COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

COMPANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. ROSITA GAN | SEM 2 2023

For example, carnivores need to have both mechanical and

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM chemical digestion, so a more complex enzymatic activity during the
digestion process. Herbivores get less energy from the food that
they need, whereas carnivores’ supply is not constant, they have
OVERVIEW OF DIGESTIVE TRACT
ample time to store food as they start hunting for food.
STAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING
EMBRYONIC ORIGIN
● Ingestion: Act of eating or feeding
● Digestion: Process of breaking food down into molecules Foregut Oral cavity, Pharynx, Esophagus
small enough to absorb
● Absorption: Uptake of nutrients by body cells Midgut Stomach, Small Intestine
● Elimination: Passage of undigested material out of the Hindgut Large intestine, cloaca
digestive system
MOUTH AND ORAL CAVITY
COMPONENTS
ORAL CAVITY
● Begins at mouth and ends at pharynx
● Fish have a very short oral cavity, while tetrapods typically
have longer oral cavities
● Mammalian mouth is specialized to serve as suckling and
masticatory organ (with muscular cheeks)

PALATE
● Roof of oral cavity
● Secondary palate
○ Separates oral passageway from nasal passageway
MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
○ Breathing of air influenced the evolution of the
1. Type of food eaten
secondary palate
2. Level of activity and metabolism
3. Body size

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COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
COMPANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. ROSITA GAN | SEM 2 2023

● Fishes and Amphibians ● Birds

○ Primary palate only ○ Lateral lingual swellings are suppressed and intrinsic
○ Have complete roof to the mouth muscle is usually lacking
● Reptiles
○ Evolution of a secondary palate TONGUE MOBILITY
○ Turtles: development of the maxilla, premaxillae, and ● Turtles, crocodiles, some birds and whales
a palatine (part of secondary palate) ○ Tongue is largely immobilized in the floor of the ral
○ Alligators: complete bony secondary palate cavity and cannot be extended
● Birds ● Snakes, insectivorous lizards, amphibians, and some birds
○ Fleshy secondary palate ○ Tongue sometimes long and may move in and out of
● Mammals the oral cavity
○ Complete secondary palate, but posterior portion is ● Mammals
fleshy, soft palate ○ Tongue is attached to the floor of the oral cavity (via
frenulum) but can still be extended out of the oral
TONGUE cavity
● Bony fishes and primitive amphibians
○ Simple tongue, crescent-shaped elevation in the ORAL GLANDS
floor of the oral cavity caused by the underlying ● Saliva
hyloid skeleton ○ Used to moisten food and secrete digestive enzymes
● Most amphibians ○ Amphibians: few and found on roof of mouth and
○ Primary tongue (hypobranchial eminence) with tongue
glandular field (tuberculum impar) and is stuffed with ○ Reptiles: numerous and developed
hypobranchial musculature ○ Birds: water-feeders lack glands while some with oral
● Reptiles and Mammals glands secrete mucus for nest-building
○ Primary tongue with glandular fields and lateral ○ Mammals: salivary glands
lingual swellings stuffed with hypobranchial ■ Usually 3 pairs (parotid, mandibular, and
musculature sublingual)
■ Saliva: mucus, salts, proteins, and enzymes
(amylase)

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COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
COMPANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. ROSITA GAN | SEM 2 2023

● Poison: present in lizards, snakes, and mammals ■ Crocodilians, toothed birds, and mammals
● Anticoagulants: example: vampire bats are limited to the jaws
○ Most vertebrates (except mammals) replace teeth in
TEETH waves
● Derlivations of dermal armor ○ Mammals have two sets of teeth: deciduous and
● Placoid scales: show gradual transition to teeth at the edge permanent teeth
of the jaw
● Composition of teeth: primarily dentin surrounded by enamel MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS IN TEETH
● Vary among vertebrates in number, distribution in the oral ● Reptiles
cavity, degree of permanence, mode of attachment, and ○ Aglyphous: no modification for venom delivery
shape ○ Solenoglyphous: retractable teeth, fangs
● Wear patterns of teeth are functionally important ○ Proteroglyphous: fangs in front of mouth
○ Chewing habit is usually in the wear and tear of the ○ Opisthoglyphous: fangs in back of mouth
teeth ● Mammals
● Enamel: >95% inorganic matter; hardest substance in ○ Incisors: securing food and grooming
vertebrate bodies ■ Conical spikes for holding insects or flesh or
○ Enamel is harder then dentine simple blades for cutting plants
○ Dentine is harder than cement ■ Single roots
● These properties mean that teeth can be “self-sharpening” ○ Canines: simple spike-like teeth with single roots for
● Toothless Vertebrates: agnathans, sturgeons, some toads, tearing
turtles, birds, baleen whales ○ Premolars: grinding
● Toothed Vertebrates: ○ Molars: larger than premolars and have more cusps
○ Fish: numerous and widely distributed in the oral & roots
cavity and pharynx
○ Early tetrapods: widely distributed in the palate
■ Most amphibians and some reptiles still have
tweeth on the vomer, palatine, and pterygoid
bones

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COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
COMPANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. ROSITA GAN | SEM 2 2023

TYPE OF TEETH BASED ON ATTACHMENT TYPE OF TEETH BASED ON CROWN SIZE/SHAPE

Acrodont no root; attached to rim of jawbone (most fishes, CROWN HEIGHT
some lizards)
Brachydont Low crowns (humans)
Pleurodont no root; attached to lingual side of jawbone
Hypsodont High crowns (horses)
(some lizards and snakes)
CUSP MORPHOLOGY
Thecodont rooted in sockets (mammals, crocodiles/reptiles,
birds) Bunodont Peaked (omnivores)

Lophodont Rigid surface (rats, rhinoceros)

TYPE OF TEETH BASED ON REPLACEMENT
Selenodont Crescent surface (deers)
Polyphodont continuous replacement throughout life (most
vertebrates, reptiles)
ECOMORPHOLOGY OF TEETH
Diphyodont two sets of teeth (most mammals) ● Carnivory
○ 4th premolar (P4) and 1st molar (M1) contact one
Monophyodont single set of teeth (cetaceans) another during mastication
○ Effective at slicing flesh and maintain high shearing
TYPE OF TEETH BASED ON SHAPE surface
○ Protocone of P4 is typically reduced
Homodont Teeth of similar shape along jaw
○ Metaconid and taloned of M1 are reduced
Heterodont Teeth of different shape along jaw ● Insectivory
○ Tibospheric molar: evolved to crunch, mash and
shear insect exoskeletons
○ Dilambdodont molar: marked by W-shaped ectoloph
ridge seen in shrews, talpid moles, and many bats

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COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
COMPANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. ROSITA GAN | SEM 2 2023

● Herbivory PHARYNX
○ Diet creates heavy wear on occlusal surfaces ● Region of foregut between the oral cavity and esophagus
○ Have teeth with tall crowns (hysodont) or ● Part of digestive tract exhibiting pharyngeal pouches (at
continuously growing to replace worn tissue least in embryo) that may give rise to slits
(hypeselodont) ● Fishes: pharynx is the respiratory organ
○ Occlusal ridges and crests are oriented ● Tetrapods: pharynx is crossroad between food and
perpendicular to the chewing motion of the jaw respiratory passage; site of openings in auditory tube
creating a surface for grinding plant material
● Omnivory TETRAPOD PHARYNX
○ Prepare food by pounding rather by shearing ● Divided into three parts
○ Hypocone is added to upper cheek teeth
Nasopharynx Bears opening of internal nares on the roof
○ Paraconid is lost in lower cheek teeth and opening of Eustachian tubes in the
○ Bunodont dentition is typical as seen in bears, pigs, sides
racoons, and primates
Oropharynx Common passage for food and air

Laryngopharynx Contains two openings: glottis and gullet

leading into the trachea and esophagus
respectively. Epiglottis guards the glottis at
time of swallowing food

MORPHOLOGY OF THE GUT

LENGTH OF THE TRACT

Carnivores Short digestive tract that produce fast-acting
digestive enzymes

Herbivores Long intestines that have large colonies of bacteria

that help in digesting the cellulose fibers in plant
tissues

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COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
COMPANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. ROSITA GAN | SEM 2 2023

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE GUT ○ Marine turtles: lined with cornified papillae pointing
1. Mucosa: layer of epithelial cells in direct contact with the posteriorly
lumen ● Birds
2. Submucosa: loose connective tissue containing blood ○ Typically have a neck and much longer esophagus
vessels and nerves ○ Lined with horny papillae
3. Muscularis externa: smooth muscular layer ○ Crop: large sac or ventral pouch seen in grain eating
a. Inner circular for lengthening & constriction birds and birds of prey; for storage of food for a short
b. Outer longitudinal for shortening & peristalsis period
4. Visceral serosa/peritoneum: outer layer in contact with ● Mammals
mesenteries (connective tissue) that connect internal organs ○ Distinct demarcation between esophagus and
to the body wall stomach
○ Length varies with the length of the neck
ESOPHAGUS
● Connects the pharynx to the stomach STOMACH
● Herbivores: striated muscle fibers extend throughout the ● Temporary storage site for food before it enters the intestine
entire length of esophagus (voluntary control) ● In most vertebrates, assumes a transverse position and
● Agnathans: lined with numerous folds; simple structure either U-shaped or J-shaoed
serving as extension of the pharynx ○ Shape depends on the shape of animals body
● Fishes: ○ May extend longitudinally in animals like snake
○ Bears longitudinal folds to allow distention ● Stomachs of advanced vertebrates tend to be divided into
○ Teleosts: have very short esophagus the following regions
○ Elasmobranchs (sharks): longer esophagus lined by ○ Cardia: secretes mucous between fundus and
papillae esophagus
● Amphibians: extremely short. consists of a short constricted ○ Fundus: digestive region, secretes enzyme
area pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid
● Reptiles: ○ Pylorus: secretes mucous that helps neutralize acid
○ Generally loner than in lower forms in the stomach
○ Longitudinal folds in wall permit distention ● Agnathans
○ Snakes: capable of swallowing large objects ○ Poorly developed

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COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
COMPANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. ROSITA GAN | SEM 2 2023

○ Slight enlargement of the posterior end of the ● Site for enzymatic breakdown of food
esophagus ■ Gizzard (muscular stomach) - used to grind
○ Reduced in size in non-parasitic lamprey food grains
● Fishes ● Corresponds to pylorus
○ No distinction between esophagus and stomach ● Site for mechanical breakdown of
○ Dipnoi, chimaera, and many teleosts: simple, straight food
tubes without digestive function ● Tubercles on the surface help in
○ Polypterus (birchir) appears as a blind pouch due to grinding of food grains
fusion of cardia and pylorus along lesser curvature ● Gizzard stones help in digestion
○ Elasmobranch: J shaped ● Seed-eating: highly developed
○ Teleosts: great variety of shapes gizzard, non-seed eating: less
● Amphibian developed
○ All amphibians stomachs have digestive function ● Mammals
○ Frogs: wide cardia, no fundus, short and narrow ○ Generally transversely position, but vary in shapes
pylorus and modifications
○ Salamander: stomach is straight ○ Logomorphs (rabbits) - large cardia (on the left side),
● Reptile fundus is largest portion, small pylorus (on the right
○ Slightly U-shape with concavity lying on the right side side); deep gastric pits with glands along the folded
○ Lizards: located on left side of body, divided into lining
cardia and pylorus, wider than esophagus ○ Monotremes: pouch-like stomach; for storage only;
○ Most snakes: spindle-shaped no gastric glands
○ Turtles: Tubular and U-shaped ○ Marsupials: cardia is largest part and lies behind the
○ Crocodiles: similar to birds; modified into a esophagus; with series of sacullated floods in its
gizzard-like modified region walls; fundus and pylorus are reduced
● Birds ○ Blood-sucking bat: pylorus is elongated into
○ Highly specialize to compensate for lack of teeth caecum-like structure that gets filled up with blood
○ Two regions during feeding
■ Pro-ventriculus (glandular stomach) ○ Edentates (armadillo, anteater): glands concentrated
● Corresponds to fundus on the greater curvature

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COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
COMPANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. ROSITA GAN | SEM 2 2023

Mammals - Ruminants ■ Catfish (carnivorous): have short intestine

● Specialized stomach in herbivorous mammals such as cows ● Amphibians
and deers ○ Duodenum forms a U with a stomach; illeum do not
● For digestion of pla nts containing cellulose have true villi and caecum is lacking
● 4 compartment of the ruminant stomach ○ Caecillians: slightly coiled; not differentiated into
○ Rumen regions
○ Reticulum ○ Urodeles: highly coiled small intestine: short and
○ Omasum straight large intestine
○ Abomasum ● Reptiles and Birds
● Camel: water cell found in the rumen and reticulum ○ Uniform in diameter; elongated and coiled
○ Large intestines are greater in diameter but short;
INTESTINE opens into the cloaca
● Site for completion of digestion and absorption of nutrients ○ Bursa Fabricius - seen in birds but not reptiles;
● Enzymes completely convert ingested food into easily primary organ in avain species
absorable simpler units ● Mammals
● Ability to absorb is dependent upon available surface area ○ Long and short coiled intestine differentiated into
and specializations to increase surface area and/or slow duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
passage food ○ Large intestine is long (but shorter than small
● Agnathans: intestine)
○ Straight; ends with a slightly enlarged rectum which ● Lizards, birds, and mammals: small intestinal wall lined with
opens to a cloacal depression villi
● Fishes ● In many teleosts and mammals (except monotremes):
○ Elasmobranchs: shorter than stomach urogenital and anal openings are separate
○ Spinal valve slows the transit of digested food for ● Vermiform appendix: absent in fishes, reptiles, and birds but
increased absorption of nutrients present in mammals
○ Large intestine is a short passage between the small
intestine and cloaca CLOACA
○ Teleosts: length and size vary ● End of intestine in many vertebrates opens into the cloaca
■ Carps: have huge long coiled intestine (sewer)

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COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
COMPANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. ROSITA GAN | SEM 2 2023

● Forms during development as a second invagination called ● Liver Lobes and Processes
the proctodeum ○ Deep fissures divide the liver into four basic lobes
● First separated from gut by cloacal membrane that will break and two process
down ■ Left and right lobe may be divided into medial
● Cloaca is small chamber where digestive, urinary, and and lateral lobe depending on species
reproductive systems empty
● Cloaca is absent in some fishes and most mammals
Left Lobe Lies to the left of the median plane except in
ruminants
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS
Right Lobe Lies to the right of the median plane
LIVER
● Largest gland in the body Quadrate Located between the right and left lobes and
Lobe ventral to the porta of the liveer
● Extramural digestive gland of substantial importance in
metabolism Caudate Located dorsal to the porta of the liver consisting
● Situated between vessels draining the intestines and the Lobe of caudate and papillary processes
general circulation ● Papillary process: located on the left of the
● Develops as an outpocketing of the gut in the ventral median plane lying in the lesser curvature
mesentery below anterior part of the intestine of the stomach
● Caudate process: most caudal region of
● Functions
the liver
○ Detoxification of drugs and toxins
○ Formation and secretion of bile
○ Metabolism of carbohydrates and fats
○ Plasma protein production
○ Urea formation
○ Inactivation of polypeptide hormones
○ Reduction and conjugation of adrenal and gonadal
steroid hormones

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COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
COMPANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. ROSITA GAN | SEM 2 2023

GALLBLADDER ○ Often have only a single duct; sometimes multiple

● Developed in most craniates ducts (birds have three)
● None develops in lampreys, a few teleosts, many birds, ○ Cats and humans have both a pancreatic and
perissodactyls, whales, and some rodents (including rats accessory pancreatic duct
and mice)
○ Have very little fat in their diet
● Always present in carnivores and lacking in some
vertebrates

PANCREAS
● Mass of soft tissue lying in the mesentery not far from the
dorsal to the stomach and morphologically dorsal to the
intestine
● Consists of two histologically distinct and functionally
independent components
○ Exocrine cells secrete enzymes into the digestive
tract
○ Endocrine cells secrete hormones (insulin and
glucagon) into the bloodstream
● Arises from the endoderm as a dorsal and a ventral bud
which fuse together to form the single organ
● Mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians have a pancreas
with similar historlogy and mode of development
● In some fishes: islet cells are segregated as Brockmann
bodies
● Attachments
○ One or more pancreatic ducts open into the proximal
part of the intestine, near the entry of the bile duct

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