:

1. Explain the contents of a portfolio

2. Differentiate the kinds of portfolio
3. Name the steps of the portfolio process
4. Evaluate a portfolio using a Rubric

Course Contents (Calmorin, 2013)

1. Contents of Portfolio
 Best work of students. The best work of the students must be stated in the portfolio.
For example, the students has participated in local, regional, national, and international
investigatory projects, for instance, a student won First Prize in the local, regional and
national levels and Honorable Mention in the international level. This must be included in
portfolio stating the title of the project that enable him to win. Example: title of the
investigatory project, dates, venues and prizes per level.

 Individual student’s work. The individual student’s work both in school and at home
must be stated in the portfolio. For instance, in school, the student is elected President
in the class and Supreme Student Council. At home, during weekend, she helps her
mother with washing clothes, cooking and deboning of milkfish

 Group work activities. Group work activities of the student must be included in the
portfolio. For instance, the group work activity is Income Generating Project on
Seaweed Muffins as requirement to their Entrepreneurial subject. She is assigned as
leader and their ROI (Return on Investment) is more than 100 percent (100%). Another
group work activity is classroom cleaning and she is assigned as the leader. They clean
the classroom after class hours and each member is assigned alternately to bring
flowers for the Teacher’s Table. Another group work activity to present a dialogue in
English class related to the theme and she is always assigned as leader. All these
group work activities must be recorded in the portfolio.
  Extracurricular activities. The extracurricular activities of the student must be recorded
in the portfolio. These serve as bases for the future teachers of the learner to identify
the
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specific extracurricular activities he participated in and excelled. By so doing the future
teachers will find it easy to identify the students who can participate in the extracurricular
activities if they are recorded in the portfolio.

 Religious activities. It is important that religious activities of the student must be

recorded in the portfolio. For instance, President of the Legion of Mary Praesidium and
member of the Singles for Christ. Though religious activities are optional, but these
activities must be recorded in the portfolio especially if the student enrolls in religious
institution. These serve as bases for being active spiritually.

Kinds of Portfolio

 Working portfolio. It refers to daily activity of the learner in a particular learning area.
This provides and identifies the learner skills to be developed in order to determine if
there is progress on the learning task. The teacher determines if his teaching is effective
through working portfolio. This is a day to day record of the activities of the learners, like
for example the daily activities in Mathematics which are being recorded in the Students
Portfolio. Values developed are also to be recorded, example: ACCURACY,
INDUSTRY, RESOURCEFULNESS, GENEROSITY and THRIFT

The contents are:

Teacher –directed tasks

Teacher – observation

 Developmental portfolio. Objectives of the Developmental portfolio:

1. It presents the development or progress of the directed tasks performed by the

students based on the instructional objectives
2. to determine the progress;
3. it helps develop process skills;
4. it identifies strength and weaknesses of the students; and
5. it keeps track the development or more than one process-product performance

 Documentary Portfolio: It is gathering the best work of the student for assessment
purposes. It provides evidences that instructional objectives have been attained. It
also states the student’s progress and weaknesses from one learning task to another.
For instance, a student participated in a Scientific Paper contest in school, provincial,
regional and national levels. Fortunately, he was chosen as Best Scientific Paper
Presentor” in all levels of the contest. His best work must be documented and recorded
in his valence because this provides evidences that the instructional goals have been
reached. But the failure and progress of his trial and error method in conducting his
research activities from one method to another must also be recorded in his portfolio.
 Best work can be performed in the areas of Art, Music, Essay, Poetry, Creative Writing
and Research.

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 Showcase portfolio. The best work or award-winning feats of the student must be
displayed, i.e. Research Office, President’s Office, and Library. If possible, it must be
published in school paper, a research journal, regional and national newspapers.
Showcase portfolio, the best work of student, serves as show window to other students.

 Evaluation Portfolio. The best work or any task/activity of the student with progress or
development must be recorded in the portfolio for grading purposes. For work or task of
no progress or failure by the student must also be recorded as basis for remedial
instruction.

In evaluation portfolio, the student is assessed or evaluated as his own rate. His
performance is not compared with other students’ performance.

REMINDER: THE REQUIRED NOTE BOOK IS THIS SUBJECT serves as your portfolio.
Please work on it.

Portfolio Process

The steps of portfolio process are:

 Goal Setting: it provides the purpose and gives direction in preparing portfolio

 Selecting: This refers to the process of selecting entries to be included in the

portfolio. It must be relevant to the goal of instruction

 Performing. After selecting the entry, the student has to perform the activities
based on the goal of instruction.

 Data Gathering. This refers to gathering the evidence of the learning tasks the
students did. Example. In the P.E class the goal is for students to be able to present
a “Sayaw ng Lahi.” Gathering of data here may include the submission of the plan
for the dance, the pictures of the actual performance and the write-ups of the steps
with the participants.

 Reflecting. The three domains of behavior such as cognitive, psychomotor, and

affective must be stated in the portfolio

 Exhibiting. The write-ups or if there are subject outputs, they should be displayed
during school events like foundation day, etc.

 Evaluating. Prepare a Rubric for the output of the students so that you can give a
fair and objective rating.

An example follows on the next page

 64

It may look similar to this:

Originality 15 points
Uniqueness 15
Socio-eco impact 30
Significance 15
Relevance to VMGO/gov’t thrust 25
100

The two elements given highest points are socio economic impact and relevance to
school vision, mission, goals and objective and government thrust because students
should be trained to work on projects which are of significance to the
community/school or society.

The Portfolio normally is evaluated by the following:

 Self 5 per cent
 Peer 5
 Subject Teacher 50
 Class Adviser 40
Total 100 per cent

The suggested criteria in evaluating the portfolio are as follows:

 Content 50 per cent

 Format/Style 15
 Originality 15
 Reflection 10
 Punctuality 10
TOTAL 100 per cent

The pointers in evaluating each part is as follows:

 Content; you will be assigning points for every part that you have required your
students to include. After coming up with the points for each part, like for
example you have required them to write an introduction, there must be a point
for this. Similarly, all other parts like it’s a photoessay, there must be points for
the quality of the photos, relevance of the photos and the caption. The perfect
score should always be 100 to be multiplied 50% which is the assigned weight
for this.

 Format/Style. Before you assign the portfolio to the students you should have
given them a clear instruction on the format, which may follow the following info.:

-Top, side and bottom margins, font size and style

-Bondpaper size
 -MIDDLE Headings in all CAPS and highlighted, Left Side Headings-only first
letter to be capitalized, and highlighted.

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Parts of the Portfolio may include the following:

 Title Page – No page number, you may instruct the students to use the built-in
cover page styles in the computer, it can be the banded, which is similar to the
cover page of this module. Information to be encoded will be: a.) name of the
school, b.) Title of the Portfolio, example: Portfolio in Edukasyong Pangtahanan
at Pangkabuhayan, b.)name of the Student, Gr. & section and on the lower
portion, c.) name of the teacher to whom it will be submitted . Remember the
TITLE OF THE PORTFOLIO is encoded in all capital letter. You may follow the
format of this subject’s cover page.

 Acknowledgments. This is the part of the portfolio where the student will
express his gratitude to all the people who had contributed in the completion of
the portfolio/project.

 Table of Contents. Look at the Table of contents of this Instructional

Material, you may follow the format. What is important is that only the
contents will have the Arabic numbers, 1, 2 3, and so forth while the
preliminary pages will have the small letter roman numerals as in i, ii, iii, iv, v etc.

 List of Figures. If you have presented figures in the contents of the portfolio,
you have to enumerate them here:

Example:

List of Tables
Figure No. Title Page Number

1 The Water Cycle 8

2 Ecosystem 28

 List of Tables. To prepare this one, follow similar procedures as what you did
with the list of figures

 Contents. This is the meat of the portfolio. It could be divided into chapter,
Chapter 1, 2 etc. depending upon the nature of the portfolio.

For DepEd Fromat and styles visit this website:https://vinceleste.com/download-

the-department-of-education-manual-of-style/

Depending upon the format of the school where you will be employed in the
future, there are instances where the last chapter is the Conclusion. However, if
you will be preparing one portfolio for all the subjects, then you do not call each
part as Chapter, but instead you will label each after the Introduction which is
 your Part 1, Part 2 will be your first subject, for example Mathematics, Part 3 is
Science and so on. Each part then will have a conclusion and
recommendation

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 Conclusion. If your conclusion will be for a particular subject, like in this case
it’s TLE, This would refer to the insight that are derived from the actual output.
Suppose , you required your students to prepare a portfolio for their gardening
activities in TLE. They actually have engaged in the “Gulayan sa Paaralan”
project. Your Gr. 6 students had worked in group of 5 members and each group,
have two plots where they planted pechay. The content would deal on how they
raise the pechay following farming tips they have discussed in the subject.

The conclusion would be paragraphs telling what they actually have observed and
learned from the actual gardening experience . This should include answers to questions
they have proposed in their Chapter 1, It could be a question regarding the type of soil
they actually need to grow pechay, another question would be the soil care , the fertilizer
needed and the return on their investment.

The conclusion are insights generated from the experiences of actual gardening.

The last part would be the recommendations. The recommendations are solutions
to problems they have encountered while having the gardening. Again this has to include
problems they have observed in relation to the question they have in chapter 1, which
includes the ROI, this could be the profit they should have realized after they have
harvested and sold their pechay.

 The last would be the Bibliography. These are entries for the references.
Example:

Using the APA latest edition:

Single Author:

Calmoring,Laurentina P. 2006. Statistics for Secondary Students. National Book Store.

Manila

Double author:

Calmorin, Laurentina P. and Melchor a. Calmorin. 2007. Research Methods and Thesis
Writing. Rex Book Store, Inc. Manila.

On the next page you will see an example of a Rubric for Portfolio Evaluation. The
Criteria would not be the same for other types of portfolio, you may include items which are
relevant to the contents, objectives of the portfolio.
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Example Rubric for Porfolio Evaluation

Criteria 5 4 3 2 1
Outstanding Very Good Good Fair Poor
Content Well organized Organized Explained the Fair Poor
(50%) Explanation of Explanation Contents Explanation Explanation
contents of of Of contents
contents contents
Format/ Correct Format Correct Correct Incorrect Incorrect
Style and Format but Format Format Format and
(15%) Orderly Less orderly But not But neat dirty
orderly/dirty
Originality Novel and Creative Somewhat Not new & Copies
(15%) Creative new Has a
duplicate
Reflection Well explained 3 domains 2 domains Only No reflection
(10%) 3 domains Are are reflected cognitive is on the 3
(Cognitive, explained reflected domains
psychomotor & But not
Affective) Fully well
Punctuality Submitted 5 Submitted 2 Submitted on Submitted 2 Submitted 5
(10%) Days before Days before The deadline Days after the Days after the
deadline Deadline deadline deadline

How do you compute for the earned points using the criteria above? Let us take the
examples below:

Self Evaluations Peer

Content 4 x 0.5=2.0 4 x 0.5 = 2.0
Format 4 x 4 x 0.15 = 0.6
0.15=0.6
Originality 4 x 3 x 0.15 =0.45
0.15=0.6
Reflection 4 x 0.1 =0.4 4 x 0.1 = 0.40
Punctuality 5 x 0.1 = 5 x 0.1 = 0.50
0.5
Total 4.1 Total: 3.95
Verbal Description: VG Very Good

Activity 1. Evaluating a Portfolio

Suppose you are the class adviser of this student who submitted his portfolio, similar to
the table above, evaluate the student’s work, the numbers on the first column (example 4, 3)
are taken from the rubric, the highest is 5, the multiplier are the percentage assigned for each
 element, Content is 50%, format is 15% etc. After your rating add the totals, divided by 3
(Self, Peer and You),that is now the final rating of the portfolio.

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Advantages of Portfolio

The advantages of portfolio are as follows:

 Portfolio provides legal basis of learning of the student to the teacher-adviser,

subject teachers and parents
 It examines the progress of the student’s learning over a given period of time
 It presents a student’s best work
 It compares a student’s previous best work to his present work
 It promotes the relationship between teacher-student as well as parent-child in
the teaching-learning process
 It widens reflective learning
 It serves as reference of teaching-learning process
 It facilitates knowledge of the history of the student’s work to the present teacher-
adviser and present subject-teacher.

Limitations of Portfolio

 Portfolio is much taxing in terms of gathering items and entries

 It is burdensome to keep portfolio of individual student. For instance, every year the
teacher-adviser has 50 students and each student has portfolio. For five years being an
adviser he has 250 portfolios to keep, hence, additional room is needed to store these
portfolios
 Student find difficulty to write the entries in his portfolio and preparation in also time
consuming
 It is difficult to use portfolio as tool for students to enter a college or job placement
 It is also time consuming to evaluate portfolio on the part of the subject-teachers and
teacher-adviser.

Implications of Portfolio to Education

 Curriculum. It is a means to improve curriculum. It enables teacher to determine the

relevance of the curriculum, similarly, it also determines if it is still realistic and
responsive to the needs of the students in particular and to the society in general. It
determines if the students can meet the needs of the industry and the country. For
example, special education is necessary here and abroad because there are already a
number of students with special needs. Hence, special education curriculum can be
revised to suit the needs of special children based on students’ portfolio.

 Instruction. Portfolio assessments are harmoniously matched on individualized

instruction coupled with applying strategies and techniques to the different learning
styles. By so doing, portfolio assessment pays tribute to teacher’s use or instructional
 strategies and techniques of teaching coupled with teamwork, projects, and applied
teaching-learning process.

 Assessment. Teachers can make use of portfolio as assessment tool for student’s
performance . Students and peers can also use this for self-assessment & peer
assessment and reflection.
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 Research. Portfolio can be used in research as reference. The result of the entries of
portfolio in relation to research determine, for instance, whether Investigatory Projects,
can be used as basis to conduct research. If a student claims Investigatory Project as
his best work, the teacher can easily train him/her in research and be given additional
work to conduct research.
 Extension. The Investigatory Project being claimed by the student in portfolio as his
best work can be an information fool for the people in the community. For example, if
the Investigatory Project of the student’s portfolio is “Utilization and commercialization of
Milkfish Bone as Offal of Boneless Milkfish into Fish-Value Added Products”, the student
together with his adviser, can demonstrate to the community the procedure to prepare
milkfish bone value added products. In so doing, the people in the community can make
use of this information and convert into livelihood project. Thus, augmenting their
income, alleviate poverty and improve quality of life.

Making Porfolio Assignment (Calmorin, 2013)

There are seven (7) concerns to consider in making a portfolio assignment. These are:

1. Objectives. Always begin with objectives which are as much as possible, in the three
domains of the Bloom’s Taxonomy. See to it that they conform with the standard SMART:
Specific- a competency that you can readily/exactly observe, like they can define, write etc.;
Measurable- meaning you can test them if they really can define; Attainable- if you state ate the
end of the one hour period they can write a descriptive essay, then this should be attained;
Realistic- this refers to the relevance of what a student can do with the lesson you discussed,
there should be no objective requiring them that they should be able to dance if the subject is
not in MAPEH, or if the lesson is for the Gr. 2 pupil’s lesson is adding one-digit numbers, then
there should be no objective requiring the students to add two-digit; and the last is T-Time
bound, that is why we, teachers would always start with the phrase at the end of this
lesson-this is the time or sometimes, specifically mentioned, at the end of the 50-min.
period, they should be able to. . .
2. Target population. This refer to the specific group of students, Gr. 5/Gr. 6 etc
3. Content. This includes all the items/entries that are to be included in the portfolio
4. Strategies. These are the procedures in writing the contents
5. Resources. These are the Ms to complete the portfolio- - Materials, bond paper, computer
ink, if it is the garden in EPP, then the soil, seedlings, fertilizer, water, etc.
6. Transmission. Include here how the content can be shared to other people, like during the
founding anniversary of the school, there would be some exhibits- - - indicate this.
7. Assessment. This is how the portfolio is to be assessed.
Assessment Tasks. To be uploaded in the platform accessible to students.

Example Items
Part 1-Matching Type. Part II-Multiple Choice

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Module 8

Introduction to Statistical Concepts

Overview

Statistics plays a very important role in measurement and evaluation. Statistical

techniques allow us to describe the performance of our students and make proper scientific
inferences about their performance. This module introduces some of the basic concepts in
Statistics

Objectives:

At the end of the module, it is expected that students be able to:

1. Explain basic statistical concepts

2. Compute the measures of central tendencies (Mean, Median and Mode)

Course Content

1. Classification of Scores on a Master Sheet (Manarang, 1985)

1.1 Classify the following test scores in Mathematics on a Master sheet.

20 33 66 49 41 29 37 52 15 35
65 43 38 24 54 62 35 56 33 43
38 33 50 26 35 27 36 37 26 32
62 43

1.2 Procedures
 Subtract the lowest score tens digit (15, hence, it is 1) from the highest score(66, it is
6). Add 4, a constant to the difference. The sum is the number of horizontal lines,
6 – 1 =5+4=9, this is now the number of horizontal lines(columns) but you have to add
two more columns for the range of score and the total

 Your number of rows depend on the highest score plus two more for the column
headings and total
 Write the column headings , the 1st column for the range of score, 2 nd will be for zero,
next is 1, 2 and soon.
 The last column after nine (9) should be labeled Total. Similarly, the last row of the 1 st
column is also to be labeled, Total.
 Tally each score
 Add the tallies horizontally and vertically.
 On the next page, you will have an example of a Master Sheet.

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Table 1
Classification of Test Scores on a Master sheet

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total
6 II I I 4
5 I I I I 4
4 I III I 5
3 I III III I II II 12
2 I I II I I 6
1 I 1
Total 2 1 4 6 2 5 5 3 2 2 32

1.3 Uses of the Master Sheet

 It allows the arrangement of the test scores or statistical data

 It conveniently arranged scores from highest to lowest
 You can easily determine the frequency of each score (example there are two 62, three
44, three 33 and so on, hence, ranking of scores can easily be facilitated
 The master sheet can be used when the scores are 31 or more

Activity No.1
Preparing a Master Sheet for Test Scores

87 61 78 93 85 89 72 61 78 67 87
68 90 80 80 58 89 59 97 47 21
54 70 86 67 60 68 56 55 86 64
53 71 73 77 92 76 72 89 58 72
72 89 58 72 62 62 48 47 79 67

1.In your notebook, prepare a Master sheet for the above scores. On the first column, the
highest score and the lowest score should be considered.
2. What is the highest score? The lowest score?
3. How many students got a score of 72? of 61 of 67
4. How many scores began with tens digit 9? Tens digit 6? Tens digit 4?
5. How many scores ends with 0? With 2? With 7?

2. Ranking of Scores

Below is another set of scores:

32 35 29 41 28 26 39 27 35 30
35 32 40 29 39 37 28 29 37 41
 What your going to recall now are the steps in ranking which you have already done in
your statistics class in High School. On the next page, you will find the scores arrange in
ascending order, lowest to highest.

72 Score Rank
Table 2 s
Ranking of Test Scores 41 1.5
41 1.5
40 3
39 4.5
39 4.5
37 6.5
37 6.5
35 9
35 9
35 9
32 11.5
32 11.5
30 13
29 15
29 15
29 15
28 17.5
28 17.5
27 19
26 20

Activity No. 2-Steps in Ranking Test Scores

1. In your notebook, write the steps in ranking scores

2. Explain why the highest score got the Rank 1.5, the 4th and 5th highest score, 4.5?

2.1 Uses of Ranks

 It shows the relative position of the student’s test score in a group. You may say,
he is the highest, the lowest, etc.

 It determines the bright from the mediocre and from the dull students

 From the ranks, the percentage of students that surpass another student or a
group of students is determined. Example if we divide the 20 students into two
halves, we say that the first 50 per cent are the students whose score is above
32 and 32 below are the lower 50 percent, and so on.
  The ranks are used in the computation of coefficient of correlation, remember our
Spearman rho formula.

73
 Ranks can be used in our everyday life, such as in arranging your clothes from
your most favorite to the least favorite, or arranging your students from the tallest
to the smallest.

3. The Idea of Randomness (de Guzman-Santos, 2007)

A central concept in statistics is the idea of randomness. Student scores are assumed
to be random realizations of a presumably large number of unknown scores.

For clarity, let us consider the scores of 30 students which are as follows:

Population(P)={15,20,25,25,30,35,26,14,17,18,12,15,22,27,33,32,21,18,18,13,14,21,17,
18,19,23,22,21,26,31}

Now, the teacher randomly selects 15 test scores for further analysis

Sample(S) = { 20, 25, 14, 12, 33, 18, 21, 17, 22, 21, 26, 30, 32, 13, 15}

The idea of RANDOMNESS means that we never can predict,, what will be the score of
the 5th students in the original population, nor we can not also predict the score of the 3rd student
in the Sample.

It is for this reason that Statistical Analysis is important--- to make sense of the
information conveyed to us by a random set of data

4. The MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCIES: The Mean.

The mean of set of observation is defined as the sum of the observations divided by the
number of observations or it is the simple average of a set of scores.

The formula is as follows:

Mean = ∑x where: ∑ is the sum of the observations/scores denoted as x

N N is the number of case

Let us have an example for the computation of mean. Using your calculator or laptop or
cellphone compute for the sum of the scores given on the other page.

Is your answer for the ∑x 648? Our N is : 30 isn’t it?

Substituting the formula with the given figures, we have, 648 ÷ 30 = 21.60

Now, work on the Sample where there are only 15 scores. What is your mean?.
 Activity No. 1 Computing for the Mean

In your notebook, show your computation, for the sample scores.

74

The mean is a single numerical measure of the typical or average performance of the
group of students. Observe that in your computation of the mean score for the sample. The
computed value is near the Mean of the 30 scores.

The central concept of statistics is that the sample mean provides a good view of the
unknown population mean. This is the very same principle used when we take the average of
examination scores of students to get a final grade. That is, we believe that the average
of examination scores provides a good picture of the correct ability of the students.

What had been presented to you are scores which were ranked as they are, in Statistics
we call them, UNGROUPED DATA, but as you remember when your scores are converted into
grades, often times, you will ask what is the range of scores assigned a specific grade- - - this
now would tell you of another concept called GROUPED DATA.

4. Let us now proceed to the GROUPING, TALLYING AND FREQUENCIES OF SCORES

4.1 Finding the Range. Let us have the following examples;

47 32 58 37 24 28 55 38 35 44 49
47 51 38 33 29 27 42 39 53 46 40
28 30 47 50 45 39 32 36 36 51 47
39 33 38 36 45 43 33 44 42 36 41
44 41 36 34

4.2 FIND THE RANGE. The range is equal to the highest score minus the lowest score
With the scores above, we have Range = 58 – 24 = 34

 Find the class interval. Divide the range by the number of Step Intervals. Let
us use the PUP Grading System. Count the steps from 1.0 to 5.0, we have
12 Steps, hence:

34/12 = 2.83 or 3

However, REMEMBER, in PUP we use the Criterion Reference that is why, though if
you will look at the distribution you might say that you may be passing the subject even without
getting the standard 75%, the example is used only for you to understand the CONCEPT OF
CLASS INTERVAL. REMEMBER further that the ideal step class/step interval is from 10 to 15,
the minimum is 7 and the maximum is 25.

The class interval (ci) should be preferably be an odd number so that the MID-POINTS
of the steps will be whole numbers. If in the above scores the desired step is 10, hence: 31/10
= 3.4. you have to round it up so the range will be 3. Similar to what we did in the original
example above, 2.83 or 3.

 Prepare the STEP DISTRIBUTION. The lowest step may begin from the lowest
score (24). Since are our RANGE is 3, therefore, the first step is 24 to 26, look at
75

the table below:

Table 3
Step Distribution of Test Scores, limits, Mid-Points, Tallies, and
Frequencies

Step Limits Mid-points Tallie Frequencies

Distribution s
57-59 56.5- 58 I 1
59.5
54-56 53.5- 55 I 1
56.5
51-53 50.5- 52 III 3
53.5
48-50 47.5- 49 II 2
50.5
45-47 44.5- 46 IIII -II 7
47.5
42-44 41.5- 43 IIII -I 6
44.5
39-41 38.5- 40 IIII -I 6
41.5
36-38 35.5- 37 IIII -IIII 9
38.5
33-35 32.5- 34 IIII 5
35.5
30-32 29.5- 31 III 3
32.5
27-29 26.5- 28 IIII 4
29.5
24-26 23.5- 25 I 1
26.5
Number of Students/Cases(N) = 48

There are other methods of starting the lowest step in a step distribution. Since there is
no distinct advantage of any one method(Manarang, 1985) over another, the author had
recommended this formula.

4.3 Limits. It is simply deducting 0.5 from the score, hence, we have 23.5, 26.5 etc.

4.4 Mid-points. It simply refers to the number at the middle, that is why it is suggested
that range be an odd number.
 4..5 Tallies and Frequencies. The tallying of scores is simply counting how many
students have obtained a specific score.

REMEMBER:
 The Score distribution is used in grouping of scores from 30 or less number
cases.
 The Step Distribution is used in grouping of scores from 31 or more number
cases
 The distribution shows where the scores clusters or in what score did more of the
students clustered.
 This distribution facilitates computation of statistical data.

ALTHOUGH IN your computer program EXCEL, SPSS and on line Calcultors, it still
necessary how you may be able to compute these three measures of Central Tendencies:

76
In summary, below summarizes what this concepts are:

 The mean is the average of a data set.

 The mode is the most common number in a data set.
 The median is the middle of the set of numbers.

We have already discussed the MEAN, let us now proceed with the MEDIAN

5. The MEDIAN. This is the point or score at the mid-point of the distribution. In
UNGROUPED DATA, it is the mid. Most score in the ordered distribution such that it is at
midpoint of the upper 50% and the lower 50%

Let us start with the counting median.

Table 4

Calculation of the Counting Median

(when the number of Case is Odd)

Scores Counting Median

49
47
45 Middle Score is 40
40 Counting MEDIAN is 40
38 (it lies in between the first 3, and the last 3
35 scores)
33

What if we have even numbered cases?

Two Numbers in the Middle

BUT, with an even amount of numbers things are slightly different.

In that case we find the middle pair of numbers, and then find the value that is half
way between them. This is easily done by adding them together and dividing by two.

Example: 3, 13, 7, 5, 21, 23, 23, 40, 23, 14, 12, 56, 23, 29

When we put those numbers in order/rank, we have:

3, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 21, 23, 23, 23, 23, 29, 40, 56

There are now fourteen numbers and so we don't have just one middle number, we have a pair
of middle numbers:

3, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 21, 23, 23, 23, 23, 29, 40, 56

77

In the example on the other page, the middle numbers are 21 and 23.

To find the value halfway between them, add them together and divide by 2:

21 + 23 = 44
then 44 ÷ 2 = 22 

So the Median in this example is 22.

Where is the Middle?

A quick way to find the middle: count how many numbers, add 1 then divide by 2

Example: There are 45 numbers

45 plus 1 is 46, then divide by 2 and we get 23. So the median is the 23rd number in the sorted
list.

Example: There are 66 numbers

66 plus 1 is 67, then divide by 2 and we get 33.5

33 and a half? That means that the 33rd and 34th numbers in the sorted list are the two middle
numbers. So to find the median: add the 33rd and 34th numbers together and divide by 2.

4.2 Computation of Median Using Grouped Data.

Let us use the data in Table 3 Where:

 Md=LL+(N2–PS)ci LL=lower limit, f = frequency

f
(
=38.5 + 48/2-22) 3 N=Total no. of cases
6
PS= Partial Sum
= 38.5 + (2/6)3
Md = 39.5 Answer ci = class interval

To read further open this link:

https://www.mathsisfun.com/data/frequency-grouped-mean-median-mode.ht
https://www.themathdoctors.org/finding-the-median-of-grouped-data/

78

Activity No. 3 Computing the Median

In your note book, compute for the median, using the data below:

53 50 54 42 34 53 34 38 57
39 48 34 55 45 42 40 30 46
20 22 34 48 34 48 45 43 34
39 38

5.1 Characteristics and Uses of Median

 The median is that point that divides a scale into two equal parts of which divides a
group into two sub-groups based on ability or achievement.
 The median is used with the quartile deviation in dividing a group of pupils into four (4)
homogeneous groupings.
 The median is the most exact measure of central tendency. Extreme high or low score,
does not affect the median.
 The value of the median depends on the number of scores, not much on the magnitude
of the scores. If most of the scores are high, and if most of the scores are low, the
median is low.

5.2 The Mode.

Characteristics

 This is the third measure of central tendency.

 The rough mode (based from observation) is the most frequent score in an
ordered score distribution.
  The rough mode is the midpoint of the step with the highest frequency when the
scores are grouped with class interval

Activity No. 4 The Mode

In your notebook, write the mode of the following sample scores following the rule above.

a. Step Distribution Frequency (f) b. Step Distribution f

90-94 3 85-89 2
85-89 5 80-84 5
80-84 6 75-79 7
75-79 7 70-74 9
70-74 9 65-69 10
65-69 10 60-64 8
60-64 8 55-59 6
55-59 6 50-54 2
50-54 5 45-49 3
45-49 0 40-44 2
40-44 1 N=54
N=60
79

Module 9

Measures of Dispersion

Overview

While the Mean and the Median are description of the location of the central tendency of
the data, it is often not enough to fully describe the data sets. A measure of dispersion or
scatter is also needed. The dispersion or how scattered the data are is the focus of this module

Objectives

At the end of this module, it is expected that you should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of a computed standard deviation

2. Interpret a bell-shaped curve
3. Demonstrate a Standard Normal Distribution

Course Content

1. Standard Deviation. This is a measure of the average deviation or departure of the

individual scores from the Mean.

Finding the SD using the long method:

The formula is as follows:

Sd = √∑d2 where: √-Square root

 N ∑d 2 –is the sum total of the squares of
deviation of the scores from the mean
N- Number of cases
Example Ungrouped data

Steps:
1. Arrange the scores in 1st column in any order

2. Find the mean

M = ∑score
N

= 264
12

Mean = 22
3. To get d, the score minus the mean, 23 – 22 = 1

80
Table 1
Computation of Standard Deviation by the Long Method

Score d d2
s
23 1
25 3
14 -8
30 8
28 6
18 -4
24 2
19 -3
22 0
26 4
12 -10
23 1

4. To find d2, multiply the number by itself, 1 x 1= 1; 3 x 3 = 9 and so on.

5. Finding the Standard Deviation:

Substituting the formula on page 79, we have:

Sd = √∑d2 = √320 = 5.16 this is the Sd using the long method
N 12

Now, let us compute the Sd using the short method

To compute Sd using this method, we have to use the step distribution

 Step Mid- Frequencies d fd f(d)2
Distributio points
n
57-59 58 1 6 6 36
54-56 55 1 5 5 25
51-53 52 3 4 12 48
48-50 49 2 3 6 18
45-47 46 7 2 14 28
42-44 43 6 1 6 6
39-41 40(mean) 6 0 0 0
36-38 37 9 -1 -9 9
33-35 34 5 -2 -10 20
30-32 31 3 -3 -9 27
27-29 28 4 -4 -16 64
24-26 25 1 -5 -5 25
N 48 ∑fd=0 ∑fd2= 306

81

Where: d is the distance from the mean, all numbers above the mean are positive, below are
negative numbers

fd is the product of multiplying frequency and d( f x d=6; etc)

f(d) 2 = is the product of d multiplied by fd (-1 x -9 = 9) this is a means to eliminate the

negative sign.

ci = to the class interval, in this case we use 3.

________________ ______________
Formula: SD = ci √ ∑f(d)2 _ ( ∑fd)2 = 3√ 306 - 0
N N 48
__________ ______
= 3√ 306 - (0 )2 = 3√ 6.38
48 48

SD = 7.59
REMEMBER: This is only one of the steps in computing the SD, there is still another one when
the Mean does not fall at the midpoint. If this is the case, follow the same procedure, but you will
be assigning the positive 1 to that step above the computed mean

Example: Step Distribution f d

50-54 6 2
45-49______________________7__________ 1___
____Computed Mean : 44.6 which not the midpoint
40 -44 4 -1

As the rule stated, positive 1 should be assigned to the step above the computed mean
which is 45 to 49.
Activity No. 1. Computing the standard deviation
 In your notebook, compute the SD using the short method

Step Distribution Frequency (f) b. Step Distribution f

90-94 3 85-89 2
85-89 5 80-84 5
80-84 6 75-79 7
75-79 7 70-74 9
70-74 9 65-69 10
65-69 10 60-64 8
60-64 8 55-59 6
55-59 6 50-54 2
50-54 5 45-49 3
45-49 0 40-44 2
40-44 1 N=54
N=60

82
2. The Bell Shaped Curve (de Guzman-Santos, 2007)

Student performance is usually related to the performance of the group (in class) or of
the group of similarly situated students. It is curious mathematical fact that when the scores of
the students are plotted against the number of students getting such scores, the resulting graph
of scores versus frequency of occurrence is bell-shaped. This curve is referred to as the normal
distribution. The normal distribution is often considered a cornerstone of statistical theory and
applications because of its ability to serve as a good model for many types of observations that
occur in practice, like examination scores, IQs, heights, etc.

With the following scores, let us prepare a graph to illustrate the Bell-shaped curve. In
your note book prepare the graph. The vertical line is for the frequencies, and the horizontal
line for the scores.

The graph will look like this but of course you have to make it bigger:

Scores

Table 1
Sample Test Scores

Scores Frequencies (F)

57-59 1
54-56 1
51-53 3
48-50 2
 45-47 7
42-44 6
39-41 6
36-38 9
33-35 5
30-32 3
27-29 4
24-26 1
N 48

The normal distribution of scores such that it is bell shaped, symmetric around
the mean score x = µ . When the mean and standard deviation of a set of scores are given
,then the normal distribution disregarding the frequency of occurrence of scores is
completely known.

83
The height of a normal distribution with mean µ and standard deviation Ó’ at
some value x is given by:

f(x) = [/(2ᴫ)1/2 Ó’] exp (-.5(x- µ)2/ Ó’2

Which involves the constant π = 3.1416 and the number exp =2.71828 or simply e.
The height of the normal distribution represents the “frequency” with which the observation x
would theoretically occur, i.e. how many times x is expected to occur out every hundred. The
curve extends indefinitely inn both directions, getting closer and closer toward the horizontal
axis without ever reaching it and with the area under each normal curve totaling 100 per cent
regardless of the value of the mean and standard deviation. Fifty per cent (50%) of the scores
lie below the mean and the other 50% lie above the mean, hence, the mean also serves as
median of the distribution of test scores. Moreover, most of the scores will be clustered aroung
the mean of a normal distribution.

We can get areas under the normal curve given information about the mean and
standard deviation. These areas represent probabilities of percentage of occurrence of the
scores in an interval values.
 One standard deviation from the mean is about 68%
 Two standard deviations from the mean is about 95%; and
 Three standard deviations from the mean is about 99.7%

3. The Standard Normal Distribution

The standard normal distribution is a special type of normal distribution which
can be readily generated with Microsoft Excel.

4. Standardization.
 An observation is in standard units if we see how many standard deviations it is
above or below the average. That is if x, µ and Ó’ respectively represent the observation, its
mean, its standard deviation, then, the standardized for x is
Z = (x- µ)/ Ó’
Example: Let x be normal with mean Ó’ = 25 and variance of O 2 = 100. Then, the
Standard score of x = 30 is:
Z = (30 – 25)/10 = 0.5000

If the distribution of student scores are assumed to be normally distributed, then we

could

84

make certain predictions about the percentage of individuals scoring between any two scores as
shown in the illustration below:

5. Percentile Ranks
In national Achievement tests or in standardized test, the results are reported in
percentile ranks rather than in terms of raw scores of standard scores. The percentile rank is
easy to calculate.

Percentile rank = Number of students scoring below the value plus number of students scoring
equal to the value divide by the total number of test takers.

The percentile rank of a student is defined as the percentage of students scoring at or lower
than the student’s raw score. Thus, a 95 percentile rank means that 95% of the students had
scores lower or equal to the raw score of the student.

Example : Suppose that 100 test takers took an examination. If 75 students scored lower than
82 and 6 students scored exactly equal to 82, then the percentile rank of the score equal to 82
is:
 Percentile rank = 75 + 6 = 81.00%
100

Activity No. 2

Below are scores, in your notebook, 1.) compute for the mean & standard deviation
75 82 85 87 8 83 86 77 7 76 77 8 90 9 92 8 83
8 6 9 1 8
80 77 74 72 7 75 78 78 7 77 76 7 78 7 78 7
0 7 4 8 8
88 86 84 85 8 70 77 70 7 71 73 7 80 7 84 8
3 0 8 7 5

2.) What are the Z scores and standard T-scores of an examination of 84? 89? 75?
77?
3.) Plot the scores to show the bell-like structure reflecting the central tendency of
scores.

Assignment
1. Study this module a short answer on-line test will be given, date and time to be
announced.
85
Module 10

Grading System

Overview

Assessment of student performance is essentially knowing how a student is progressing in a

course(and, incidentally, how a teacher is also performing with respect to the teaching process).
The first step in assessment is testing, either by paper and pen objective test or by some
performance based testing procedures followed by a decision to grade the performance of the
student. Grading is the next step after testing. This module presents the underlying philosophy
and mechanics in converting raw score values into standard grading formats. (de-Guzman-
Santos, 2007)

Objectives

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. differentiate the common grading systems;

2. explain the underlying philosophies in grading;
3. convert raw scores into standard grading system

Course Content
1. NORM REFERENCE GRADING (the following discussion are taken from de-Guzman-
Santos, 2007)

The most commonly used grading system falls under the category of norm-referenced
grading. This refers to a grading system wherein a student’s grade is placed in relation to the
performance of a group. Thus, in this system, a grade of 80 means that the student performed
better than or same as 80% of the class (or group) At the first glance, there appears to be no
problem with this type of grading system as it describes the performance of a student with
reference to a particular group of learners.

The following example shows some of the difficulties associated with norm-referenced
grading:

Example: Consider the following two sets of scores in an English 1 class for two sections of ten
students each:

A = 30,40,50,55,60,65,70,75,80,85
B = 60,65,70,75,80,85,90,90,95,100

In the first class, the student who got a raw score of 75 would get a grade o 89% while in
the second class, the same grade 80% would correspond to a raw score of 90. Indeed, if the
test

86
used for the two classes are the same, it would be a rather “unfair” system of grading. A wise
student would opt to enroll in class A since it is easier to get higher grades in that class than in
the other class-Class B.

The previous example illustrates one difficulty with using a norm-referenced grading
system. This problem is called the problem of equivalency. Does a grade of 80 in one class
represents the same achievement level as a grade of 80 in another class of the same subject?

This problem is similar to the problem of trying to compare a Valedictorian from some
remote rural high school with a Valedictorian from some very popular University in the urban
area. Does one expect the same level of competence for these two valedictorians?

As we have seen, norm-reference grading system are based on a pre-established

formula regarding the percentage or ratio of students with a whole class who will be assigned
each grade or mark. It is therefore known in advance what percent of the students would pass
or fail a given course. For this reason, many opponents to NORM-REFERENCED grading aver
that such grading system does not advance the cause of education and contradicts the principle
of INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.

In NORM-REFERENCE GRADING, the students, while they may work individually, are
actually in competition to achieve a standard performance that will classify them into the
desired grade range. It essentially promotes competition among students in the same class. A
student or a pupil who happens to enroll in a class of gifted students in Mathematics will find
that the norm-reference grading system is rather WORRISOME.
 For example a teacher may establish a grading policy whereby the top 15 percent of
students will receive a mark of EXELLENT our OUTSTNDING, which in class of 100 enrolled
students will be 15 persons. Such a grading policy is illustrated below:

Table 1. Percentage and Description of Grades Obtained Using Norm-Reference

Grade Percentage Distribution

1.0 (Excellent) Top 15% of the class
1.25 Very Good Next 15% of the class
1.50 Next 45% of the class
Good/Average
2.0 (Pass) Next 15% of the class
3.0 (Poor) Bottom 10% of the class

The underlying assumption in NORM-REFERENCE grading is that students have

abilities as reflected in their raw score conforms with the NORMAL DISTRIBUTION. The
objective is to find out the best performers in this group. Norm-referenced system are most
often used for screening selected student populations in conditions where it is known that not all
students can advance due to limitations such as available places, jobs, or other controlling
factors.

For example in the Philippine setting, since not all HS students can actually enroll in
colleges or universities because of financial constraints, the norm reference system can be
applied.

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Example: In a class of 100 students, the mean score in a test is 70 with the standard deviation
of 5. Below is a norm-referenced grading table which has seven grade scale and such hat
students scoring between plus or minus one standard deviation from the mean receives an
average grade. Observe it.

Table 2. Norm-Reference Grading System with a Mean Score of 70

Raw Score Grade Percentage

Equivalent/Description
Above 85 Excellent 1%
81-85 Very Good 4%
76-80 Above Average 11%
66-75 Average 68%
61-65 Pass 11%
55-60 Marginal Pass 4%
Below 55 Fail 1%

Only a few teachers who use norm-referenced grading apply it with complete
consistency. When a teacher is faced with a particularly bright class, most of the time, he does
not penalize good students having the bad luck to enroll in a class with a cohort of other capable
students even if the grading systems says she should fail a certain percentage of the class.
 On the other hand, it is also unlikely that a teacher would reduce the mean grade for a
class when he observes a large proportion of poor performing students just to save them from
failure.

A serious problem with norm referenced grading is that, no matter what the class level of
knowledge and ability and no matter how much they learn, a predictable proportion of students
will receive each grade. Since its essential purpose is to sort students into categories
based on relative performance, norm-reference grading is often used to WEED OUT students
for limited places in selective educational programs.

Norm-referenced grading indeed promotes competition to the extent that students would
rather not help fellow students because by doing so, the mean of the class would be raised
and consequently, it would be more difficult to get higher grades. Similarly, students would do
everything legal to pull down the scores of everyone else in order to lower the mean and thus
assure him/her of higher grades on the curve.

A more delicate problem with norm referenced grading is that a strict correspondence
between the evaluation methods used and the course instructional goals is not necessary to
yield the required grade distribution. The specific learning objectives of norm-referenced
classes are often kept hidden, in part out of concern that instruction not “give away” the test or
the teacher’s priorities, since this might tend to skew the curve. Since norm-referenced grading
is full of problems, what alternatives have been devised for grading students?

Before we proceed to the next, let us have an activity first:

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Activity No.1 Reflective Writing

1. Read the characteristics of Norm-referenced Grading System, in your notebook, write the
advantage and the disadvantages of it

2. After the careful consideration of its advantages and disadvantages, assuming that you are
already a professional teacher in one of the schools here in Mariveles, will you recommend it
to your principal, why and why not.?

Take a break for 5 minutes, stretch out, inhale exhale. . .drink water

Ready for the next? Ok, here it is.

2. The CRITERION-REFERENCED GRADING SYSTEM

These systems are based on a fixed criterion measure, similar to what you have earlier
read, in our Department, BEED, we are using this, for you to pass a subject you have to get
75% in all your exams. We have adopted this to prepare you for the board exam which is also
using the same criterion. There is a fixed target and the students must achieve that target in
order to obtain a passing grade in a class regardless of how the other student in the class
perform. The scale does not change regardless of the quality, or lack thereof, of the students.
 For example in a class of 100 students using the table below, no one might get an
equivalent grade of Excellent if no one scores 98 above or 85 above depending on the criterion
used. There is no fixed percentage of students who are expected to get the various grades in
the criterion-referenced grading system

This is an example of a Criterion Reference

Table 3. Example of Scores and Grade Description Using Criterion Referenced Grading
System

Description Scores Scores Description Score

1.00 98-100 85-100 1.0 Excellent/Outstanding 98-100
Excellent
1.25 Good 88-97 80-84 1.25 Very Good 95-97
2.0 Fair 75-87 70-793 1.5 Very Satisfactory 92-94
3.0 Poor 65-74 60-69 1.75 Good 89-91
5.0 Fail Below 65 Below 60 2.0 Satisfactory 86-88
2.25 83-85
2.50 80-82
2.75 77-79
3.00 Passing 75-76

In the above table, last two columns, the criterion is 75 for the students to get a passing
mark for a total test item of 100 and 98 to 100 is the criterion
for an excellent mark.
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The Criterion-Referenced system are often used in situations where the teachers are
agreed on the meaning of a “standard of performance” in a subject but quality of the students is
unknown or uneven; where the work involves student collaboration or teamwork; and where
there is no external driving factor such as needing to systematically reduce a pool of eligible
students.

Note that in criterion-referenced grading system, students can help a fellow student in a
group work without necessarily worrying about lowering his grade in that course. This is
because the criterion-referenced grading system does not require the mean (of the class) as
basis for distributing grades among the students. It is therefore an ideal system to use in
collaborative group work. When students are evaluated based on predefined criteria, they are
freed to collaborate with one another and with the instructor. With criterion-referenced grading,
a rich learning environment is to everyone’s advantage, so students are rewarded for finding
ways to help each other, and for contributing to class and small group discussion.

Since the criterion measure used in criterions-referenced grading is a measure that

ultimately rests with the teacher, it is logical to ask: What prevents teachers who use
criterion-referenced grading from setting the performance criteria so low that everyone
can pass with ease? There are a variety of measures used to prevent this situation from ever
happening in the grading system.

 First the criterion should not be based on only one teacher’s opinion or standard.
It should be collaborative to arrive at. A group of teachers teaching the same
subject must set the criterion together.
  Once the criterion is established, it must be made public and open to public
scrutiny so that it does not become arbitrary and subject to the whim an caprices
of the teacher

Now let us look at the Transmutation Table of DepEd, this is how scores obtained by
students are converted into grades.

Open this link to read more:

https://www.deped.gov.ph/2015/04/01/do-8-s-2015-policy-guidelines-on-class
https://www.teacherph.com/transmutation-table/

On the next page, you will be able to see the particular transmutation table that is being
used by teachers in the Public School or even those in the Private school because it is what the
DepEd requires. Its legal basis is DepEd Order No. 8,s.2015.

As you may notice, there is a specific raw score on the first column that has to be
obtained by a student in order to get a desired grade. This is considered Criterion-Referenced
Grading System, for a student to get at least 75, in a 100 item test, a student has to get 60
correct answers. You will use this once you are already in the field

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DepEd Transmutation Table

Initial Grade Transmuted Grade Initial Grade Transmuted Grade

100 100

98.40 – 99.99 99 66.40 – 67.99 79

96.80 – 98.39 98 64.80 – 66.39 78

95.20 – 96.79 97 63.20 – 64.79 77

93.60 – 95.19 96 61.60 – 63.19 76

92.00 – 93.59 95 60.00 – 61.59 75

90.40 – 91.99 94 56.00 – 59.99 74

88.80 – 90.39 93 52.00 – 55.99 73

87.20 – 88.79 92 48.00 – 51.99 72

85.60 – 87.19 91 44.00 – 47.99 71

 84.00 – 85.59 90 40.00 – 43.99 70

82.40 – 83.99 89 36.00 – 39.99 69

80.80 – 82.39 88 32.00 – 35.99 68

79.20 – 80.79 87 28.00 – 31.99 67

77.60 – 79.19 86 24.00 – 27.99 66

76.00 – 77.59 85 20.00 – 23.99 65

74.40 – 75.99 84 16.00 – 19.99 64

72.80 – 74.39 83 12.00 – 15.99 63

71.20 – 72.79 82 8.00 – 11.99 62

69.60 – 71.19 81 4.00 – 7.99 61

68.00 – 69.59 80 0 – 3.99 60

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Now let us look at some reflective questions relevant to grading

3. FOUR QUESTIONS IN GRADING

Marinila D. Svinicki (2007) of the Center for Teaching Effectiveness of the University of
Texas at Austin in De Guzman-Santos, 2007 poses four intriguing questions relative to grading.

 Should grades reflect absolute achievement level or achievement relative to others in

the same class?
 Should grades reflect only or nonacademic components such as attitude, speed and
diligence?
 Should grade report status achieved or amount of growth?
 How can several grades on diverse skills combine to give a single mark?

4. What will go into a Student’s Grade?

The grading system an instructor selects reflects his or her educational philosophy.
There are no right or wrong systems, only systems that accomplish different objectives.

Let us analyze the questions which an instructor may want to answer when choosing
what will go into a student’s grade.

 4.1 Should grades reflect absolute achievement level or achievement relative to others
in the same class?

This is often referred to as the controversy between norm-reference versus criterion-

referenced grading. In norm-referenced grading systems the letter grade a student receives is
based on his or her standing in a class. As mentioned earlier, teacher assigns percentages to
group the students in the class, if letters correspond grades, 1% shall be assigned to those who
will be getting an “A” therefore if 1per cent of 100 students is to be computed resulting to one
therefore, that one student will be getting A regardless of his/her score in the 100 item test.

Under such a system, NORM-REFERENCE, an outside evaluator has a little additional

information about what a student actually knows since that will vary with the class. A student
who has learned an average amount in a class of geniuses will probably know more than a
student who is average in a class of low ability. Unless the instructor provides more information
that just the grade, the external user of the grade is poorly informed.

The system also assumes sufficient variability among student performances that the
difference is learning between them justifies giving different grades. This may be true in large
beginning classes , but is a shaky assumption where the student population is homogeneous
such as in upper division classes.

The other most common grading system is the CRITERION-REFERNCED SYSTEM where
the teacher sets a standard of performance against which the students’ actual
performance is measured. All students achieving a given level receive the grade assigned to
that level regardless of how many in the class receive the same grade. An outside evaluator,

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looking at the grade, knows only that the student has reached a certain level or set of
objectives.

The usefulness of that information to the outsider will depend on how much information he
or she is given on what behavior is represent by that grade. The grade however, will always
mean the same thing and will not vary from to class.

However, this system is not replete of problems.

 A possible problem with this is that outside factors may affect grades of students which
tend to drop. In such a case all the students would receive lower grades unless the
instructor made special allowance for the circumstances.

 A second problem, this grading system does not provided “selection information. There
is no way to tell from the grading who the BEST students are, only that certain students
have achieved certain levels. However, based on experiences, it is the bright students
who are able to meet the standard, and this standard make mediocre students to strive
harder for them to meet the set standard.

ADVANTAGE OF THE SYSTEM

 The standard is known from the beginning, students would know what to get to pass a
subject
 Uncertainty is eliminated. Students know exactly what would be their grade after an
exam

4.2 Should grades reflect achievement only or nonacademic components such as attitude,
speed and diligence?
 In actual practice, the attitudes, speed and diligence are incorporated in the grades. How,
these are incorporated in other assessment tasks, like for example in grading assignments, the
teacher prepares rubrics were timeliness is included. Timeliness embrace all three because, if
the student is diligent, has the proper attitude then, he will be able to submit on time. The
criteria in the assignment is the standard which is in conformity with the grading system.

4.3 Should grades report status achieved or amount of growth?

As mentioned earlier the CRS eliminates uncertainty of how grades are obtained. Therefore,
responsible students would be self-directed, they themselves, may plot their scores towards
their desired grade.

Growth here problematic specifically, it is related to statistical artifacts. Sometimes it is

difficult to measure the entering and exiting level in some areas, it is good if you are in a reading
class, during the entrance a Gr. 1 child can only read one-syllable words, but at the end of the
school year, he/she can read sentence, the exiting growth level here is evident, how about in
other subjects? Qualitatively, we can describe growth, which is often times synonymous with
grades. What is important here is that the grading system encourages hard work and effort and
to acknowledge the existence of different abilities.

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What is important is that teachers must review their own philosophy and content to
determine if such factors are valid components of grade.

4.4 How can several grades on diverse skills combine to give a single mark?

To clearly state, the final grade of a student in one subject for a grading period is derived
from many bases, the class standing which is often times 40% of the total grade for a subject.
This has several components: the quizzes, the assignment, the seat works the recitation, and all
the daily output are all graded to arrive at the CS. If it is a subject where a tangible learning
output is expected at the end of the grading period then this project is given 30%, 10% for the
attitude where a rubric is followed to objectively grade this area, the long test or periodical test
is 20%. Of course what I am giving you is a hypothetical distribution of the percentage in
computing the grade for a student in one particular subject. DepEd Memo No. 8, series 2015
clearly explains the assessment of both Elementary and JHS& SHS students

5. Alternative Grading System

Pass-Fail Systems. Other colleges and universities, faculties, schools and institutions use
this pass-fail system particularly in areas where the evaluation of a student’s work is highly
subjective like in Fine Arts, or Music.

6. Standardized Test Scoring.

Test standardization is a process by which teacher or researcher-made tests are

validated and item analyzed. After a thorough process of validation, the test characteristics are
established. These characteristics include: test validity, test reliability, test difficulty level and
other characteristics as previously discussed.
 Each standardized test uses its own mathematical scoring system, derived by the publisher
and administrators and these do not bear any relationship to academic grading system

Standardized tests are psychometric instruments whose scoring systems are developed by
norming the test using national samples of test takers, centered the scoring formula to assure
that the likely score distribution describes a normal curve when graphed and then using the
resulting scoring system uniformly in a manner resembling a criterion-referenced approach.
Scoring depends on the established test policies of the test’s producers.

7. Cumulative and Averaging System of Grading.

In the Philippines, there are two types of grading systems used, namely:

 Averaging: the grade of a particular student on a particular grading period equals

the average of the grades obtained in the prior grading periods and the current
grading period. This is what we do in your grades here in PUP, the midterm grade is
added to the 2nd grading grade divided by two to arrive at your final grade for a
certain subject.

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 Cumulative. The grade of a student in a grading period equals his current grading
period grade is assumed to have the cumulative effects of the previous grading
periods.

Activity No. 1. Application(De Guzman-Santos, 2007)

In your notebook, answer the following questions:

1. What is a norm-referenced grading? What are some of the issues that confront a teacher
using this grading system? Discuss your answer

2. The following are grades of Grade VI pupils:

8 81 82 83 84 82 80 81 7 77 78 88 8 89 90 91 90
0 9 3
8 91 92 90 88 85 88 87 8 88 83 82 8 79 77 76 77
2 5 0
8 91 90 83 88 86 83 80 7 78 79 83
9 8

2.1 Using a Norm-referenced grading with a seven-point scale, determine the scores that
would get a failing mark. What is your general impression on this?
2.2 Using a norm-referenced grading with an 8-point grading scale, determine the scores that
would get a failing mark. Compare this with the previous grading system above.

3. Define a criterion-referenced grading. What are some of the issues that confront a teacher
using a norm-referenced grading system. Discuss.
 4. Using the data in number 2, set a passing criterion of 78 and set equal intervals for all
other grades above the passing criterion. How does your result compare with those of norm-
referenced grading? In which grading system do you feel more comfortable?

5. When would a norm-referenced grading system be most appropriate to use? Similarly,

when would a criterion-referenced grading system be most appropriate to use? Discuss your
answer.

Agreement: Be ready for an online quiz.

Reference

Santos, Rosita De Guzman (2007) Assessment of Learning 1, Lorimar Publishing, Cubao,

QC

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Module 11

Non-Objective Test

Overview

Over the years, there has been a general dissatisfaction over the results of traditional
standardized objective tests. Concerted efforts have therefore, been expanded to find
alternative assessment mechanisms of measuring educational outcomes and processes and
measure more complex processes in education. Hence, educators have therefore focused their
attention to finding alternative assessment methods of objective assessment methods that
would address what is lacking in the traditional methods of objective assessment. Performance-
based assessment is one alternative assessment technique that has been proposed.

This module discusses Performance-Based Tests, Performance Tasks, how these are
evaluated with the use of the rubrics and how rubrics are created.

Objectives

At the end of the module, you are expected to:

1. Explain how performance based tests/tasks differ from the objective type tests
2. Enumerate how rubrics and exemplars are to be created.
3. Create Rubrics for their output in this subject.
Course Content (de Guzman-Santos, 2007)

1. Performance-Based. There are many testing procedures that are classified as performance
tests with a generally agreed upon definition that these tests are assessment procedures that
require students to perform a certain task or activity or perhaps, solve complex problems.

For Example, Bryant suggests assessing portfolios of a student’s work over time, students’
demonstrations, hands-on execution of experiments by students, and student’s work in
simulated environment.

Such a category falls under portfolio assessment: keeping records of all tasks successfully and
skillfully performed by students.
Activity No. 1 Comparing the Objective Test with the Performance Tests

After having read about Objective type tests and the performance-based tests, make a
comparison in your notebook

Performance Testing procedures include:

 Performance tasks ˚Exemplars of performance
 Rubrics scoring guides

95

Let us discuss them one by one. . .

1.1 Performance tasks, students are required to draw on the knowledge and skills they
possess
and to reflect upon them for use in the particular task at hand. Not only are the students
expected
to obtain knowledge a specific subject or subject matter but they are in fact required to draw
knowledge and skills from other discipline in order to fully realize the key ideas needed in doing
the task. Normally, the task require students to work on projects that yield a definite output or
product, or perhaps, following a process which tests their approach to solving a problem. In
many instances, the tasks require a combination of the two approaches. Of course, the
essential idea in performance tasks is that students or pupils learn optimally by actually doing
(Learning by Doing) the task which is constructivist philosophy.

As in any other test, the tasks need to be consistent with the intended outcomes of the
curriculum and the objectives of instruction: and must require students to manifest:

 what they know

 the process by which they came to know it.

REMEMBER: Performance-based tests require that tasks involve examining the process as
well as the products of student learning

1.2 Rubrics and Exemplar. Modern assessment methods tend to use rubrics to describe
students performance. As already mentioned in previous modules, Perkins et. Al (1994) in de
Guzman-Santos, 2007, provides the lists of the criteria for an invention project in preparing the
Rubrics, which are as follows:

Rubrics for an Invention Report

Quality
Criteria 4 3 2 1
The Report The report The Report The Report does
explains the key explains all of explains some not refer to the
Purposes purposes of the the key purposes of the purposes of the
invention and purposes of the invention but invention
points out less invention misses key
obvious ones as purpose
well
Features The report The report The report The report does
details both key details the key neglects some not detail the
and hidden features of the features of the features of the
features of the invention and invention or the invention or the
invention and explains the purposes they purposes they
explains how purposes they serve serve
they serve serve
several
purposes
Continued on the next page

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The report The report The report The report does

Critique discusses the discusses the discusses either not mention
(pros and cons strengths and strengths and the strengths or either the
of the design) weaknesses of weaknesses of weaknesses of strengths or
the invention, the invention. the invention but weaknesses of
and suggests not both. the invention.
ways in which it
can be improved
The report The report The report The report
Connection makes makes makes unclear makes no
(how the design appropriate appropriate or inappropriate connections
connects to connection connection connections between the
other things, between the between the between the invention and
past, present purposes and purposes and invention and other things
and future) features of the features of the other
invention and invention and phenomena
many different one or two
kinds of phenomena
phenomena

1.2.1 The RUBRICS became popular in Philippine schools because of the following REASONS:
  They are very useful tools for both teaching and evaluation of learning outcomes.
Rubrics have potential to improve student performance, as well as monitor it, by
clarifying teachers’ expectations and by actually guiding the students how to satisfy
these expectations.

 It allows students to acquire wisdom in judging and evaluating the quality of their work in
relation to the quality of the work of other students. In several experiments involving the
use of rubrics, they become aware of the problems associated with the completion of
their projects/tasks

 Rubrics are quite efficient and tend to require less time for the teachers in evaluating
performance. This is because the rubrics allow self and peer evaluation, hence, it will be
easy for the teachers to see what needs to be improved in the work which had been
identified by the two sets of evaluators.

 It is easy to construct a rubric scoring guide. Most of the time items found in rubrics as
scoring guide are self-explanatory and require no further help from outside experts

1.2.2 Creating Rubrics.

The teacher should involve the students in creating a rubric as a scoring guide. On the
next page are the steps in creating a rubrics

 Survey Model- show the students example of good and not-so good work. Identify the
characteristics that make the very good, good or not so good ones.

97
 Define Criteria-from the discussion on the models ,identify the qualities that define good
work

 Agree on the level of quality. Describe the best and worst levels of quality, then fill in
the middle levels based on your knowledge of common problems and the discussion of
not-so-good work.

 Practice on Models. Using the agreed criteria and levels of quality, evaluate the
models presented in step 1 together with the students.

 Use-self and peer assessment. Give students their task. As they work, stop them
occasionally for self and peer assessment.

 Revise. Always give students time to revise their work based on the feedback they get
in Step 5.

 Use teacher assessment. Use the same rubric students used to assess their work
yourself.

1.3 Tips in Designing Rubrics

 Define terms for students to easily understand what they need to do.
 List ways/performance dimension by which students may meet criteria/
 Specify the level of quality
  Include a rating scale, such as 5 for the excellent outcome, 4 nearly excellent etc.
 Include the process and the actual output or task
 If possible automate Performance-Based Test. This refers to a testing software.

Activity No. 2-Creating our Rubrics for your Notebook

You will be submitting your notebook at the end of the semester, let us apply the
suggested steps in preparing rubrics.

Form groups with 5 members, by text or chat, create a rubrics which will be my guide in
evaluating the notebook. Come up with one rubrics for your group. After which, send it to my
email, gsspup@yahoo.com

Assignment. We are nearing the completion of this course, start reviewing from the start, our
final exam will soon be announced.

Reference

Santos, Rosita, de Guzman. Assessment of Learning 1. Lorimar Publication, Cubao, QC.

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Module 12

Authentic and Alternative Assessment

Overview

In the educational setting, alternative assessment or portfolio assessment is in direct

contrast to what is known as performance evaluation, traditional assessment, standardized
assessment or summative assessment. Alternative assessment is also known under various
other terms such as: 1.) authentic assessment; 2.) integrative assessment; 3.) holistic
assessment; 4.) assessment for learning; and 5.) formative assessment. Hence, this last
module is dedicated to discussing this assessment processes.

Objectives

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Explain the different alternative assessment

2. Complete the portfolio for the subject

Course Content (de Guzman-Santos, 2007)

1. Authentic Assessment. When we test an isolated skill or a retained fact from students, we
are not actually measuring the students’ capabilities.
 In order to evaluate exactly what an individual has learned, it is necessary to develop an
assessment method that examines his/her collective abilities. This assessment is called an
authentic assessment method.

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT, in general, gives students situations that occur in the

real world which require them to apply their relevant skills and knowledge.

Its characteristics are as follows:

 Requires students to develop responses rather that select from pre-determined

options
 Elicits higher order thinking skills in addition to basic skills
 Directly evaluates holistic projects
 Synthesizes with classroom instruction
 Uses samples of student work(portfolios) collected over and extended time
period
 Stems from clear criteria made known to students
 Allows for the possibility of multiple human judgments
 Relates more closely to classroom learning
 Teaches students to evaluate their own work.

In the traditional assessment method, tests are standardized and uniform and rather

99
impersonal and absolute. Precisely because of these characteristics of traditional
assessment methods, they cannot be called enough/fair.

A test is enough/fair when:

 it is appropriate,
 when it is personalized, natural, and
 flexible: when it can be modified to pinpoint specific abilities and functions at the
relevant level of difficulty;
 and when it promotes a rapport between examiner and student

Generally, authentic assessment is designed to be criterion referenced rather than

norm-referenced. Such evaluation identifies strengths weaknesses, but does not compare or
rank students. The assessment procedure does not determine in advance the number of
students who will pass or fail a given course as in the case of the norm-referenced system.

Authentic assessment is often based on performance. Students are asked to

demonstrate their knowledge, skills or competencies in whatever way find appropriate. There
are several challenges to using authentic assessment methods. They include managing its
time-intensive nature, ensuring circular validity, and minimizing evaluator bias.

2. Classroom Assessment Techniques (CAT). This includes action research. Such

authentic assessment procedure determines the quality of teaching and learning that occur in
classroom.
 In this technique, uses a variety of tools and practices that allow them to access
accurate and relevant information about the quality of student learning and quality of his
teaching as well .

The main goal of this assessment is NOT to grade the students NOR evaluate the
teacher but rather that the information gathered be USED for facilitating interaction and dialogue
between students and the teacher on the quality of the learning process and thus, find ways and
means to improve the process. CAT provides both teachers and students with “in process”
information on how well students are learning what the curriculum intends

The three basic questions CATs ask are:

 What are the essential skills and knowledge I am trying to teach?

 How can I find out whether students are learning them?
 How can I help students learn better?

The classroom assessment process assumes that students need to receive feed back
early and often, that they need to evaluate the quality of their own learning, and that they can
help the teacher improve the strength of instruction.

The basic steps in the classroom assessment process are:

 Choose a learning goal to assess
 Choose an assessment technique
 Apply the technique
 Analyze the data and share the results with students
 Respond to data
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CATs provide teachers with a ‘menu” of evaluation tools that:

 Check for student background knowledge

 Identify areas of confusion
 Enable students to self-assess their learning level
 Determine student’s learning styles
 Target and build specific skills

When Cat is used in a classroom setting, the teacher often finds that the results of his
investigation can be shared with other teachers who are similarly situated. It is therefore
necessary to publish his findings and thus contribute to the field of knowledge and the list of
best practices in teaching.

In other words, this approach requires the teacher to conduct an action research on how
his/her students are to be evaluated, It is similar to conducting a quasi experimental study which
requires a teacher to “experiment” on approaches, records findings and share to others so they
may also do the same in their own classes when applicable.

Let us recall the portfolio which we have already discussed in a previous module.

3. Portfolio Assessment. This requires a presentation of a collection of student work

essentially constituting a portfolio
 A portfolio can be used to appraise student performance over time. It is essentially like a
scrapbook or a compilation of significant work of the student in a particular subject. Portfolio
assessment ranges from portfolios that demonstrates the student’s best work to an “expanded
students record" that” holds a full representation of the students’ work from math equation to
essays in Literature. They are more concrete evidence of student’s performance. They are far
less inclined to faked and manufactured than are transcript and diplomas. In fact, in some
instances, it is noted that portfolios served as replacement of high school diplomas and
transcript of records.

The main disadvantage of portfolios is that they are not as quick and as easy to
evaluate, plus they are hard to rank as with a grade or score. Due to the qualitative nature of
portfolios, colleges and universities find them hard to use as a determinant of student’s ability to
pursue college work or for employer’s to base their decision on whether or not and applicant for
work would do well on the job. This explains the popularity if hard quantitative test results
being required in entrance or admission to universities or jobs

It is a common practice in schools now particularly in the education programs where

Field Study students are required to prepare portfolio, a training which will be used when they
are already in the field. At the end of every school year, teachers are required to submit
portfolio- - -to present the evidences of their best practices, not to mention that the school heads
need these documents to facilitate an objective evaluation of the teacher’s performance.
However, please be reminded that best practices are not for a better evaluation rating only or for
promotion but rather for the benefit of your students.

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Another thing, since we can not meet face to face, you are required to complete all
the activities in each of the modules, this will be serving as your PORTFOLIO for the
subject which is 30% of your final grade.

3.1 Implications of Portfolios on some elements of Education.

 Curriculum. Some people believe that using portfolios will enable teachers to broaden
their curriculum to include areas they traditionally could not assess with standardized
testing. How well this works depends on how much a curriculum is developed to the
test in other words, how much curriculum is geared towards achieving high test scores
rather than learning for learning’s sake.

 Instruction. Portfolio assessment appears to compliment a teacher’s use of

instructional strategies centered around teamwork, projects, and applied learning.
Portfolios are also compatible with more individualized instruction, as well as strategies
focused on different learning styles.

 Assessment. A portfolio can be used as an assessment tool. External assessors- -

-employers, evaluation panels and so on - - - can benefit from them. Teachers can also
utilize them to judge student performance. Plus, students can use their own portfolios
for self-assessment and reflections.

Portfolio typically are created for one of the following three purposes:
 o Growth Portfolio
-to show growth or change over time
-to help develop process skills such as self-evaluation and goal setting
-to identify strengths and weaknesses
-to track the development of one more products/performances

 Showcase Portfolio
-to show case end-of the year/semester accomplishments
-to prepare a sample of best work for employment or college admission
-to showcase student perceptions of favorite, best or most important work
-to communicate a student’s current aptitudes to future teachers

 Evaluation Portfolios
-to document achievement for grading purposes
- to document progress towards standards
-to place students appropriately

Standardized tests or traditional assessment procedures emphasize the output or end-

result of the teaching-learning process. In portfolio assessment, it now becomes possible to
assess the process adopted as well as the end-result of the educative process. For instance,
the growth portfolio emphasizes the products of learning. Of course, a portfolio may tell more
than one story, including more than one category above.

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For example, a showcase portfolio might also be used for evaluation purposes, and a
growth portfolio might also showcase, final performances or products. What is critical is that
the purpose/s is/are clear throughout the process to student, teacher and any other pertinent
stakeholders.

3.2 Creating a Portfolio Assignment.

There are essentially seven (7) questions necessary in the development of a portfolio
assignment:
 Purpose: What is the purpose/s of the portfolio

 Audience-For what audience/evaluator will the portfolio be created?

 Content: what samples of student work will be included? Consider to include one
or more of the best work, evidence of growth ( sample of earlier and later work,
sample of rough draft and the final draft, work that traces the development of a
particular product or performance, & samples of work reflecting specifically
identified strength and weaknesses); evidence of achievement, evidence of
standard met, favorite/most important piece.

 Process: How will the student select the output to be included?

 Management: How will time and materials be managed in the development of it.
  Communication. How and when will the portfolio be shared with pertinent
audiences?

 Reflection. Refer to your comments on a specific item, it could be on the

contents you included and questions your teacher posted for you to answer

 Evaluation: If the portfolio is to be used for evaluation

3.2.1 Reflection Sheets

Probably the most common portfolio reflection task is the completion of a sheet to be
attached to the sample (or samples) of work which the reflection is addressing.

Examples of Reflection Questions in relation to selected pieces of evidences:

 Why did you select this piece?

 Why should this sample be included in your portfolio?
 How does this sample meet the criteria for selection for your portfolio?
You may start reflection with this: I chose this piece because. . . .

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Growth questions/prompts
 What are the strengths of this work? weaknesses?
 What would you work on more if you had additional time?
 How has your ____(example: writing) changed since last year?

Goal-setting questions/prompts

 What is one thing that you can improve upon in this piece?
 What is the realistic goal for the end of the quarter (semester, year)?
I will work toward my goal by:___________

Evaluation questions/prompts

 If you were a teacher and grading your work, what grade would you give it and
why?
 Using appropriate rubric, give yourself a score and justify it with specific traits
from rubrics
 What do you like or not like about this piece of work?
I like this piece of work because. . .

Effort questions/prompts

 How much time did you spend on this product/performance?

 The work would have been better if I had spent more time on . . .
  I am pleased that I put significant effort into . . .

Overall portfolio Questions/prompts

 What would you like your ____ (e.g. parents) to know about or see in your portfolio?
 What does the portfolio as a whole reveal about you as a learner (writer, thinker,
etc.)?
 A feature of this portfolio I particularly like is . . .
 In this portfolio I see evidence of . . .

The questions given above are designed to help students in writing reflections either as
part of the portfolio or in their reflection journal.

Activity No. 1-Think-pair-share

Get another partner from your classmates, using text or chat discuss the answers to the
following questions and in each of your notebook answer the following:

1. Differentiate between authentic assessment and traditional assessment methods. What

are the advantages and disadvantages of each?

2. In what context would an authentic assessment be a more preferable assessment method

than the traditional assessment method?

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Module 13

Formative, Summative Evaluation and Measuring Attitudes

Overview

Formative and summative evaluation are essential customary work of classroom

teachers. At the end of every learning task, formative evaluation is administered to determine
the effectiveness of teaching and to find out how much the students achieved or reached the
goals or objectives of the learning tasks. Similarly, at the end of every unit or chapter,
summative evaluation is given to students to determine the mastery of the subject matter.

Objectives

1. Explain the characteristics of formative Evaluation and Summative Evaluation

2. Memorize the suggestions in constructing instruments to measure attitudes
3. Compute for measure of attitude

Course Content (Calmorin 2013)

1. Formative evaluation is an integral part of teaching and learning process to determine who
among the students have attained or have not attained the goals of the learning tasks. The
indication of achievement of formative test is not too high nor too low, about 80-85 per cent is
accepted. Example of formative tests are quizzes, which are normally in the objective form (Fill-
in the blanks, Multiple Choice, essay etc.) In actual classroom setting, the target for higher
sections is higher than the lower sections. The principle here is the nature of learners. If the
target in lower section is 70% of students getting 80% correct answers, in higher sections it is,
80% of the students getting 90% correct answers. This is what we call qualitative and
quantitative targets.

1.1 General Principles in Constructing Test for Formative Evaluation shall follow the rules in
constructing any of the objective type tests

1.2 Uses of formative Evaluation for Students

 Pacing. This refer to the rate of learning an individual takes for a lesson. It determines
how much the learner moves from one learning task to the next learning task. It also
determines if there is progress before a move is made from one learning task to another.

 Reinforcement. The result tells how much of the learning goals is attained by a
student. For example the target is: 80% gets 80% correct answer, if there are those
who were not able to get 8 in a 10 item test, this means, they were not able to attain the
learning goal. The teacher will analyze which of the items most of the students failed to
get the correct answer, therefore, this is the sub-topic where reinforcement or
enhancement learning objectives will be given.

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 Diagnosis. The errors committed diagnosed the weakness or difficulty of

learners in attaining the objective.

Hence, formative evaluation tells whether or not learners reached the goals of the
learning tasks.

1.3 Uses of the formative Evaluation to the Teachers

 Handling Errors. The learning tasks were a number of students

committed an error in the formative test means only one thing: RETEACH
THE topic.
Then, after re-teaching the topic, teacher needs to give another
formative test to find out if there was an improvement on the level of
learning objectives attainment.

Question: What if the score did not improve? Look for other factors
and address them

 Quality Control. The record of the result of the formative tests, gives the
teacher a basis for remedial activities. The principle here is: NO CHILD
LEFT BEHIND. Although, educators recognize the presence of individual
differences and it is expected that the performance of every child differs,
with proper interventions, the average or slow learners will not be left far
behind the high achievers.
  Forecasting. From the result of the formative tests, the teacher can
predict the result of the SUMMATIVE TEST.

1.4 Characteristics of Formative Evaluation

 It is a series of quizzes taken by the students

 It is administered at the end of the day’s instruction
 It consists of 10 to 15 items
 It provides feed back for improvement of instruction and it is also used to monitor
student’s progress in the portfolio
 It determines if the teacher had delivered the lesson effectively (at least 75%
mastery attainment )
 It tells whether teacher can proceed to the next learning task (atleast 75%
mastery level, 75% are able to get at least 75% correct scores)
 If result is below 75% mastery level, re-teaching must be done

2. Summative Evaluation means to assess the learner’s achievement of the teaching process,
for instance, at the end of a chapter or unit. Summative evaluation measures the learner’s
attainment of the objectives at the end of a given period of time

2.1 Uses of Summative Evaluation

 Assign grades. The raw score obtained is the basis of the grade found in the
transmutation table.
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 Provide feedbacks to students. If properly constructed, guided by the Table of

Specification, it provides a feedback to students on their actual class
performance.

 Compare outcomes of different groups. A very good example of a

summative exam is the NAT which enables comparison between performance of
students in different schools. We can also site here the performance of one
section with another having given the same summative test.

2.2 Characteristics of Summative Evaluation

 It is administered at the end of the unit or chapter.

 It aims to evaluate the student’s achievement at the end of every unit, chapter, quarter,
semester, departmental or academic year. The National Achievement Test is an
example, the Departmental Exam of the BSA department is another example.
 It provides overall decision of a curriculum whether to revise or phase out.
 Grades are assigned in summative evaluation
 Results allows comparison of performance of different schools, districts, divisions,
regions as well as national level.

3. Distinction between Formative and Summative Evaluation

Areas Formative Summative
Objectives Determines the progress after a Determines the accomplishment after a
 day’s instruction unit/chapter/grading
period/quarter/semester/school year
Administratio Administered after each Administered at the end of the
n meeting/day unit/chapter/grading
period/quarter/semester/school year
Strategies Uses observation and quizzes as Uses Unit test, chapter test,
strategies departmental test, quarter test and
portfolio as strategy.
Relationship Use as basis for the Summative Results of Formative tests as guides in
test preparing the summative tests
Function Helps teachers in preparing lesson Helps school managers on decision
planning and goal setting making

I hope with the comparison above, you now have a clear understanding about
formative and summative tests.

We will now discuss the last topic of this course, Measuring attitude

4. Measuring attitude

Attitude is defined as the sum total of an individual’s manner, feelings, thoughts,

mindset, opinion, view, position, way of thinking, and outlook to a specific topic.

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4.1 Suggestions in Measuring Attitudes

 Attitude statement must be agreeable or disagreeable. Example: “Punctuality must be

rewarded as incentive.”
 Attitude items must be stated in present tense or future tense rather than past tense.
This is to present realities and its effects in the future.
 Brief and concise attitude item is preferable rather that long statement
 Simple and understandable statements are preferred rather than ambiguous statements
 Only one complete attitude item is stated in every attitude statement. For example:

Poor: A good student is prayerful and studious

Better: A good student is prayerful
A good student is studious
 Double negative and ambiguous statement must be avoided
 Specific determinant like: all, always, none never, not, nothing, and no should be
avoided
 Qualitative terms such as few, many, great, frequent and large are vague and they must
be avoided.
 Items should be constructed with in the language level of students
 Determiners such as: may, usually and some must be avoided.

Below is an example questionnaire on” Attitudes towards Mathematics”

Direction. Below are attitudes towards Mathematics. Please indicate a check (/) mark if you
agree or disagree by using any of the following scale.

5-Strongly agree 2-disagree

4-Agree 1-Strongly disagree
3-undecided

Table 1. Attitudes towards mathematics

Attitudes: I like Mathematics . . . 5 4 3 2 1
1. because it is easy to understand
2. due to logical understanding of theory and
process
3. It is an easy subject
4. I enjoy solving problems in Mathematics
5. because it is applicable in daily life

The next table shows students have already answered the questionnaires

Attitudes: I like Mathematics . . . 5 4 3 2 1 WM VD

1. because it is easy to understand 1 30 5 4.2 A
5
2. due to logical understanding of theory and 3 13 2 4.66 SA
process 5
3. It is an easy subject 1 6 1 4 2.32 DA
2
4. I enjoy solving problems in Mathematics 2 28 2 4.36 A
0
5. because it is applicable in daily life 2 20 5 4.4 A
5
WM-weighted mean VD-Verbal Description

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How do you think the 4.2, 4.66. . . . were computed. The formula we used to get
the computed weighted mean is this

WM = f1 x X1 + f2 x X2 .... or ∑fx
N

Where: WM = Weighted Mean (because of the scale of 5 to 1)

f1 = the frequency of the first scale
X1 = the weight of the first scale which is 5

To substitute: 1.) 15 x 5 = 75
30 x 4 = 120
5x3 = 15
Total = 210÷50 = 4.2

2.) 35 x 5 = 175
 13 x 4 = 52
2x3 = 6
∑fx = 233 ÷50 = 4.66

The same procedure is to be done to get the WM for the other attitudes.

Activity No. 1. Finding the Weighted Mean

In your notebook, find the weighted mean for NO. 3 to 5

Your answers must be the same as what we have on the table.

If we go further and find the general attitude of the students towards mathematics, we
simple would add the weighted mean and then divided by 5.
4.2 + 4.66 + 2.32 + 4.36 + 4.4 =19.94 =3.98 : Agree
5

To interpret the computed values, we assigned verbal descriptions because in the scale
there are already given meanings for every weight, 5 is Strongly Agree etc. but if you may
notice, you will never come to a weighted mean that is a whole number so what we do is to
assign lower limits or a range.

The range could be this:

4.51-5.00 Strongly Agree

3.51-4.50 Agree
2.51-3.50 Undecided
1.51-2.50 Disagree
1.00-1.50 Strongly Disagree

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Let us have another problem to check whether you may now determine the attitude of
students towards other subjects

This will be your final activity

Below is the attitude of students towards the English subject.

In your notebook draw a similar table and then compute for the mean. The number of
Students represented by N is 40

Table 2. Frequency Distribution of Student Responses on their Attitude towards English

Attitudes: 5 4 3 2 1 W VD
M
1. I like English because it is an easy subject 22 17 1 0 0
2.I find English useful in daily conversation 15 20 5 0 0
3. I like to hear Mass in English 14 23 3 0 0
4. I enjoy writing Essay in English 15 23 2 0 0
 5. I am happy to communicate with my friends in English 10 25 5 0 0
6. I enjoy writing scripts in English 13 23 4 0 0
7. I enjoy conversing with Americans 2 3 2 33 0
8. I enjoy listening to TV broadcast in English 10 30 0 0 0
9. I want to participate in a role play in English 12 25 3 0 0
10. I hope to become an English TV Broadcaster 23 17 0 0 0
someday
Legend: 5.0 Strongly Agree; 4.0-Agree; 3-Moderately Agree, 2. Disagree; & 1-Strongly disagree

There will be no short quiz after this, but be REMINDED, after completing your
portfolio, start preparing for our final exam. The date and time shall be announced in our
GC.

CONGRATULATIONS everyone, you have completed the modules for this course.

God bless!

References

Books
Calmorin Laurentina.P. (2013) Assessment of Learning 1. Rex Book Store. Quezon City

Manarang, L. Y., R. H. Manarang. (1985) Educational Measurement and Evaluation, QC

Santos, Rosita de Guzman. (2007) Assessment of Learning 1. Lorimar Publishing, Cubao, QC.

On-line References

https://www.onlineassessmenttool.com/knowledge-center/assessment-knowledge-cente

https://www.slideshare.net/norazmi3003/testing-assessment-measurement-and-evalu

https://www.professorjackrichards.com/difference-between-testing-and-assessment/

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301915894_Functions_of_Assessment_in_Te

https://gradesfixer.com/free-essay-examples/explain-the-function-of-assessment-in-lear

https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Explain-the-Functions-of-Assessment-in-Learning-PKJ43

https://www.noodle.com/articles/4-types-of-tests-teachers-give-and-why

https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/testing-for-language-teachers/kinds-of- tests- and-t

https://cougarsuccess.wsu.edu/specific-kinds-of-tests/

https://www.edglossary.org/assessment/
https://www.teacherph.com/classroom-assessment

http://www.real-statistics.com/reliability/internal-consistency-reliability/split-half-

https://www.thoughtco.com/essay-rubric-20813677

https://vinceleste.com/download-the-department-of-education-manual-of-style/

https://www.deped.gov.ph/2015/04/01/do-8-s-2015-policy-guidelines-on-class

https://www.teacherph.com/transmutation-table/

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