Philosophical Perspective

 Philosophy employs the inquisitive mind to discover the ultimate

causes, reasons, and principles of everything.
 It goes beyond scientific investigation by exploring all areas of
knowledge such as religion, psychology, politics, physics, and
even medicine.
 The etymological definition of philosophy “love of wisdom” could
pertain to the desire for truth by formulating never ending
questions to provide answers to every inquiry about the nature of
human existence.
 The nature of the self is a topic of interest among philosopher
SOCRATES
An Unexamined Life is Not Worth Living
 self is synonymous with the soul
 full power of reason on the human self: who we are, who we
should be, and who we will become
Two Dichotomous Realms
1. Physical - changeable, transient, imperfect= BODY
2. Ideal - unchanging, eternal, immortal = SOUL

 Man must live an examined life and a life of purpose and value.
 Socratic method: introspection, a method of carefully examining
one's thoughts and emotions to gain self-knowledge.
Socrates believed that philosophy had a very important role to play in
the lives of the people.
 According to him, self-knowledge or the examination of one’s self,
as well as the question about how one ought to live one’s life, are
very important concerns because only by knowing yourself can
you hope to improve your life (Rappe, 1995)
 He believed that you as a person should consciously contemplate,
turn your gaze inward, and analyze the true nature and values that
are guiding your life.
 He added self-knowledge would open your eyes to your true
nature, which contrary to pop culture, is not about what you own,
 how many “Likes” you get in your social media posts, or how
successful you are in your career.
 In fact, your self is not even your body. According to Socrates, the
state of your inner being(soul/body) determines the quality of your
life.
Socrates said existence is of two kinds:
1. The visible
2. The invisible

 The visible existence changes while the invisible existence

remains constant (Connolly, 2017) .
 This is the state of the human being
 The body, which is visible, changes; the other part, the kind that is
invisible to humans yet sensed and understood by the mind
remains constant.
 “When the soul and body are together nature assigns our body to
be slave and to be ruled and the soul to be ruler and master”
(Hamilton et al., 1961; Organ, 1986).
 However, Socrates said that the body was a reluctant slave, and
the soul gets dragged toward what is always changing. This would
leave the soul confused (Organ, 1986).
o The core of Socratic ethics is the concept of virtue and
knowledge.
o Virtue is the deepest and most basic propensity of man.
o Knowing one’s own virtue is necessary and can be learned.
o Since virtue is innate in the mind and self-knowledge is the
source of all wisdom, an individual may gain possession of
oneself and be one’s own master through knowledge.
PLATO
The Self is an Immortal Soul
Three-Part Soul/Self:
1. Reason - divine essence that enables us to think deeply, make
wise choices
2. Physical Appetite - basic biological needs
3. Spirit/Passion - basic emotions (love, anger, empathy)
Theory of Forms
1. World of Forms (non-physical ideas): real, permanent
2. World of Sense (reality): temporary, only a replica of the ideal
world
Man should give more importance to it than the physical body which
resides in the world of sense.
 The three elements of our selves are in a dynamic relationship with
one another, sometimes in conflict.
 When conflict occurs, Plato believes it is the responsibility of
Reason to sort things out and exert control, restoring a harmonious
relationship among the three elements of our selves.
 Plato believes that genuine happiness can only be achieved by
people who consistently make sure that their Reason is in control
of their Spirits and Appetites.
 The harmonious integration under the control of Reason is the
essence of Plato’s concept of justice.
 If man lives in accordance to his nature, then he is giving justice to
his existence.
-In his Theory of Forms, he introduces the concepts of the two worlds:
 The world of forms (non-physical ideas)
o real and permanent
 The world of sense (reality)
o Temporary and only replica of the ideal world
-Plato claims that the sensible world is dependent on the ideal world
where the concept of the soul belongs.
-Since the soul is regarded as something permanent, man should give
more importance to it than the physical body which resides in the world
of sense.
ARISTOTLE
The Soul is the Essence of the Self
 soul: a set of defining features and does not consider the body and
soul as separate entities
 anything with life has a soul
  humans differ from other living things because of their capacity for
rational thinking
Three Kinds of Soul
1. Vegetative - physical body
2. Sentient - sensual desires, feelings & emotions
3. Rational - intellect to know & understand thing
The rational nature of the self is to lead a good, flourishing and fulfilling
life (self-actualization).
 Aristotle’s discussion about the self centers on the kinds of soul
possessed by man.
 He introduces three kinds of soul:
o Vegetative soul includes the physical body that can grow.
o Sentient soul includes sensual desires, feelings, and
emotions.
o Rational soul is what makes man human.
 It includes the intellect that allows man to know and
understand things
-He suggests that the rational nature of the self is to lead a good,
flourishing, and fulfilling life (self-actualization).
-The pursuit of happiness is a search for a good life that includes doing
virtuous actions.
-In saying this, he posits that part of the rational soul is characterized by
moral virtues such as justice and courage.
ST. AUGUSTINE
The Self Has an Immortal Soul
 the physical body is different from and inferior to the immortal soul
 the body is the "spouse" of the soul, both attached to one another
by a II natural appetite"
 the soul is what governs and defines man
 humankind is created in the image and likeness of God; therefore,
the human person is always geared towards the good
 the self is known only through knowing God
 11 knowledge can only come by seeing the truth that dwells within
us'
  God is transcendent and the self seeks to be united with God
through faith and reason
 1 am doubting, therefore I am"
 St. Augustine believes that the body is united with the soul, so that
man may be entire and complete.
 As a religious philosopher, he contemplates on the nature of man
with emphasis on the soul as an important element of man.
 He believes that the soul is what governs and defines man.
 He is convinced that the self is known only through knowing God.
 Augustine espouses the significance of reflection, as well as the
importance of prayers and confessions to arrive at a justification
for the existence of God.
 For him, “knowledge can only come by seeing the truth that dwells
within us.”
o The truth of which Augustine speaks refers to the truth of
knowing God.
 God is transcendent and the self seeks to be united with God
through faith and reason.
 In his mission to discover the truth on the existence of God,
Augustine develops the fundamental concept of the human
person, and thus provides the philosophical principle, “I am
doubting, therefore I am.”
RENE DESCARTES
I Think Therefore I am
"Cogito Ergo Sum"
 the act of thinking about the self - of being self-conscious is proof
that there is a self
 essence of the human self: a thinking entity that doubts,
understands, analyzes, questions and reasons
Two Dimensions of the Human Self
 Thinking Entity - soul; non-material, immortal, conscious being
 Physical Body - material, mortal, non-thinking entity

The soul & body are independent of one another, each can
function without the other.
 The Latin phrase Cogito ergo sum- I think therefore I am” is the
keystone of Descartes’ concept of self.
 For him, the act of thinking about the self-of being self-conscious-
is in itself proof that there is a self.
 He is confident that no rational person will doubt his or her own
existence as a conscious thinking entity-while we are aware of
thinking about ourselves.
 For Descartes, this is the essence of the human self- a thinking
entity that doubts, understands, analyzes, questions, and reasons.
 He contends further that if man reflects thoughtfully, he will realize
that there are two dimensions of the human self:
o A thinking entity
o A physical body
 He introduces the idea of the thinking self (or soul) as non-
material, immortal, conscious being, and independent of the
physical laws of the universe.
 In contrast, the physical body is a material, mortal, non-thinking
entity, fully governed by the physical laws of nature.
 The soul and body are independent of one another, and each can
exist and function without the other.
 The essential self- the self as a thinking entity- is distinct from the
self as a physical body.
 Simply put, the thinking self can exist independently of the physical
body.
JOHN LOCKE
The Self is Consciousness
 "Tabula Rosa": a blank slate
 the self is constructed primarily from sense experiences
 conscious awareness and memo1ry of previous experiences are
keys to understanding th1e self
 using the power of reason and introspection enables one to
understand and achieve accurate conclusions about the self
(personal identity)
 Locke believes that the essence of the self is its conscious
awareness of itself as thinking, reasoning, and reflecting identity.
 He contends that consciousness accompanies thinking and makes
possible the concept people have of a self.
  Self-consciousness is necessary to have a coherent personal (self)
identity or knowledge of the self as a person.
 Consciousness is what makes identity of a person similar in
different situations.
 Locke is proposing that people could use the power of reason to
gain knowledge and consequently use this knowledge to
understand experiences.
 Knowledge is based on careful observation of experiences.
 Reason plays an important role in helping to figure out significance
of sense experience and to reach intelligent conclusions.
 Thus, using the power of reason and introspection enables one to
understand and achieve accurate conclusions about the self (or
personal identity).
DAVID HUME
There is No Self
what people experience is just a bundle or collection of different
perceptions
Distinct Identities:
1. Impressions- basic sensations of people1 s experience; vivid
perceptions
2. Ideas - thoughts and images from 1 impression; less lively and
vivid.
 “different sensations are in a constant continuum that is
invariable and not constant; it cannot be from any of these
impressions that the idea of self is derived and consequently,
there is no self"
 The idea of personal identity is a result of imagination
 Hume suggests that if people carefully examine their sense
experience through the process of introspection, they will discover
that there is no self.
 According to him, what people experience is just a bundle or
collection of different perceptions.
 He maintains that if people carefully examine the contents of their
experience, they will find that there are only distinct entities:
o Impressions
o Ideas
  Impressions are the basic sensations of people’s experience
such as hate, love, joy, grief, pain, cold, and heat.
 They are vivid perceptions and are strong and lively
 Ideas are thought and images from impressions so they are less
lively and vivid.
 Hume further posits that different sensations are in a constant
continuum that is invariable and not constant.
 He argues that it cannot be from any of these impressions that the
idea of self is derived and consequently, there is no self.
 Hume skeptical claim on this issue is that people have no
experience of a simple and individual impression that they can call
the self where the self is the totality of a person’s conscious life.
 Subsequently, the idea of personal identity is a result of
imagination.

IMMANUEL KANT
We Construct the Self
 transcendental deduction of categories: the self, in the form of
consciousness, utilizes conceptual categories to construct an
orderly and objective world
 the self is an organizing principle that makes a unified and
intelligible experience possible
 the self-constructs its own reality, creating a world that is most
significantly "mine"
 For Kant, it is the self that makes experiencing an intelligible world
possible because it is the self that is actively organizing and
synthesizing all of our thoughts and perceptions.
 The self, in the form of consciousness, utilizes, conceptual
categories which he calls transcendental deduction of categories,
to construct an orderly and objective world that is stable and can
be investigated scientifically.
 Kant believes that the self is an organizing principle that makes a
unified and intelligible experience possible.
 It metaphorically above or behind sense experience, and it uses
the categories of our mind to filter, order, relate, organize, and
synthesize sensations into a unified whole.
 In other words, the self-constructs its own reality, actively creating
a world that is familiar, predictable, and most significantly, mine.
 The self is the product of reason, a regulative principle, because
the self regulates experience by making unified experiences
possible.
 The self transcends experience because the mind can grasp
aspects of reality which are not limited to the senses.
 Through rationality, people are able to understand certain abstract
ideas that have no corresponding physical object or sensory
experience.
SIGMUND FREUD
The Self is Multilayered
1. Conscious - "reality principle"; organized in ways that are rational,
practical and appropriate to the environment
2. Unconscious - "pleasure principle"; basic instinctual drives,
traumatic memories, unfulfilled wishes and childhood fantasies;
thoughts and feelings considered taboo
3. Preconscious - contains material that is not threatening; easily
brought to mind.

 Freud holds that the self consists of three layers:

o Conscious
o Unconscious
o Preconscious
 The conscious self is governed by the “reality principle.”
 The conscious part of the self is organized in ways that are
rational, practical, and appropriate to the environment.
  The conscious self usually takes into account the realistic
demands of the situation, the consequences of various actions,
and the overriding need to preserve the equilibrium of the entire
psychodynamic system of the self.
 The unconscious part of the self contains the basic instinctual
drives including sexuality, aggressiveness, and self-destruction;
traumatic, memories; unfulfilled wishes and childhood fantasies;
and thoughts and feelings that would be considered socially
taboo.
 The unconscious level is characterized by the most primitive
level of human motivation and human functioning which is
governed by the “pleasure principle.”
 Freud argues that much of the self is determined by the
unconscious.
 The preconscious self contains material that is not threatening
and is easily brought to mind.
 According to Freud, the preconscious part is located between
the conscious and the unconscious parts of the self.
GILBERT RYLE
The Self is the Way People Behave
 the self is best understood a pattern of behavior; "I act, therefore I
am"
 the mind is the totality of human dispositions that is known through
the way people behave
 the mind expresses the entire system of thoughts, emotions, and
actions that make up the human self
 Gilbert Ryle believes that the self is best understood as a pattern
of behavior, the tendency or disposition of a person to behave in a
certain way in certain circumstances.
 Ryle’s concept of the human self thus provides the philosophical
principle, “I act therefore I am.”
 He considers the mind and body to be intrinsically linked in
complex and intimate ways. In short, the self is the same as bodily
behavior.
 He concludes that the mind is the totality of human dispositions
that is known through the way people behave.
 Nevertheless, Ryle is convinced that the mind expresses the entire
system of thoughts, emotions, and actions that make up the
human self.
PAUL CHURCHLAND
The Self is the Brain
 eliminative materialism: the self is inseparable from the brain and
the physiology of the body
 if the brain is gone, there is no self
 the physical brain, not the imaginary mind, gives people the sense
of the self
 • Paul Churchland advocates the idea of eliminative
materialism or the idea that the self is inseparable from the brain
and the physiology of the body.
 All person has the brain, and so, if the brain is gone, there is no
self.
 For Churchland, the physical brain and not the imaginary mind,
gives people the sense of self.
 The mind does not really exist because it cannot be experienced
by the senses.
o To prove his point, Churchland pointed out that in mental
conditions, such as depression, it is technically wrong to say
that the person is “out of his mind” because neuroscientists
have found that brain activity, and even brain shape, appears
to be associated with severe mood disorders.
o Moreover, he pointed out that in a severe head injury, the
victim’s personality changes occur.
 o He pointed out that if the mind were a separate entity, then
the victim should have retained his/her personality despite
the damage to the brain,
o Thus, Churchland asserted the sense of “self” originated
from the brain itself, and that this “self” is a product of
electrochemical signals produced by the brain.
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
The Self is Embodied Subjectivity
 all knowledge about the self is based on the "phenomena" of
experience
 the "I" is a single integrated core identity; a combination of the
mental, physical and emotional structures around a core identity of
the self
 Phenomenology of Perception - everything that people are aware
of is contained within the consciousness
 Perception is not merely a consequence of sensory experience;
rather, it is a conscious experience. Thus, the self is embodied
subjectivity.
 Maurice Merleau-Ponty further articulates that when people
examine the self at the fundamental level of direct human
experience, people will discover that the mind and body are
unified, not separate.
 He notes in his book, Phenomenology of Perception, that
everything that people are aware of it contained within the
consciousness.
 Consciousness is a dynamic form responsible for actively
structuring conscious ideas and physical behavior.
 He is convinced that consciousness, the world, and the human
body are intricately intertwined in perceiving the world.
 For him, perception is not merely a consequence of sensory
experience; rather, it is a conscious experience.
 Thus, the self is embodied subjectivity.
“If you feel lost, disappointed, hesitant, or weak, return to yourself,
to who you are, here and now and when you get there, you will
discover yourself, like a lotus flower in full bloom, even in a muddy
pond, beautiful and strong.”
-Masaru Emoto, Secret Life of Water