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What is Astronomical Survey?

Branch of surveying that deals with the observation of celestial bodies (sun, stars) for determining the
absolute location of any point or the absolute location and direction of any line on the surface of earth
and also for determining time. Therefore overall purpose of field astronomy

 Determine absolute location/ position and direction of any line on the surface of the Earth.
 Determine absolute location of any points / object with respect to astronomical observation to
celestial bodies such as Moon, Sun, Star and planets.
 Used to find Angular position of Stars.
 Determination of Time
 Determination of shortest distance between two place on the surface of earth sphere

Definition of Astronomical Terms

(1) The Terrestrial Poles and Equator:
Terrestrial poles are the points where the Earth’s surface and Earth axis
of rotation meets. The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North
Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere
where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface.
The Terrestrial Equator is the great circle of the Earth, the plane of which
is at right angles to the axis of rotation. The two poles are equidistant
from it.

(2) The Celestial Sphere

The Imaginary sphere on which the stars appear to lie or to be studded is known as the Celestial
sphere. All objects in the sky can be conceived as being projected upon the inner surface of the
celestial sphere, which may be centered on Earth or the observer.
The poles of the celestial sphere are aligned with the poles of the Earth. These are called the Celestial
North Pole (CNP) and Celestial South Pole (CSP).
The celestial equator lies along the celestial sphere in the same plane that includes the Earth's
equator. If centered on the observer, half of the sphere would resemble a hemispherical screen over
the observing location. Radius of celestial sphere may be of any value.

(2)Celestial Great Circle:

The imaginary line of intersection of an infinite plane, passing through the center of the earth and the
circumference of the celestial sphere is known as great circle

(3) The Zenith and Nadir :

Zenith (Z)
It is the point on the upper portion of the celestial sphere marked by plumb line, above the observer.
It is the point on the celestial sphere immediately above the observer’s station.
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Nadir (Z’):
It is the point on the lower portion of the celestial sphere marked by plumb line, below the observer.
That is it is the point on the celestial sphere vertically below the observer’s station

If the observer is in the Northern hemisphere, Celestial North Pole (CNP) lies between North Point (N)
and Zenith (Z).

4) The Celestial Horizon / True Horizon / Geocentric Horizon.

It is the great circle traced upon the celestial sphere by the plane which is perpendicular to the Zenith-
Nadir line and which passes through the center of the earth.

Sensible Horizon-
The circle in which a plane passing through the Earth’s surface and point of observations and
tangential to the earth’s surface or (normal to the Zenith- Nadir line) intersects with celestial sphere is
called as the sensible horizon. The line of sight of an accurately leveled telescope lies in this plane.
Visible Horizon-
The circle of contact with the Earth surface of the visible rays passing through the point of observation
is called as visible horizon. Visible Horizon is a small circle of Earth.

(5) The Vertical Circles

A vertical circle of the celestial sphere is a great circle passing through Zenith and Nadir. All the vertical
circle cut the celestial horizon at right angles.
The vertical circle which joins Z and Z’ and passes through CNP, CSP, north point (N) and south point
(S) is called principal vertical circle.
And the vertical circle which joins Z and Z’ and passes through west point (W) and east point (E) is
called prime vertical circle

(6) The Observer’s Meridian

Great Circle passing through zenith (Z), Celestial North Pole (CNP), Celestial South Pole (CSP), north
point (N) & south point (S) and perpendicular to celestial horizon.
Observer’s meridian represents the vertical plane at the location of observer in the north-south
direction (i.e. principal vertical circle).
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(7) The Latitude (θ)
Latitude is the angular distances of a place north or south of the earth’s equator or of the equator of a
celestial object. The angle between the direction of a plumb line at the place and the plane of the
celestial Equator is called as latitude.
Latitude varies from 0 at equator to 90o northward or southward and usually expressed in degrees and
minutes and second, e.g., at a latitude of 51° N"

The angular distance from the Zenith to the pole is called co-latitude. It is compliment of the latitude
and equal to (90 - θ).Latitude can also be defined as the angle between the celestial equator and
Zenith. In other words it is the angle between north point and NCP.

(8) The Longitude (φ):

The longitude of the place is the angle between a fixed reference meridian called the prime or first
meridian and the meridian of the place. The longitude of any place varies between 0° to 180 °. The
Prime Meridian universally adopted is that of Greenwich. It is reckoned as φ° East or West of
Greenwich.

(9) The Altitude (α):

The altitude (α) of celestial body is the angular distance above horizon as measured on the vertical
circle passing through the body. It is considered positive if the angle measured is above horizon (0 o to
90o) and below horizon, it is considered as negative. e.g., altitude of zenith is 90o.
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Again, the altitude of Pole (p) = Latitude of Observer’s position (θ).
The angular distance of the celestial body from the zenith is called - co-altitude/ Zenith Distance (z).
z = 90o - α

(10) The Azimuth (A)

The azimuth of a celestial body is the angular distance measured along the horizon from the observer's
meridian to the foot of the vertical circle passing through the celestial body. In northern hemisphere
measured from north point eastward or westward (0o to 180o) and southern hemisphere measured from
south point eastward or westward (0o to 180o).

(11) Declination (δ) :

The declination is the angular distance of a celestial body measured
from the equator towards CNP or CSP along the plane normal to the
equator (plane of Declination Circle). Declination varies from 0o to 90o,
and is marked + or – according as the body is north or south of the
equator. e.g. – declination of CNP is 90o N. Declination is similar to
latitude.
Co-Declination or Polar Distance (p):
The angular distance of a celestial body from the nearer pole is called
the co-declination or polar distance (p).
p= 90- δ

(12) Hour Angle:

Hour angle is the angular distance on the celestial sphere measured westward along the celestial
equator from the observer’s meridian to the declination circle passing through a celestial body.

Local hour angle (LHA):

The angular distance of a celestial body measured westward from the
point of intersection of the equator and the meridian of the observer to
the foot of the hour circle passing through the celestial body.
Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA):
The angular distance of a celestial body measured westward from the
point of intersection of the equator and the Prime / Greenwich meridian
to the foot of the hour circle passing through the celestial body.

LHA = GHA (of celestial object) + Longitude (of observer)

The Earth & the Sun:

(13) Ecliptic: (Road of the Sun)
It is the great circle on the celestial sphere representing the sun's apparent path during the year. The
earth moves eastward in an elliptic orbit completely around the sun in a year maintaining an angle of
23°27’ between its orbit and the equator. The axis of the earth remains practically parallel to itself as it
moves around the sun. The distance between the earth and sun varies between 147 million km (Jan)
to 152 million km (July).
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(14) Equinoctial Points:
The points of intersection of the ecliptic circle with the equatorial circle are known as equinoctial points.
The point at which the sun transits from Southern to Northern hemisphere is known as First point on
Aeries (g)/ vernal equinox and from Northern to Southern hemisphere as First point on Libra (W) /
autumnal equinox.

The declination of the sun is zero at the equinoctial points. The Vernal Equinox or the first point on
Aries is the point in which marks commencement of spring in northern hemisphere. The Autumnal
Equinox or the first point of Libra is the point in which marks the commencement of autumn.
Both the Equinotial points are six month apart in time

(15) The Solstices:

Solstices are the points at which the North and South declination of the Sun is maximum. The point at
which North declination of the Sun is maximum is called summer solstice and the point at which South
declination of the Sun is maximum is known as winter solstice.
The declination angle of the sun is therefore continuously changing from-
 23°27’N (Date of Summer Solstice in Northern hemisphere varies from June 20 to 22) to
 23°27’S (Date of Winter Solstice in Northern hemisphere varies from Dec.20 to 23).
 It is zero on Autumnal Equinox (in Sept.) and Vernal Equinox (in March).

**Read more detail from reference book – Surveying-III by Dr. Punmia, article -1.7

(16) Right Ascension (RA):

It is the angular distance of a celestial body along the celestial equator
measured from the First point on Aeries to the foot of the hour circle of the
celestial body. It is measured from East to West direction i.e., anti-clockwise
in Northern hemisphere.
It can be described as the point on the celestial equator that rises with any
celestial object as seen from earth's equator, where the celestial equator
intersects the horizon at a right angle. It is customarily measured in hours (h),
minutes (m), and seconds (s), with 24h being equivalent to a full circle
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Celestial Sphere showing common parameters used to define relative position of any celestial body with
respect to observer or equator

Celestial Coordinate System-

In astronomy different co-ordinate systems are used for calculation of relative position, time etc. These
are-
1. Horizon system
2. Independent Equatorial system
3. Dependent Equatorial system
4. Celestial Latitude and Longitude System
5. Galactic system

1. Horizon System (Altitude & Azimuth System)

In this method the observer's local horizon is used as the fundamental
plane and expressed in terms of altitude and azimuth.
It is easy to visualize these coordinates in the sky.
This coordinates can be directly measured with simple instruments.
Disadvantages:
1. These coordinates are dependent on observer’s position.
2. Azimuths and altitudes of celestial bodies are continuously changing
with time because of apparent daily motion of the celestial sphere.

2. Equatorial System
Unlike the horizontal coordinate system, equatorial coordinates are
independent of the observer's location and the time of the observation.
The position of an celestial object is given by its – right ascension (RA)
and declination (δ)
The equatorial coordinate system is basically the projection of the latitude
and longitude coordinate system we use here on Earth, onto the celestial
sphere. By direct analogy, lines of latitude become lines of declination
(measured in degrees, arc minutes and arc seconds) and indicate how
far north or south of the celestial equator the object sites.
Lines of longitude have their equivalent in lines of right ascension (RA),
but whereas longitude is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds east the Greenwich meridian, RA
is measured in hours, minutes and seconds east from where the celestial equator intersects the ecliptic
(the vernal equinox).

3. Dependent Equatorial System

This method is based on measurement of Hour Angle (HA) and Declination
(δ). HA is dependent on observer’s position. HA of a star at a location
changes continuously due to earths diurnal motion.
HA of stars are observed daily at any convenient time at Greenwich
throughout the year and reported in star catalogue.
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4. Celestial Latitude and Longitude System
This system is also called Ecliptic co-ordinate system. This
system uses spherical coordinates (celestial latitude and
celestial longitude).

Celestial Longitude –
Angle measured along plane of ecliptic eastward from 1st point of
aeries (0o to 360o)
Celestial Latitude–
Angle measured along plane normal to the ecliptic (0o to 90o N or
S ecliptic).
This method is commonly used for representing the positions
and orbits of solar system objects.

5. Galactic Coordinate System

The galactic coordinate system is a celestial coordinate system in spherical coordinates, with the sun
as its center, the primary direction aligned with the approximate center of the Milky Way galaxy, and
the fundamental plane parallel to an approximation of the galactic plane but offset to its north.

Diurnal Circle
The apparent path traced by a celestial body due to daily rotation of earth about its own axis. Basically,
this is the apparent motion of a star due to rotation of earth on its axis. Therefore, the diurnal circle is
always parallel to equator and perpendicular to earth’s axis of rotation.

Culmination or Transit of the star

When a typical star comes up over the horizon (rises) somewhere in the
eastern sector, it moves round to the right, climbing higher in the sky.
Gradually it reaches its highest point when it's due south, i.e. on the
observer’s meridian in figure – point X). Then it continues moving right
and sinking lower and lastly disappears below the horizon (sets)
somewhere in the western sector.
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(Note that this is only true in the northern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere, the star will move
to the left and reach its highest point when it's due north.)
So it is clear that in one revolution, each star crosses the observer’s meridian twice each day (X & Y).
When a star crosses observer’s meridian it is said to be culminate or transit.
A circumpolar star at its maximum elevation (altitude) above the horizon is said to be at its upper
transit or culmination. Similarly, a circumpolar star at its minimum altitude above the horizon is said
to be at its lower transit or culmination. It occurs below the horizon unless the star is circumpolar.
Stars farther from the pole rise, attain a maximum altitude above the horizon (when they are said to
transit, or cross the meridian, a north-south line through the zenith) and then set below the horizon.
These stars are visible at night only during that part of the year when the Sun is in the opposite part of
the sky.

Circumpolar Stars
Some stars never set and remain visible all night all year. These are called circumpolar stars. Stars
close to North Celestial Pole never set.
For northern hemisphere, if a star's north polar distance is less than the altitude of the Pole, then that
star cannot reach the horizon. These are defined as north circumpolar stars. Similarly, stars close to
the South Celestial Pole will never rise - these are south circumpolar stars. All others are equatorial
stars, which rise and set. This means that for observers at the Earth's poles, all of the stars are
circumpolar and the observers never see any of stars in the opposite hemisphere. For observers at the
Earth's equator, none of the stars are circumpolar and the observers can see the whole celestial
sphere during the course of a year.
Therefore the division between circumpolar and equatorial stars depends on the altitude of the North
Celestial Pole, i.e. on the observer's latitude. In other words, to be a circumpolar star, the declination of
the star must be greater or equal to co-latitude of the place, i.e., polar distance of the star should not
be greater that latitude of the observer.

Star at Elongation:
A circumpolar star is said to be at its elongation when the position the star is at greatest distance east
or west from observer’s meridian. When the star is at greatest distance east from meridian it is called
eastern elongation and vice versa. At elongation the azimuth of the star is maximum.
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Elongation is observed only for stars that have an upper transit on the segment of the celestial
meridian between the celestial pole and the zenith of the point of observation.

Exercise-1: 2D Problem on Transit

Altitude of a circumpolar star at upper transit is 80o and south of zenith. At lower transit, it is 10o and
north of zenith. Determine latitude () of observer and declination of star ().

Solution:
Draw a celestial sphere and from given data, place the upper and lower transit positions of the star in
the celestial sphere. They are X & Y in the figure.
Now,
Distance in between XY = (90o - 80o) + (90o-10o) = 90o
Distance of points on diurnal circle from pole is equal.

Distance of NCP from X = 90o/2 = 45o

Angle between NCP & Z = 90o-10o- 45o = 35o = co-latitude

so,
Latitude,  = 55o
Declination of the star,  = 90o-45o = 35o

Spherical Trigonometry: Spherical Triangle

Triangle formed on the surface of sphere by parts of three great circles is called Spherical Triangle.
The spherical triangle ABC has three sides (a,b,c) and three angles (A,B,C) all of them represented by
angles

Spherical side:
These are the three arcs of the circles forming the spherical triangle. Each arc is represented by the
angle formed by it at the center.
The magnitude of any side of the spherical triangle is the angle is the angle subtended by it at the
center of the sphere and expressed as degree and minutes of arc.

Spherical angle:
The angle between the tangents at each corner point of the spherical triangle is the spherical angle.
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Properties of spherical triangle

i. The maximum value of any side is 180o.
ii. The maximum value of any angle is 180o.
iii. The sum of three angles is less than 360o.
iv. If the sum of any two sides is equal to 180o, the sum of the angles opposite them is equal to 180o.
v. The smaller angle is opposite the smaller side and vice versa.

The nautical mile

The distance on arc of the great circle corresponding to angle of 1 minute subtended by the arc at the
center of the earth is defined as one nautical mile.

One nautical mile = Circumference of the great circle / (360˚ x 60)

= (2 x π x 6370 ) / 360 x 60 = 1.852 km = 6080 ft

 Distance (n.m.) along Parallel of Latitude

= Difference in φ (min) x cos(θ)

 Earth is not a perfect sphere, it is flattened at the poles and bulged

at the equator:
- Equatorial diameter = 12,756.8 km
- Polar diameter = 12,713.8 km.

Formulae in Spherical Trigonometry

1. Sine Formula:

sin A sin B sin C

 
sin a sin b sin c
2. Cosine Formula:

cos a - cos b . cos c

cos A 
sin b . sin c
cos a = cos b . cos c + sin b . sin c . cos A
cos A = cos B . cos C + sin B . sin C . cos a
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Exercise-2: Distance Problem on the Earth
A & B are two points on earth surface at different locations. Determine the shortest distance between
A (=120W, =23.5N) and B (=70E, =23.5N).

Solution:
Draw the earth sphere. Place the position of point A and B according to given latitude and longitude.
Connect A and B with Pole P.
So, PAB is a spherical triangle
Spherical angle, b = arc AP = 90 -23.5 = 66.5
Spherical angle, a= arc BP = 90 -23.5 = 66.5
Spherical angle, p = arc AB = difference in longitudes
= 360– (120+70) = 170 (<180)

[As 120+70 > 180; according to spherical triangle rule no angle is > 180.
Therefore, angle A & B is closer in other part of the circle.]

Now, the circle along AB is the small circle. So distance along arc AB is not the shortest distance
between them. Shortest distance between two points is the distance along the great circle passing
through that two points (x).

In the new ABP triangle (where AB is the arc of a great circle), side a, b
and angle p are known and side AB=X unknown.

Spherical trigonometry formula-

cos X - cos b . cos c
cos p 
sin b . sin c
cosX = cos p. sin a. sin b + cos a. cos b

= cos 170 sin 66.5o sin 66.5o + sin 66.5o sin 66.5o = 132o

Now arc AB = radius x central angle = 6370 x 132o x π/180o = 14675 km

= 14675/1.852 = 7924 nautical mile

Exercise-3: Determination of declination of star

From an observer’s position a star is observed at 55o above horizon along the prime vertical circle. The
distance of pole from zenith is 71.5o. Calculate polar distance and declination of the star.

Solution:
Given, altitude, α = 55o
Latitude (θ) = 90o - 71.5o = 18.5o
Draw the celestial sphere with position of horizon, zenith.
Place the position of the star for given altitude (note- the star is along
the prime vertical circle during time of observation).
Draw equator and pole at angular distance with horizon/ zenith for
observer’s latitude.

Draw declination circle, which intersects equator at A .

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o
PZ =co-latitude = = 71.5
ZX = co-altitude = 90o – 55o = 35o
Spherical angle Z = azimuth of the star (NW) = 90o

Now, ZPX a spherical triangle

cos PX - cos PZ . cos ZX

cos Z 
sin PZ . sin ZX

cos PX = cos Z . sin PZ . sin ZX + cos PZ . cos ZX

= cos 90o . sin 71.5o . sin 35o + cos 71.5o . cos 35o

Polar distance, PX = 75o

Declination () = AX = 90o - 75o = 15o

Exercise-4: Determination of azimuth

At longitude = 15oW and latitude = 53o30’N, altitude of the sun at 2:12 pm is 22o31’48.5”. At GMN
(Greenwich Mean Noon) declination of sun Sun = 3o25’ S. which is decreasing at a rate of 1’ /hr. The
WCB of sun at time of observation = 226o50’.Determine Azimuth of sun at observation, ii) angle
between True North and Magnetic North

Solution:
First draw the celestial sphere with position of horizon, zenith.
Draw equator and pole at angular distance with horizon/ zenith for
given latitude.
Draw the declination circle (circle passing through star, NCP, SCP
and perpendicular to equator). QX is the declination angle during
time of observation (calculated later).
Connect Z with X.

Now, as the observer is at west of Greenwich, difference in time

between observer’s position and Greenwich
= 15oW = + 4’ x 15 = 1 hr; i.e., Greenwich is 1 hr ahead.

Therefore, at time of observation (2.12 pm), GMT = 14 hr 12 min + 1 hr = 15.2 hr

which is 3.2 hr ahead than GMN

During GMN, Sun = 3o25’ S (as in south of equator, therefore it is below equator)
But declination of the sun is decreasing at a rate of 1’ /hr
So, after 3.2 hr, Sun = 3o25’ – 3.2 x 1’ = 3.36o = QX

Altitude of the sun =YX = 22o31’48.5” = 22.53o

So, ZX = 90o - 22.53o = 67.47o
Latitude, ZS’ = 53o30’; so, PZ = 90o - 53o30’ = 36.5o
PX = PQ + QX = 90o + 3.36o = 93.36o
Now, in spherical triangle PZX,

cos PX - cos PZ . cos ZX

cos Z 
sin PZ . sin ZX
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cos (93.36) - cos (36.5) . cos (67.47)

cos Z 
sin (36.5) . sin (67.47)

Z = 131.86o = 131o51’27”

Azimuth of sun = 131o51’27” (w.r. to true north)

Now,
Given, The WCB of sun at time of observation = 226o50’
(Measured w.r.to magnetic north)
Position of true north = 131o51’27”+ 226o50’ = 358o41’27” (< 360o )
Angle between True North and Magnetic North
= 360o - 358o41’27” = 1o18’33” (eastward)

Practice exercise from reference book - Surveying-III by Dr. Punmia:

Ex- 1.1 – 1.3, 1.6 – 1.15 & 1.61
Do not use formula as shown in Punmia. Draw the corresponding diagram first and then solve the
problem. Required formulas of Spherical Trigonometry will be given in exam.