Basic Elements

of Landscape
Architectural Design
Norman K. Booth
Department of Landscape Architecture
Ohio State University

•
.
.
I

Elsevier
New Yo rk • Amsterdam • Oxford
Basic Elements
of Landscape
Architectural Design
 Preface

Landscape architecture is a professional design dis- leisure time to spend. The landscape architect of the
cipline that, in the broadest sense, deals with inte- future, as in the past, must be a well-educated,
grating people and the outdoor environment in a highly skilled, and versatile individual who can
manner beneficial to both. The American Society of adapt to the unique conditions of each new project.
Landscape Architects defines landscape architecture Within this broad context, the profession of land-
as "the art of design, planning, or m anagement of scape architecture has been and will continue to be
the land, arrangement of natural and man-made ele- a design discipline, combining art and science,
ments thereon thro ugh application of cultural and whose primary focus is the sensitive joining of peo-
scientific knowledge, with concern for resource con- ple and their outdoor activities with the land. 2 Even
servation and steward ship, to the end that the re- though the professional boundaries will expand in
sultant environment serves useful and enjoyable the future into new areas of knowledge and skills,
purpose." 1 Over the years, landscape architects landscape architects will also maintain their tradi-
have been involved in projects associated with all as- tional expertise in the imaginative creation of out-
pects of the outdoor environment from the design of door environments that sensitively deal with the
intimate gardens to the planning and management ecological, social, economic, and aesthetic issues of
of land areas hundreds of square miles in size. From the site and client while also being visually and emo-
the most comprehensive viewpoint, the landscape tionally appealing. Ultimately, it is the task of the
architect has the ability to study, analyze, and solve landscape architect to give birth to outdoor experi-
a myriad of design problems that relate to the out- ences that are profitable, stimulating, and enjoyable
door environment. from day to day, month to month, and year to year.
To be able to address the vast and complex range For every art and design discipline, including
of potential design and environmental issues, the landscape architecture, certain media are character-
landscape architect must possess knowledge and btic and inherent to tha t discipline. These media are
skills in a variety of related disciplines including art, used by artists and designers of that discipline to
civil engineering, ecology, geography, sociology, transfer their objectives, ideas, concepts, and emo-
psychology, horticulture, and business. In the fu- tions into a "sensible form" for others to appreciate
ture, the professional landscape architect will also and use. The sculptor, for example, typically gives
have to be knowledgeable about computer science reality to ideas through the use of clay, stone, wood,
and be able to contend with shrinking resources or steel. The illustrator may use paint, ink, pencil,
combined with increasing numbers of people with or pastel. Similarly, the landscape architect utilizes
two general sets of media to transfer ideas into a
comprehensible form: (1) pencil, ink, magic marker,
1
Constitution, ASLA Members' Handbook 81 (Washington, D.C.: paper, cardboard, computer, and the like used to
The American Society of Landscape Architects, 1981), p. 346. portray a design intent in a graphic or model form,
2
See also Norman T. Newton, "Landscape Architecture: A
Profession in Confusion?," uindscape Arclritect11rc 64 (4):256 Uul:· and (2) landform, plant materials, buildings, pave-
1974). ment, site structures (steps, ramps, walls, etc.), and
)( Preface

water used to create the actual three-dimensional !ates to the outdoor environment along with land-
reality of the design. The first set of media are used scape design and construction should find the
to depict the idea of the design in a representative content of this book educational as well.
manner, while the second set of media are, in fact, · This book began a number of years ago as a set of
the elements of the design itself. This second set of notes and handouts given to second- and third-
media are the basic physical elements of landscape quarter landscape architectural design students. I
architectural design. found a need then and now to present key design
The intent of this book is to introduce the reader theories and concepts in simple words and illustra-
to those physical design media of landscape archi- tions. Of particular challenge was the desire to pres-
tecture that result in the "sensible form." More spe- ent ideas in basic terms that could be easily under-
cifically, the objective is to present the vocabulary, stood by novice designers without the sometimes
significance, characteristics, potential uses, and de- oblique and esoteric expressions used by experi-
sign guidelines for landform, plant materials, build- enced professionals.
ings, pavement, site structures, and water in land- The thoughts and theories presented here are
scape architectural design. A separate chapter is fundamental to landscape architecture. Most are
devoted to each of the physical design elements. The common knowledge among professionals and have
first chapter concerns itself with landform-the floor been learned through education, experience, obser-
and beginning point of most designs. The next two vation, and reading. Other ideas have evolved in my
chapters deal with plant material and buildings, own practice, from travel, and through my experi-
which, along with landform, are the major structural ence of teaching students and observing and criticiz-
and spatial components of most landscape architec- ing their work in design studio. Some of these
tural designs. Pavement and site structures, often thoughts have been formulated in attempting to
used to furnish and enhance outdoor rooms while help students overcome common mistakes and mis-
complementing landform, plant material, and build- conceptions typical in the early phases of their de-
ings, are discussed in the following chapters. Water, sign career.
in many instances used as an embellishing and en- And, this book is envisioned as a beginning. It
riching element, is the last element discussed. should not be read as the complete or final word on
Finally, the last chapter outlines a design process as any of the subjects presented. The reader is encour-
a framework for integrating all the physical design aged to seek out additional sources and knowledge
elements into one encompassing landscape architec- on all the subject areas to supplement the thoughts
tural design. and theories offered here. I assume the reader will
This book was originally conceived as a helpful complement knowledge gained here with a personal
resource for individuals beginning their design ca- ethic and philosophy of design that will weigh and
reers in landscape architecture as well as for those appropriately apply the suggested guidelines to each
who simply wished to gain a basic understanding of new design situation.
the significance and use of the major physical com- Landscape architecture is an exciting and chal-
ponents of the outdoor environment. While the fo- lenging profession. I hope you, the reader, will gain
cus of the book is on landscape architectural design, a better understanding and awareness of the physi-
the ideas presented here are not intended to be lim- cal design elements of landscape architecture from
ited to only this design discipline. Students in other this book so that you may receive the same thrill and
professional disciplines including architecture, plan- personal satisfaction that I have in studying and de-
ning, and civil engineering whose expertise also re- signing the outdoor environment.
A number of people's encouragement and support and Lawrence Walquist, Jr., are given a special,
have made this book possible. I would like to thank warm thank you for their moral support as both per-
Janet Jordon and Kathleen Maclean for their long sonal friends and partners. Most helpful of all have
hours of typing and valuable editorial suggestions. been the students I have taught and from whom I
Thanks also go to Jot D. Carpenter for his continued have learned so much. To all of you, I am deeply
support over the years. Stephen Drown, James Hiss, indebted.
El,;l•,·il'r Science Publis hing Co .. Inc.
52 \'andl'rbilt Awnue, Ne1,· York. New Y,irk 10017

Sole distributors o utside the United St<1tc~ and Clnada:

Elsevier Science Publishers B. \I .
P.O. Bnx 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Tht• :S.:cthcrl,lnds

t, 1983 by Elsevier Science Publi$hing Co .. Inc.

Second Printing. 1985.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Public,ltic,n Data

Booth , Norman K.
Basic dements of landscape architecturnl des ign.
Includes bibliographical reft•rences and index.
l. Landscape architecture. I. Title.
58472.656 1983 712 82-20990
ISBN 0-444-00766-0

Manufactured in the United States of America

 This book is dedicated to the memory of my mother,
whose artistic talents and love of the outdoors
showed me the beauty and value of our natural environment.
i_

l
r
r Contents

Preface ix

1 Landform 1 2 Plant Materials 66

Significance 1 Sig nificance 66
Aesthetic Character - Functional Uses o f Plant Material 69
Spa tial Sensation 11 Architectural Uses of Plant Material 71
Views 12 Creation of Space 7 1
Drainage 12 Screening 81
Microclimate D Pri\'acv Control 82
Functiona l Use of the La nd 14
Visual Pla nt Characteristics 83
Expression of Landform 18 Plant Size 83
Contour Lines 18 Plant Form 95
Spot Elevations 2-l Plant Color 99
~-Iuchures 27 Foliage Tvpe 101
V,1htl' and Colur 27 l'l,rnt Te:-.tu re 108
Model 29
Aesthetic Uses of Plant Material 111
Computer G raphics .,._
Compleme ntors 112
Ratio Method 3 1
Unifiers 112
Percentage Method 31
Emphasize rs l 12
Landform Types by Form 34 Acknowledgers l 12
Level Landform 34 Softener 112
Convex Landform 35 View Enframemen t 114
Ridge +-l
Pla nting Desig n Process and Principles 115
Concave Landform 46
Valley 48
Summary 126
Functional Uses of Landform 49
Spatial Definitio n 49
Control Views 53
Influence Mo\'ement 3S
3 Buildings 127
Building Clusters and Spatial D efinition 128
Affect Microclimalc 60
Distanc.: to Building H eigh t Ratio 130
Aes thetic Uses 61
Plan Arrangement 131
Summary 65 Building Character 138
 1
Landform

Significance
Significance Landscape architects utilize a variety of physical de-
Aesthetic Character sign elements to meet their objectives in creating
Spatial Sensation and managing outdoor spaces for human use and
Views enjoyment. Among these elements, landform is one
Drainage of the most important and ever present. Landform
Microclimate
serves as the base for all outdoor activity and may
Functional Use of the Land
be thought of as both an artistic and utilitarian ele-
Expression of Landform ment in its design applications. This chapter outlines
Contour Lines the significance, means of expression, types of land-
Spot Elevations forms, and their potential functions as physical ele-
Hachures
ments at both the regional and the site scale in land-
Value and Color
scape architectural design.
Model
Computer Graphics
"Landform" is synonymous with "topography"
Ratio Method and refers to the three-dimensional relief of the
Percentage Method earth's surface. In simple terms, landform is the "lay
of the land." At the regional scale, landform may
Landform Types by Form
include such diverse types as valleys, mountains,
Le\·el Landiorm
Convex Landform rolling hills, prairies, and plains. These landform
Ridge types are typically referred to as "macrolandforms."
Concave Landform At the site scale, landform may encompass mounds,
Valley berms, slopes, level areas, or elevation changes via
Functional Uses of Landform
steps and ramps, all of which may be generally cat-
Spatial Definition
egorized as "microlandforms." At the smallest scale,
Control Views "minilandforms" might include the subtle undula-
Influence Movement tions or ripples of a sand dune or the textural varia-
Affect Microd imate tion of stones ilnd rocks in il walk. In all situations,
Aesthetic Uses landform is the surficial ground element of the ex-
Summary terior en\'ironment.
Landform has great significance in the landscape
because of its direct association with so many other
elements and aspects of the outdoor environment.
Topography affects, among other things, the aes-
thetic character of an area, the definition and per-
ception of space, views, drainage, microclimate,
land use, and the organization of functions on a par-
 Landform
2

- - - - L E V E L L~PrCRM U~IFIE'S LJ:+JCECAPE.----..

FIGURE 1.1

ticular site. Landform also has an impact on the role landscape (see Figure l. 1). Conversely, this unifying
and prominence of other physical design elements in capability is lost in hilly and mountainous areas
the landscape including plant material, pavement, where ridges and high points tend to segment the
water, c1nd buildings. All these other physical design lnnd into separate spaces and use areas.
clements plus additional components utilized in the Landform has other noteworthy influences on the
landscape must at some point come to rest on, and outdoor environment as well. Landform can be
relate to, the ground's surface. Few items seen or thought of as establishing the underlying structure
manipulated as design elements in the outdoors of any given portion of the landscape. It acts like the
float in space. Consequently, an alteration in the framework of a building or the bones of an animal;
landform at a particular point also means a change it formulates the overall order and form of the envi-
in the spatial delineation, appearance, and some- ronment. Other elements are then seen as being a
times the function of the other physical elements covering or facade on top of this frame . Thus in
also located at this point. The shape, slope, and ori- evaluating a given site during the site analysis phase
entation of the ground's surface influences every- of the design process, it is often wise to study the
thing on it and above it. While landform has a rather topography early, particularly if it is not flat or uni-
direct impact on all the other physical design ele- form. The site's landform can suggest to the de-
ments, it is not necessarily the most important of all. signer the overall organization and orientation that
This of course varies greatly with the particular sit- various uses, spaces, and other elements should
uation and scope of consideration. take to be compatible with the inherent composition
Because all other design elements must at some of the site, as shown in Figures 1.2 and 1.3. In both
point relate to the ground plane, landform is the one · figures, the size and shape of the site is the same.
common component in exterior environment. It can Yet the landform configuration i'n Figure 1.2 sug-
be considered a thread that ties all the elements and gests a linear layout of elements to follow the ridge
spaces of the landscape together into a continuum line while in Figure 1.3 the landform permits a more
that ends along the horizon or at water's edge. In sprawling and multidirectional arrangement. An ex-
regions and sites of level topography, this common- perienced designer is able to skillfully "read" the to-
ality can function as a unifying factor, visually and pography of a site or region and interpret its impli-
functionally connecting other components in the cations for design or management of that area.
 3

I
I
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\...__,./
lb
lb

22 24-

24-

FIGURE 1.2

FIGURE 1.3
 Landform
4

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,.,,,,, /

~----la /
/\
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EXAMPLE OF A 566E P ~ .
FIGCRE 1.4

Similarly, landform can be considered as a setting Having obtained a base sheet of the site's land-
or stage for the placement of other design elements form, the designer is then able to utilize it as the
and functions. It is the foundation for all exterior foundation for developing a design solution. All de-
spaces and land uses. This is why the ground sur- sign concepts and proposals are prepared and stud-
face is often referred to as the "base plane" (i.e., the ied as tracing paper overlays on top of the base
starting point for the evolution of a design solution). sheet. One of the early steps in this process is to
As such, one of the first tasks in the design process develop a functional diagram of the proposed uses
is typically to obtain a "base sheet" or topographic on the base plane as illustrated in Figure 1.5. In
plan of the site. As in Figure 1.4, this base sheet doing this, the designer studies the relationship of
usually shows contour lines, property lines, existing the proposed uses to each other as well as to the
structures, roads, and sometimes vegetation. The existing Iandform. This diagrammatic organization
base sheet can be obtained from on-site property of the base plane or stage of the site is critical be-
and topographic surveys or by aerial surveys of the cause its layout affects the order, scale and propor-
site. tion, character or theme, and functional quality of
Signi fica nee 5

t=U~IO~L DlA6RAM
ON Bt6t=. P~E.
FIGURE 1.5

the outdoor environment. A well-established ar- Webster's as "the surface of the earth and all its nat-
rangement of the base plane provides a sound foot- ural resources." 3 It can be clearly seen from these
ing for the integration of other design elements in- particular definitions that earth and soil along with
cluding vertical and O\'erhead planes. On the other their three-dimensional form are inherent in the con-
hand, a poorly organized base plane contributes to cept of landscape. "Landform" and "landscape" are
problems throughout an environment that usually mutually supportive in terms of definition. If "archi-
cannot be easily compensated for by skillful design tecture" is then defined as "the art or science of
during subsequent phases. It must be pointed out building,"·' it is possible to interpret " landscape ar-
here, however, that the landscape architect's atten- chitecture" as the art or science of building on and
tion should not be limited only to the base plane with the earth's surface.
even though its arrangement is crucial. Ultimately, One of the landscape architect's unique and dis-
the designer must be concerned with the three-di- tinguishing characteristics is the ability to work sen-
mensional experience of a design and how it will feel sitively with and manipulate landform. While sev-
to be in it. eral other professions also deal with various aspects
The significance of landform to the landscape ar- of landform, none of them does so with the same
chitectural profession is further emphasized by the depth of knowledge and skill as the landscape archi-
name itself: landscape architecture. Webster's New tect. The trademark of the landscape architectural
Collegiate Dictionary describes "landscape," among profession includes the modification and steward-
other definitions, as "a picture representing a view ship of the earth's surface for our use and enjoy-
of natural inland scenery." 1 It further defines " land- ment.
scape" as "the landforms of a region in the aggre- As stated previously, landform influences a num-
gate."2 The word "land" by itself is defined by ber of other factors dealt with in the location and

1
\-Vcl>stcr's N~w Colit'giate Dictionary, 1977 ed. (Springfield,
Ma~s: G. & C. l\le11iam Comp,111y, 1977), p . 6-!6. ·' Ibid ., p. 6-15.
·)bid . ''Il,id ., p. :i9.
6

FIGURE 1.6

FIGURE 1.7

FIGURE 1.8
Signiiicance 7

\flE6T"Ga\ST
NP-Jt--:ITAJ145 4
~~PMEN15

IDFCX:,RAPHIC ~<SlON5 q== THE:. UN rr~o SfATES.

FIGURE 1.9

FIGURE 1.10

design of exterior spaces. Some of these are dis- landscape characters provided by variations in Iand-
cussed in greater detail in the following paragraphs. form. Many regions of a country are distinguished
primarily by the landform predominant in the area.
Aesthetic Character. Landform has a direct bearing For example, the major regions of the United States
upon the aesthetic character and rhythm of the land- are often identified by their topography (Figure 1. 9):
scape at any scale . Mountains, hills, valleys, plains, The East Coast (coastal plains, hills, and valleys), the
and prairies are each different regional land form Appalachians (mountains), the Midwest (plains and
types that have thei r own unique, identifiable char- prairies), the Rockies (mountains), and the West
acter. Figures 1.6, 1.7, a nd 1.8 show the different Coast (mountains, valleys, and coastal escarpments).
8 l.andform

FIGURE 1.11

FIGURE 1.12

While each of these regions can also be additionally the third region of rugged, sharp mountain ranges
differentiated by such factors as climate, vegetation, and tight valleys where farming, small communities,
and culture, landform remains one of the most vi- and mining industries are found essentially on the
sually distinguishing features. lower slopes and valley floors. Again, the visual
Each of these larger geographic regions of the charncter of each one of these regions is directly de-
United States can be further subdivided into smaller rived from its topography.
topographic areas of well-defined character, again . The comparison between visually level areas and
based upon their predominant landform type. For hilly or mountainous areas serves as an additional
instance, the Southeastern United States is often de- . illustration of the influence of landform on land-
scribed as consisting of three distinct topographic re- scape character. Relatively level sites and regions,
gions: plain, piedmont, and mountains (Figure l. 10). like the ocean or large lakes, tend to appear quite
The plain, or more correctly, the Atlantic coastal open and expansive, as shown in Figure 1.11. One
plain, is distinguished by broad expanses of low, flat can often see great distances (if other elements do
land covered by rich truck farms and coastal villages. not interfere) to the horizon or other enclosing
The piedmont is characterized by gently rolling up- higher points of ground. Consequently, level areas
lands ,.,·here hay and grains are the major agricul- often have a strong internal sense of visual continu-
tural crop. Finally, the Appalachian Mountains form ity and unity. Different parts of the landscape can be
Significance 9

CLOSl=L'( 5PACEP ~03€::5 CRE::A~ QJt:K RH'<THM.

WIDE.LY 5RtCED RIOOE:S CREATE 5LON RHYTHM.

FIGURE 1.13

seen nnd appreciated as s maller parts of the whole. is, for example, different from that of New England
Furthermore, the sky is frequently a dominant ele- and different still from that in western Colorado.
ment of prairielike regions where clouds and the sun In addition to influencing regional landscape
form a strong ceiling and light source. In comparison character and rhythm, the various landform types
with visually level landforms, hilly and mountainou s can also have a direct impact on the aesthetic char-
areas are apt to provide a sensation of separation acter of patterns and forms tha t are visually compat-
and isolation from one valley to another (Figure ible with them. One example of this is found in the
1.12). When a person is in the valley between higher comparison of the designs of different European gar-
points of ground, the mountain slopes take on visual dens in relation to the type of landform on which
importance and the sky is reduced to a smaller area they were placed. For example, Italian Renaissance
directly overhead. gardens such as Villa Lante and Villa d'Este have
The size a nd spacing of the valleys (low poi nts) responded to the hilly Italian landform by being ter-
and ridges (high points) within a hilly o r mountain- raced in a series of well-defi ned levels that tend to
ous region can also have a d irect effect on the per- be outward-oriented to take ad,·antage of views into
ceptual rhythm of the landscape, as illustrated in and across a valley (Figure 1.14). Clearly delineated
Figure 1.13. The proportional relationship perceived vistas from a high point to a lower point on the sites
between solid (ridge or high point) and void (valley further create dramatic views while the use of falling
or lo·w point) as one moves through the landscape water acknowledges the gra\'itation;:tl movement
establishes a rhythmic cadence not unlike that found down the slopes.
in music. The rhythm of the West Virginia landscape French Renaissance gardens such as Vaux-le-Vi-
10

FIGURE 1.14

ITALIAN REt--lA\~E GAr<DEl--.l

01---l SLOPED SITE.

FIGURE 1.15

FREN::H f<-8,lt~.J~CE GARDEt-4

04 Li=VEL SITE= .
 11

FIGURE 1.16

lc5TH-CTNfllf<.Y ~LI 5H
l.)+.JD=.CAf'E:. ~1--l.

comte and Versailles ha\·e likewise responded di- relocated on the landform inherent in either of the
rectly to their topographic context. The generally other two, it would appear out of. place.
level, gently rolling landform on which these gar-
dens have evolved easily lends itself to the hard, ~12atial Sensation. A person's perception about the
stiff, geometry characteristic of the French Renais- limits and feeling of outdoor space is also affected
sance style. Long, straight axes and vistas, large by landform. Sites or regions that are visually level
bodies of still water, and intricate patterns of par- lack spatial definition based on landform alone.
terre all are elements and patterns expressive of level Level topography is only a ground plane element
landform's character (Figure 1.15). lacking vertical definition. Slopes and higher points
In England, still another character of garden and of ground, on the other hand, occupy a portion of
design style is found in association with the land- the vertical plane and have the ability to define and
form present there. The eighteenth-century "land- enclose space, as illustrated in Fi6 ure 1.17. The
scape gardening school" that evolved in response to steeper and/or higher the slope, the greater the sen-
the cultural and economic changes of the time is typ- sation of outdoor space created. In addition to the
ified by soft, undulating landforms, naturalistic definition of space, landform affects the feeling of a
masses of trees, and curvilinear bodies of water (Fig- space. Smooth, flowing landforms produce a sen-
ure 1.16). These characteristics of the landscape gar- suous and relaxed sensation while bold, rugged
dening school exemplify the hilly and gently rolling landforms are apt to nurture a feeling of excitement
topography typical of much of the English country- and aggressiveness in a space (Figure 1.18).
side. Likewise, the slope of a surface on which one
The character and layout of the Italian Renais- stands affects the spatial feeling. A person is more
sance, French Renaissance, and English landscape apt to feel secure and at ease when standing on a
gardening school styles is directly related to the per- level portion of ground than on a sloped one. Sloped
sonality of the landform in the region where each ground surfaces are often uncomfortable to stand on
style evolved. If any one of these three styles were and frequently induce a person to move. The sloped
12 Landform

5LOPED L.At--lDt="ORiv\ BL.o::.1<5

VIEVvS ct. CREATES .sFATIAL
ED3ES. LEVEL 1-N-JPFORtvl
~ "THE Opt=C)'on1::..

FIGURE 1.17

floor surfaces of the Guggenheim Museum in New object, or completely hide undesirable elements (see
York City designed by Frank Lloyd Wright are a Figures 1.76 and 1.79). In terms of the ground plane,
classic architectural example of the power of sloped landform has the ability to impact the height and
ground planes. Here, the sloped walking areas from distance relationship between the viewer (or vantage
which visitors view the pictures hanging on the point) and the object or space being looked at. The
walls subtly push people along and prevent them viewer may be placed lower than, on the same ele-
from conveniently stopping too long to observe any vation as, or higher than the object being viewed.
one display. It has been reported Wright created Each relationship is apt to produce a slightly differ-
these inclined ground planes on purpose to express ent perception of the object being viewed.
the power of architecture over art.
Drainag~. Most precipitation that falls eventually
Views. Closely linked to the concept of spatial defi- reaches the earth's surface and that which does not
nition is that of views. Again in the vertical plane, percolate into the ground or evaporate becomes sur-
landform can affect what and how much is seen at face runoff. The amount of runoff, its direction of
any one point, establish dramatic vistas, create se- flow, and its rate of flow are all related to the land-
quential vie,.,ving or "progressive realization" of an form. Generally speaking (without reference to spe-

FIG URE 1.18

ec>LD, R..LX:6EP ~ D ~ .
Significance 13

8Y-...fTHERµ--F/:CIW8
SL.a=>E. F<ECEI\JES lvlOST
Olf<.ECT WIWTEP-- SU!-1-
~RN-FACl}-K'S SLOPE
RECE-1\/.6 l}-..lDll<ECT SlJl-..l

E=FSCT Or SLOPE ORll:::1--4TA'T101--4 ~ l<ECEPTIOi,...l OF W I ~ su~.

FIGURE 1.19

cific soil type), the steeper the ground, the more the any other slope orientation. North-facing slopes re-
quantity and the faster the rate of runoff. Ground ceive very little if any direct sun during the winter,
that is too steep is susceptible to erosion due to ex- as shown in Figure 1.19. In summer all slope orien-
cessive velocity, while ground with too little slope is tations receive some sun with the western slopes
likely to be wet from insufficient drainage. In con- being the hottest owing to direct exposure to the af-
sidering drainage, it is suggested, for example, that ternoon sun. Figure 1.20 shows the overall charac-
slopes with only shrub material be held to a maxi- teristics and desirability of the major slope orienta-
mum slope of 10 percent to prevent erosion while tions in terms of sun in the continental temperate
lawn areas be graded to slopes of not less than 1 zone.
percent to avoid the occurrence of wet areas. 5 (See In analyzing wind direction in the continental
p. 31 for definition of slope percentage.) Modifying temperate zone, the northwest-facing slopes are ex-
surface drainage and directing it to appropriate posed to the cold winds while the southeast slopes
points in a site is an important and integral part of are the most protected during the .winter, as shown
site design. A design that has poor drainage is in in Figure 1.21. During the summer months, slopes
most instances unacceptable despite its appearance facing southwest receive the most benefit from the
and quality of spaces. One exception to this is a cooling effect of the southwest summer breezes. In
marsh or wetland preserved as a wildlife habitat. summary, southeilst-facing slopes in the continental
Microclimate. Landform affects sun exposure, wind temperate zone are the most desirable for develop-
exposure, and precipitation accumulation. In the ment in the context of both sun and wind owing to
continental temperate zone, slopes facing south re- protection from the winter wind, exposure to the
ceive more direct sun during the winter months than summer breezes, exposure to the winter sun, and
indirect exposure to the hot afternoon summer sun.
The influence of slope orientation on microclimate
;Harlow C. Landph<1ir and Fred Klatt, Jr., Lmrd~cape Arclrifcc- is further substantiated by observance of both natu-
r-
/11rc Co11sfmcfio11 (New Yo rk: Elsevier North Holl,1nd, l97\l), 39. ral and artificiill elements. In the prologue to his
14 Landiorm

l=rFEGT OF oLOPE ORll=l---lTAilO},-.J 01---\ SJhl 'EXFOa.tl<.E..

FIGURE 1.20

book Landscape Arclritecture, John 0. Simonds tells a the amount of precipitation. Along the Pacific coast-
story about a hunter who shows a boy that the holes line on the western side of the .Olympic mountain
to a gopher community on a North Dakota prairie ·range, an average of 10 in (25.5 cm) of rainfall occurs
are on southeast slopes to take advantage of the fa- . each year. Further east and higher in elevation in the
vorable sun and wind exposure. 6 Paul J. Grillo, au- Hoh Rain Forest, an average of 140 in (355.5 cm)-
thor of Form,., Function and Design, suggests that 150 in (381 cm) of precipitation falls. And higher still
communities and cities sited on south- and east-fac- in elevation {7,965 ft (2428 m) above sea level) at i-.-1t.
ing slopes along rivers and lakes have experienced Olympus at the upper end of the Hoh River, as
more noticeable growth and development than those many as 200 in (508 cm) of precipitation occurs an-
located on west- or north-oriented slopes. He notes nually. 8 On the northern and eastern sides of the
Cincinnati, Albany, Providence, and Hartford as Olympic range, much less precipitation occurs be-
cities that have advantageous microclimatic orienta- cause of the "rain shadow." Along the Hood Canal,
tion due to slope and shore location. 7 for example, annual precipitation is only 15 in (38
As noted previously, topographic variation also cm)- 20 in (51 cm). 9 While horizontal distances be-
influences the amount of precipitation that falls at a tween these various points is no"t great, the differ-
particular location. The effect of the coastal moun- ence in precipitation is pronounced as a result of the
tain range and the Sierra Nevadas in California on landforms.
the regions to their east is a well-documented ex-
ample of higher areas of ground creating "rain shad- Functional Use of the Land. Slope steepness, con-
ows." Another illustration is the Olympic Peninsula figuration of valleys and ridges, and the character of
in the state of Washington (Figure 1.22). Here, dif- landform all affect the location and organization of
ferences in elevation produce a dramatic variation in different functions and land uses of the landscape.

8
~John 0 . Simonds, Lnnds.-npe Arc/1ilet"l11re (New York: McGraw- May Lou Hanify and Craig Blencowe, Guide to the Hoh Rain
Hill, 1961), p. I. forest (Seattle: Superior Publishing Company, 1974).
7
Paul J. Grillo, Form, F1mctio11 and Dt'si.~11 (New York: Dover, 9
Bob Spring, Ira Spring, and Harvey Manning, The Oly11117ic
1975), pp. 112- 113. National Park (Seattle: Superior Publishing Company, n.d.), p. 11.
SignifiCcll1CC 15

A· l--ORrH SL~E:
- EXfOS.JRE IO
COLD~
Yv! NTER 'Nl~D5.

B · WESr51.0PE.:
- E X F05URc TO
eoTH cUMM~R
4 W IITTER W l~O.

ErFECT a= SLOPE OR\~J-..tTATION c+---l Wl/--.10 E=X pOe{j R.E I r---1 iHE.
TEMP~TE CUtv\A_TE. ZO'-'E:. .
FIGURE 1.21

Every land use or site function has an optimum expense. As a rule of thumb, the flatter the slope
slope condition on which it operates best. This de- (though not less than 1 percent), the more flexible
sired optimum condition suggests where the func- and capable it is for d evelopment. Relatively gentle
tion should or s hould not be placed on a given site. slopes require a minimum of grading in siting build-
For example, tennis courts should ideally be placed ings, permit the use of common and less expensive
on 1 to 3 percent slopes. It would not be judicious types of construction, and allow for easy installation
design practice to place a tennis court on a 10 per- of roads and utilities. By comparison, the steeper the
cent slope as this would require extensive alteration slope, the more restrictions on what land uses are
of the ground at great monetary and environmental feasible and respectful of the site.
 Land form
16

*'-'ICTOf<..IA
e.c.

PPCIFIC
CC:EAN
•!

i
\
',,
OLYMPIC PENINSULA I W.ASH!f-..GTOl----t.
FIGURE 1.22

In addition to the location of land uses based roads and villages reflects the landform by also
upon their compatibility with steepness of topogra- being strongly orienteq in a northeast-southwest di-
phy, the relationship of one land use or function to rection. Few roads are located in a northwest-south-
another is also influenced by landform. On flatter east direction.
areas of land, the layout of different functions can Another instance of the influence of landform on
be rather sprawling and spreading. Alternative func- land use patterns is observed when the landscape of
tional concepts are many on flat landforms. On New York/New England is compared with that of
steeper slopes, valleys, and ridges, the organization the Midwest (Figure 1.24). In the eastern states, the
of different land uses is apt to be more condensed valley floors are typically used for cultivated farm-
and linear. Options and alternatives are fewer on land, roads, and communities. The valley sides are
steeper ground in terms of interrelationship of land used for pasture land while the hilltops are often
uses. wooded. In the Midwest, a somewhat opposite land
Landform also affects regional land use and de- use exists owing to the flatter landform. Here, the
velopment patterns. For instance, land use and road flat plateaus between the rivers and streams are
patterns tend to be rather straight and rectangular in used predomim,tely for cultivated farmland while
flatter areas of the country such as the Midwest (Fig- valleys are often wooded (as well as too steep for
ure 1.23). Here, topography posed few constraints cultivation) and sometimes used for scenic or recre-
on the public-land survey system that subdivided ational purposes. These two different types of re-
the landscape into a grid pattern. In regions where gional land use patterns have resulted in response
prominent valleys and ridges exist, regional devel- to the Iandform of each area.
opment patterns tend to be different. One example
of this is eastern Pennsylvania, where valleys and In summary, then, one can see from these discus-
ridges are oriented in a distinct northeast-southwest sions and illustrations that landform is indeed a sig-
direction. When looking at a road map of this region nificant and influential physical element in the out-
(Figure 1.23), one can see that the layout of most door environment. It affects how the land is per-
 17

LEVEL LANDFQf<.M : eOUTH-

t3ASTET<.~ KA.~. ~ b S
LAID cur 11'-4 A GRID PAT-
TERN.
FIGURE 1.23

FIGURE 1.24

EASTEl<i--! l.~PFORM .
- CULll'-/ATIOf-..l-- gE(:R.E:ATl~-~r-- - CULTIVATION¢----
-tefB-l SPACE: DE'YELOF~ENT

-=
18 Landform

--CONrCUR LJNE

FIGURE 1.25

ceived, used, and d esigned. And as has been previ- above or below a horizontal reference plane, some-
ously noted, landfo rm directly interacts with all the times referred to as a datum or bench mark. In
other physical design elements placed on the ground theory, a contour line would be shown as the outline
plane in a manner affecting their function, character, of a landform if it were cut by a horizontal plane of
and appearance. glass, as illustrated in Figure 1.25. It should be kept
in mind that contour lines are only an artificial
means for representing landform and do not exist in
Expression of Landform reality except as traced by the edge of a flat, quiet
To be able to work effectively with landform in land- body of water on its shoreline (this is a helpful
scape architectural design, it is first necessary to means for visualizing what a contour line repre-
have a clear understanding of the different tech- sents).
niques for expressing it. Some of the more common A related term that also requires definition is con-
means for depicting and manipulating topography tour interval. A "contour interval" is the vertical dis-
include contours, value and color, hachures, mathe- tance between any two contour lines on a given plan
matical expressions, three-dimensional models, and and is a constant number often noted in the legend,
computer graphics. Each of these methods for rep- or title block, of the drawing. For example, a 2-ft (or
resenting landform has its own particular character- 1 m) contour interval means there is a 2-ft (or 1 m)
istics and applications where it is most useful. The elevation change between each contour line in the
following sections outline the alternative methods plan. The contour interval remains the same
for expressing topography and the use guidelines for throughout a given drawing unless otherwise noted
each. (unlike the horizontal distance between contour
lines, which varies throughout a plan according to
Contour Lines. Contour lines are the most com- slope steepness). However, the contour interval of-
monly used plan graphic expression of landform. ten changes from one plan to another depending on
Because landscape architects currently deal with site the scale of the plan, the s teepness of the site, and
design primarily in plan, contour lines can also be the complexity of the landform being represented.
considered the most universal method for express- At the scale of most site plans (1/s in = 1 ft- 0 in to
ing landform within the profession. A "contour line" 1 in = 100 ft), the contour interval is typically 1 ft, 2
is defined as a line on a plan drawing that connects ft, or 5 ft (.5 m, 1 m or 2 m). At the regional scale (1
all the points that are an equal vertical distance in = 500 ft or 1: 24,000), the contour interval of a
 19

8
-, l

8<\511"6 <¼: PROP~t=O Q:?t--...tTaJR. LJNE::> · EXJ5TI~

CASHED L l ~ j Fl<OPC6Eb ~ N #2> ;EOL-1D LINE:5.
FIGURE 1.26

plan ma)' L,e as n1Ltcl1 as 20 ft, 25 ft, or 50 ft (5 m, 10 sho\vn as a dasl1ed line as illt1strated i_11 Figure 1.26.
n1, a11d 15 n1). Secor1c.i, a proposed co11tour li11e (one representi11g
\\' l1en vvorkirtg ½'itl1 contoLtr lir1es, a nt1n1l1er of tl1e grot111c.i's sttrface after alteratiot1) is sl1own on
L,asic principles. sl1ot1ld be kept in mind. First, an ex- }'Ian as a solid line. An)' change or alteration in the
isting contotlr line (one representing tl1e la11dform of g rottnd's sttrface is referred to as ''grading." Grading
a site l,ef<)re alterati<)11) is dra\.vn freeha11d ar1c.i is or 111<)lclir1g tl1c lil11df(1r111 is 11ecessary· .011 a site to

FIGURE 1.27

,Af<.eA OPc..ur
t-0 cur /~o FILL Ll~E. _____. ________---'"\'
,,,..-- .........

/
/ / "
_,,,,/ //
/
/ / \
J \
/ /'
._/ /
/

14 ,,-"'"'\\ /
/
/

\2. --.. / /
\ /
/
\
Af<E-A ot= PILL ~ L )
\
- /

EXl5Tlt---G t Pf<OPCJ5ED C01'-J7DJR L/NE:S St-'OWl1'J0 CUT 4- FILL.

20 Landform

~ ,...\ ____
r11_~.._..,.. 4r ..,
I
I ,,,,,,---46
I
I
\ ------4B
\ ,_ - __ ....,., /

,.. 45
/
I
\ 4?\ \
'
I
\
\ _ ....,
/ I

---' '-
lol,,,,,.,

·- -
_ _~ / - , , . _ _. . . .

·/. .. ·...
,_.;..
· __,_.,
11.
ll

,,,,,,--... .
~-------
~ 46
...'-:.--'----.......-..,...~
~6 4 44 k
2~ 0<.A[)lµ:s FlAl--l -for
0:JRDB--l OFF ICES
92 .WASHI/JG10~ R;OC,.D

FIGURE 1.28

accomplish a numbe r of objectives: (1) to establish process . The vertical manipulation of the land is
proper drainage, (2) to modify the site in order to fully as important as the horizontal organization of
accommodate such elements as buildings, roads, spaces and functions themselves.
parking areas, recreational fields, and the like, and When soil is added to a portion of the site
(3) to create an aesthetically pleasing ground plane. through grading, it is referred to as "fill. " The term
Other purposes for grading and related uses of land- "cut" is used to describe the taking away or excava-
form are outlined later in this chapter. Grading is an tion of soil from a portion of the site. Usually grad-
integral part of landscape architectural design and ing on a given site requires both cut and fill. Fill can
should be considered simultaneously with the layout be identified on a plan when a proposed contour is
of functions and forms in plan. The tendency of be- moved down hill (toward lower numbered contours)
ginning designers to think of grading only after the from the existing contour location, as indicated in
plan shapes and locations have been fixed is incor- Figure 1.27. Cut is identified on plan when the pro-
rect and only leads to problems later in the design posed contour line moves uphill (toward higher
Expression of Landform 21

5PdT <5R/0E INPIC:AIES

70P PE-AK q= RIP3E ------,,.,-------,- - - - - -.----,.\
..
10 ,,-
+ <',-..... ___,,,/ ,,,,.--"'\ ' -
- /
'\. / ' 1
' '\. \0 ,,,,,.,,,--\0
' '\. I/ \ /
'I
/ ....--, _,,,, ) + c--
,
........
", '- "-_\_,.,, / - - --n
'-...._ \0_ __.,,,,... /

ca--rra.JR LINES NE-VER 5PL\t

FIGURE 1.29

numbered contours) from the existing contour loca- the top half of Figure 1.29. This principle of contour
tion. A plan drawn specifically to show the pro- lines is reinforced by a corollar~· that states that con-
posed grading of a site is termed a "grading plan" tour lines must occur in pairs. For the person just
(Figure 1.28). A grading plan shows both existing beginning to read and draw contour lines, the pos-
and proposed contour lines as well as the outline of sibility of a contour line splitting itself might seem
all buildings, roads, walks, walls, and other struc- like a logical occurrence as a means of representing
tural elements of the design. The grading p lan, a point on a plan where the top edge of a peaked
\\'hich is one of many construction drawings, also ridge widens out or rises in ele,·ation. In fact, this is
shows the location of drainage structu res such as mathematically and theoretically possible. However,
drop inlets and catch basins as well as precise ele- the generally accepted custom of drawing contour
,·ation at specific points throughout the site by lines in pairs near the tops of ridges or bottoms of
means of spot grades. valleys eliminates the use of single contour lines to
A third principle for using contour lines is that show one dimensional edges like the top peak of a
they always close on themselves; they never simply ridge. Instead, such edges arc normally indicated as
end. A contour line always joins and meets itself a series of spot grades, as illllstrated in the bottom
e\'en if it is many miles away from a particular site. half of Figure 1.29. This principle of contour lines
For example, consider the contour line of one-foot might be better understood if it is a lso kept in mind
elevation. It travels the entire coastline of a continent that every contour line has higher ground on one
and eventually forms a closed loop. Contour lines side of it and lower ground on the other. Lower
that close on themselves within the boundaries of a ground cannot be found on both sides of a contour
particular site typically signify either a high point or line.
low point, depending on how they are numbered Fifth, contour lines never cross one another ex-
(see later paragraphs of this section). cept to represent a natural bridge or overhang. Be-
Fourth, contour lines never split, at leas t in terms cause soil by itself cannot be made to conform to
of common practice. In other words, a single con- such configurations, contour lines should not cross
tour line never divides itself to form two separate at all on a plan of an earthen site that has no walls
contour lines of the same elevation as indicated in or overhangs. However, where walls do exist, the
22

11
6 '' ca-rraJR LI 1---JE.
"TI<AVEl-5" AL..()NS WALL.------ -------.

FIGURE 1.30

FIGt,JRE 1.31

14·====================~=~1=~~~~~~======================-
1 2 - - - - - - -- - - -\--N-----=~- - - - - - - - - - -
/n-- - - - - - -- -·- - , l , / - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - -
8 - - - - - - - - - - - . H - - - - - -- ~ - - -- -- -- -

eECTIOt--:.lA-A1
I
I
I I l
I I I I I //l II I I I II I
I I I 11 I
II I
I I I I I I I I l1 I II I
I I I I I I I I I I,, 'I I I I 1I l I I I I
~ I
l
I l I 11II1111/1 I I I I III
I I I I / III I
ll I ~
I 1 1I I I I I
I
A A
I
I I I I j l II I ! I\ t I I I I Il I I
I I I I t III I
I
I
I I ' I I I I 11i/11 I
I I I I l I 11 I 11\ I I I lIIII I I I
PLAN I I I l I l I I ii / l 11 I I l I II I I I I l
0 2. 4 6 e 14- 14 12. 10 e 6 4 2.. 0

6P,ACING OF CCNTOJR LINE5 lt----!OICA1E5 5TEcPI---JE55 OF 5LO'PE.

E:-.prcssion of Landform 23

40 4e 41::'.. 40 40 40 a:, . 3:,

'
"
'
'- /
/
II
/
//'
----- \ \
"-' I
/ /
I //
/
,.- - "'-
'-"- "-J \__ \ I I ,,, \.
:3{)-, " I I .- - , '-__.; I I I '
::Y::J- "" ' \,_., / /I / ', _ _....., \ I I/ I/ / ,..- ....._, '34-
"- \. I I .--\ ,,.. \ ,,__/ I I / \
34-- '\ ' I I I ..._./ \ \ I I / \..,::z?
RIOOE. --------::l-.r:J- "''\\ " \ . . . _ _ _,,, I I 1 /--...._,?\ ' \ ' \ 1 /I ,' (1 -
/' ' ,
~
v~-,
,A. '\
"+..=-' \
\ \. ..______ / I I , ~ , \ \ \ ,_.. I I
I I '' I t
I '
$
-
A \ \. / / 7 \ \ \ 7 / I /'"", '
' \ "-...__.....- I I ''\ \ \ '-, __ 1 I I I \
\ \ I II\\ \ If \
2ei.... \ , / I I \ \ , I / I -
'\\ '-/IJ \' II ('\
VALLEY \ ' I . \, \
::--,,
I 7
,<
'
'-
_.......
/ I II I \
I
\
'
"-, / I
/
r, \ , / 1 I \26
'
'-- ...__....- / I I .
,..... "- ..... ' , ,,,,,., /
I
25 25 ~ 26 25 2.l:> 26

RlCGE 4 VALLE'-( cc+...JTCiJ R. SIGNATUR.E5 .

FIGURE 1.32

contour lines will foll one on top of the other to form lines (Figure 1.32). Conversely, the signature of a
c1 single line in plnn, c1s sho,,·n in Figure 1.30. ridge is shown on a plan (Figure 1.32) by contour
The location, arrnngement. and character of the lines that point downhill; that is, they point toward
contour lines on " plan, in a sense, net ns symbolic lower numbered contour lines. Valleys and ridges
vocabulary, establishing "signatures" from which we may also be identified on a plan by locations where
can "read" the lc1ndform of a site. For instance, the two contour lines of the same elevation approxi-
horizontal distance between contour lines on plan mately parallel each other (one must study the plan
(not to be confused ,vith the contour interval) indi- further to determine if it is a valley or a ridge). A
cates the relative degree of steepness and the unifor- summit or convex landform (not to be confused with
mity of a slope. The closer the contour lines are to a convex slope) is delineated on plan (Figure 1.33)
each other, the steeper the slope. Equal spacing be- by concentric, closed contour lines with the highest
tween contour lines expresses a uniform slope while labeled contour line in the center. A depression or
varied spacing depicts an irregular slope. Similarly, concave landform (not to be confused with a con-
a slope that has its contour lines spaced farther apart cave slope) is shown in an opposite manner by con-
toward the bottom or toe of the slope and closer to- centric, closed contour lines with the lowest num-
gether nt:!ar its crest is referred to as a concave slope bered contour line in the center. Furthermore, the
(Figure 1.31). A convex slope is s hown in an oppo- lowest contour line of a depressi.o n is drawn with
site fashion: the conto ur lines are spaced closer to- short hachures on the inside or lower edge of the
gether near the bottom and more distant toward contour line itself. In reading a contour plan of a
the top. s ite, it is sometimes difficult to identify each one of
The signature of a valley (or ravine and swale) is these landform types individually because they oc-
depicted on plan by contour lines that point uphill; cur together in a continuum, as indicated in Figures
that is, they point toward higher numbered contour 1.34 and 1.35. For instance, it can be seen that the
 Landform
24

..............
················· ..
.:::::::::::::::::::::::
$CTION A ·A'- ---}>-.. ~. ,,~,,;::z,<li:!!ii!!!ii!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!li1!lilLi::,::,::,,,.
-
i Ill
l!ll!il 11:IJ :111 111 !lllll:111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 !:: li:\ ", ,,,,g:;;;;;mm:::::::::

FIGURE 1.33

side of a valley may a lso be the side of a ridge or brated in tenths and hundredths of a foot (at least in
similarly a convex landform may occur in close as- the United States).
sociation with a ridge. The exact elevation of a spot grade is based on a
proportional relationship between the location of the
Spot Elevations. Spot elevations are another method spot grade and the distance to the contour lines on
for expressing elevation on a plan drm-ving or sec- either side. In determining the elevations of a spot
tion. A spot elevation represents the vertical eleva- grade through a procedure called " interpolation," it
tion above or below a h orizontal reference plane a t a is normally assumed that the spot grade is located
single, particular point. It is shown on plan by a on a uniform slope that rises or falls M a constant
cross mark or dot and labeled with the appropriate rate between the two contour lines. Thus the pro-
number (Figure 1.36). As previously suggested, con- portional relationship of the horizontal distance be-
tour lines themselves are labeled with whole num- tween the spot grade and the n ext contour line on
bers because they represent full units of measure both the downhill and uphill side is the same as the
above or below a given reference plane. Spot eleva- proportional rela tionship in vertical elevation. For
tions, on the other hand, are labeled by means of instance, a spot grade that lies horizontally h alfway
whole numbers with decimals because they are most between two contour lines has an elevation that is
often located between, not on, two contour lines. also half the vertical distance (contour interval) be-
For example, a spot elevation might be labeled 51.3 tween the same two contour lines. Therefore in in-
or 75. 15. Decimals instead of fractions are used be- terpolating the elevation of a s po t grade, it is first
cause the surveying system of determining topo- necessary to determine both the scale of the drawing
graphic elevation has evolved from a scientific base and the contour interval. The next step is to measure
of numbers. Surveying rods used along with levels the scale horizontal distance the spot grade is from
in the field to identify or set elevations are also cali- the next contour line on both the downhill and
 25

I? If ~4 JP I~ Ef
Mo...,._._,,__.,.____..,.11.-11 ..........--~-----~---~$I
\0- / / / / /,--.., l ( \ ' l
I I I I ,,.-.. \ I \ ' - - ---.. \ \
12- ./ 1 I I / " \ I \ " I \
I I I I \ \_J '- \ I \
[4- / / / / ,..~ I ------ - --..... . l 1
/ It I ' \ '- I1 ..._ _ __)
--
,,----'/
I I I \ \\\ .,,,- '
\\ I
')
,...-- / /"...__ \ " / '\ I
( / ---(_/ j \ .....__,,,,, -------- '---'
\ \ '-, ,,/ \
:\ ....._ ' --- I
'-'- '\ ' I
lb, "'- - - , I ,
\ I / /,,1
I I ~/
I I I
/ /

CO)-..lTOJR PLA~
~
l--l®"H
11'=20 1
COt--TTt:x.JR l ~ A L = '2.~

eEC'"TIOl-l B-5 1
FIGURE 1.3-1
26 Landfo rm

I
/------)
I .,,,,.- ~ I I

--... _ _,,/
I
{
/ /
I\
'-..._/
t'
~ \l
I
\ ,,\ "-'"
.......
\ '
I I ..._/ .,, \

,... - ____ _, I
I
./J I J
j '
I
f I
- ---.... _,,.
..---:::..-=._....- /
/--
--- __.../
/
J

l t ( ('"--, / _
,,.....- --
_.. /
/
(__..- ---....
\,\, \ ~ I
----- '' '-"'\..
\
\..,,,
' \, " )
\._.. ..... ·--\ ......
\
/ l
\
\ I
/
,,,,,,,.----- -
I/
I '\.
' ' I l \ \
./
(
,J

PLN---l OBLIQUE OF CONTa..JR. PLM-\.

FIGURE 1.35

uphill side (measured perpendicular to the direction one-fifth of the total distance between the two con-
of the lines). Now the proportional relationship be- tour lines. Therefore the elevation of the spot grade
tween these two distances can be established. For \-vould also be one-fifth of the vertical distance (con-
example, if the spot grade is 4 ft from the 16-ft con- tour interval) between the contour lines or 0.2 ft.
tour and 16 ft from the 17-ft contour, it would be The spot grade in this instance would be 16.2. ~imi-
E,pt?ssion of Landform 27

4-e_- . . . ._/ /
.
-------.----.. ........

..· . .'---~
........
. . ___ :___ - -
40.4 : ..· . . . 40.4
40
-- --
t=F. 41.o
--- ----
.. ·.. · . 40,?
T.0 .W40.O
-----~-- _ .
.,,.,.
.........

5POT 0 RAPE.5 lDENTIFY THE E L EVATION AT A 'ofECIFIC

FO!NT.
FIGURE 1.36

lc1rl:·· if a point was 20 ft from the 30-ft contour line they obscure most of the detail on the ground plane,
and 10 ft from the 32-ft contour, the spot elevation hachures should not be used on grading plans or
\\"Ould be two-thirds of the contour interval, or other construction drawings. The thickness and
31 .33. The same principle of proportion relationships spacing of the hachures is an effective method for
also exists for contours and spot grades measured in visually portraying the steepness 6f a slope. The
meters. Spot elevations are typically rounded to the closer and thicker the hachures are drawn, the
nearest tenth or hundredth of a foot, depending on steeper the suggestion of a slope. Hachures may also
the complexity of the ground surface and the degree be drawn on plan to give the effect of light and
oi accuracy required. Spot elevations are used to de- shadow and thereby a more three-dimensional feel-
pict the elevation at such places as the corners of ing to the dra·wing. Accordingly, the hachures are
buildings, high points, low points, tops and bottoms drawn darker and closer together on a shaded slope
of curbs and s teps, and tops of walls (TOW). Spot and lighter and farther apart on a sunlit slope.
ele,·ations are most commonly used on grading
plans and other cons truction drawings such as Value a nd Color. Value (tones of gray) and color
drainage plans and planting plans. may be used, like hachures, to represent landform.
One typical use of value and color is in a topo-
Hachures. Hachures are still another graphic means graphic "elevational relief map" that shows different
for representing landform on plan. Hachures by def- increments of elevation by varied shades or colors
inition are short, disconnected lines drawn perpen- (Figure 1.38). Each separate value or color used on a
dicular to the slope and contour lines. With this given elevational relief plan shows an area where
technique, the contour lines themselves are first the height of the ground lies between two assigned
lightly drawn in and then the hachures are placed elevations. For example, a particular shade of brown
between the contours. An example of hachures is might delineate the entire area on a site that lies be-
shown in Figure 1.37. Hachures are more abstract· tween the 50- and 60-ft elevation, while another
and less exact than contour Jines but nevertheless shade of brown covers the area between the 60- and
are commonly used on illustrative site plans or pre- 70-ft elevation. With this approach, the lighter val-
sentation drawings to show landform graphically. ues are used for the higher elevations to give an ef-
Because of their m ore general character and because fective illusion of height. The appearance of an ele-
28 Land form

FIGURE 1.37

vational relief plan is best wh en the gradation from lar site. Slope analysis maps are based on steepness
dark to light tones is gradual and even. To portray of slope and often represent steeper slopes with
accurately the overall topographic relief on an ele- darker tones and more gentle slopes with lighter
vational relief plan, the range of elevational differ- tones, as illustrated in Figure 1.39. A slope analysis
ence should remain a constant from one increment map is valuable for determining the capability of dif-
to another. In the example cited previously in this ferent site areas for proposed land uses or elements
paragraph, the elevational difference of each incre- and is prepared d uring the site analysis phase of the
ment was a constant of 10 feet. An elevational relief design process. Its usefulness as an analytical tool is
plan is a helpful analytical tool to determine the related to the number of slope categories identified
amount of topographic change between the highest and the percentage of slope steepness represented
and lowest areas of the site and to compare the rel- by each. The de termination of these variables should
ative elevations between two different points of the be based on the complexity of the existing topogra-
site. phy of a site coupled with the proposed land uses.
Values and colors are also used on slope analysis For example, a site to be developed for single-family
maps. Like the elevational relief map, a "slope anal- housing might be analyzed on the following basis:
ysis map" is a device for expressing and under- 0-1 % slope: too flat for proper drainage; 1-5% slope:
standing the structure of the landform on a particu- ideal topographic conditions requiring minimum cut
Expression of Landform 29

15 .'2() '2..4 2Z e.o

I / /
......._ 11til I
"\ \ ti
l \ \
\ \
'----....)

\5./ *
t5,
I
(
ELEVAT!ONA,L l
RELIEr PLAN. \

IB-
ro-
\'c-

~
1'-=W'
1
I I ·
\E> \6 \4 I~
FIGURE 1.38

and fill; 5-10% slope: good building conditions re- ited to avoid unacceptable environmental damage. It
quiring more careful siting at the upper range of should be pointed out that a slope analysis map is
steepness; 10-15% slope: housing units should be truly an "analysis" only when the designer begins to
split-level and sited parallel to the contours to mini- make evaluations and conclusions about the slope
mize cut and fill, and retaining \Valls may be re- categories identified and graphically mapped. If the
quired; 15% slope and above: housing units will re- designer only goes through the process of calculat-
quire special architectural adaptations such as pole ing and mapping the categories without making
construction; road and utility access will be difficult judgments about the appropriateness or restrictions
and costly. (For an explanation of percentage of of each, then the end product is best labeled slope
slope, see p. 31.) By comparison, a site to be devel- "inventory" (see section on Site Analysis in Chapter
oped for a shopping center and related parking 7 for an explanation of the difference between site
could be analyzed as follows: 0-1 % slope: too flat for "inventory" and site "analysis").
proper drainage; 1-5% slope: ideal and preferred
condition for development; 5-8% slope: develop- Model. A model is perhaps the most effective
ment possible with some cut and fill required; park- method for expressing lcmdform, especially for the
ing aisles should be placed parallel to the contours; layperso n or novice designer who often has diffi-
8% slope and above: development should be prohib- culty in interpreting a two-dimensional contour
 Lmdform
30

10 te.14 16 16 e.4 22.

I / / / { I

10
12.
14--
lo-
16 ... 1e

I oLCf'E.
\ ~'(5/5
\
PLAN.

'
'ZO \e ,t \4 {-a J
1e.
~
1"=20'
FIGURE 1.39

FIGURE 1.40 plan. A model leaves little room for miscommunica-

tion and is usually a worthwhile sales and promo-
tional tool. Unfortunately, models are bulky, hard to
store and transport, and time-consuming and costly
to construct. A topographic model may be built out
of clay, chipboard (Figure 1.40), cork, foam-core
board, cardboard, or styrofoam. The choice of the
material should be based on the model's purpose,
budget, and complexity of the landform to be rep-
resented. If in-house capabilities are insufficient to
construct a topographic model, an individual or firm
may want to investigate one of the several commer-
cial companies that build styrofoam topographic
models using a router to cut and define the contour
levels.

Comeuter Gr,q;:!hics. A number of computer pro-

grams now in existence permit the user to develop
both two- and three-dimensional views of a given
Expression of Lc1ndform 31

FIGURE 1.41

area of topograp hy. ~epending upon the program tion, the first figure of the ratio represents the hori-
and the capabilities of the system, the output may zontal distance of the slope while the second figure
be displayL'd on a terminal scr~cn or printed as a (always reduced to a foc tor of one) represents the
"hard copy" on paper like tha t shown in Figure 1.41. vertical elevation change, as illustrated in Figure
The advan tage of some computer graphic systems is 1.42. The ratio method is most usually applied to the
that they permit the user to see the area of topogra- slopes on a small-scale project site. The ratio method
phy from a number of vantage points. The potential is also used to provide design standards and guide-
application of this procedure in terms of site grading lines, some of which are outlined below.
is particularly exciting becau se it permits the de-
signer to "see" the results of moving the contours in 2: 1--absolute maximum s lope nllowed on a site
plan and to be able to evaluate and refine the pro- without experiencing erosion. All 2: 1 slopes
posal before it is actually constructed. Some more should be co\·ered with ground cover or
sophisticated computer graphic systems permit the other plant material to prevent erosion.
viewer to "get down into" the design and "walk
3: 1-preferred maximum slope for most lawn
around." Again, the potential usefulness of such a
nnd planting areas.
procedure for the designer is limitless.
4: I-maximum s lope maintainable w ith a lawn
Ratio Method. In addition to the several graphic and mower.
models methods for representing landform, two
mathematical techniques for expressing steepness of Percentage Method. The other mathematical means
slope are also often used when designing exterior for portraying slope steepness is by percent. The
spaces. As the name implies, the ratio method de- percent of slope is obtained by dividing the vertical
fines slope steepness by means of a ratio between elevation change by the horizontal distance covered
the horizontal distance and the vertical elevation within the slope (vertical elevation change + hori-
change within the s lope (4:1, 2: 1, etc.). By conven- zont<1l distance = percent of slope). A hand y rule of
32

REM!=ME::ER , RE -
tl..CE VERTICAL
1
HE.\a-rr TO A F.AC- 2
TOR OF 1.
~----'-l~-~
~K----40'--~~ ~l<---401
--~

MTIO METrOD.

FIGURE 1.42

FIGURE 1.43

~~ = % 5LOPE
15'
45· = . 33=33%

161 =.40=40%
Expression of Lilndiorm 33

thumb for remembering this procedure is as follows: 2% slope: s uggested maximum slope
Rise over (divided by) run = percent of slope. For for grassed athletic fields . 11
example, a slope that rises 10 vertical feet (3.05m) This same slope is also
within 50 horizontal feet (15.25m) would be ex- considered the maximum
pressed as a 20% slope (10 + 50 = 0. 20, or 20%), as for terrace and patio pav-
shown by Figure 1.43. Another means for under- ing. 12
standing percent of slope is to equate the vertical el-
evation change to what it would be in 100 h orizontal
3% slope: the point at which a slope
units of distance. For example, a slope that has an
in the ground's surface be-
8ft (or 8m) elevation change in 100ft (or 100m) hori-
comes c~vious. Below 3 %,
zontal distance is an 8¼ slope. The percent of slope
the ground appears to be
should not be confused with the angle of the slope
level.
related to a horizontal plane.
Of the two mathematical methods for represent-
ing steepness of s lope, the percentage method is the 5-10% This slope condition is also suitable for
more widely used. As mentioned earlier, it is the most types of land uses and functions
common basis for developing a slope analysis map. though care must be taken in siting ele-
Like the ratio method, the percentage method is also ments w ith respect to the direction and
used to establish design standards and criteria. orientation of the slope. This slope con-
dition offers the possibility of providing
0-1 % This slo pe condition generally drains too exciting level changes with walls and
Too flat poorly and is therefore considered un- steps in more dense and urban devel-
desirable for development of most exte- opments. Drainage is generally good in
rior uses and functions except for wet- this slope condition though uncontrolled
land preser\"es. A 0- 1 % slope is typically drainage can cause erosion. A 10% slope
best left ilS open spucc or a conscrvil tion is typically th e sugges ted maximum for
walks. D
area where occasional standing water
will not cause any negative effects.
10-15% This slope condi tion is considered too
1-5% This slope condition is considered ideal Rolling steep for many land uses and functions.
Flat for many exterior spaces and functions. Grading sh ould be kept to a minimum
It provides the maximum flexibility for to prevent problems of erosion. All ma-
development and can accommodate jor constructed elements should be sited
massive site elements such as major parallel to the contours in order to min-
buildings, parking lots, tennis courts, or imize cut and fill and to blend in visually
athletic fields without causing grading with the topography. This slope does
problems. One potential drawback of provide a general outward orientation
this slope condition is that it may be- with potential views of the surrounding
come visually monotonous by itself if it landscape from higher vantage points.
extends o\·er too large an area. In addi-
tion, drainage in impervious soils may 15%+ Slopes above 15% are too steep for most
be a problem with this slope category a t Steep land uses and functions. Environmental
the flatter rate of slo pe. Within this and monetary costs usually prohibit ma-
range of slopes, some more specific jor development. However, sensitive
standards are as follows: and ingenio us adaptation to this slope
condition can create s tunning architec-
17c sbpe: the suggested minimum tural solutions and breathtaking views.
slope for la,.,vns and grass
areas. 10
11
lbid.
11
Albe E. Munson, CcJ11str11clhm Desig11 for Ln11dscnpc Arcl1ite,·ts
10
Harlow C. Landpha ir and f red Klatt, Jr., Ln11dm1pc l\rc/1itcc- (New Yo rk: McGraw-Hill, 197-1), p . 31.
l11rc Co11structio11 (New York: Elsevier North Holland, 1979), p. 39. Dlbid.
34 Land form

5TABLE
NEUTRAL..
RE5TPUL
Pt=.-ACEFUL
.AT EQUILIE>R-IUM W\TH G~YITY

. tt , •
c;x.lAL\TlE5 OF LEVEL LN--lDFORM.
FIGURE 1.44

dictionary definitions use them as synonymous and

Landforrn Types by Form interchangeable terms. For example, Webster's de-
Landform may be categorized and studied in a num- fines "flat" as "a le\·el surface of land with little or
ber of different ways including scale, character, no relief: PLAIN." 14 Yet in the most explicit sense,
steepness, geological origin, and form . While each of "level" means horizontal plane and "flat" means
these classifications of landform is a helpful aid in even or consistent plane.
analyzing and understanding topography, form is Visually level landiorm may vary in scale from a
one of the more important categories for landscape small aren on an indi\·idual site to the vast prairies
architects concerned with both the visual and func- and plains characteristic of such states as Illinois,
tional qualities of the land. In terms of form, the Iowa, Kansas, and Florida. Despite scale, level land-
landscape is a continuous composition of solid form has some unique visual and functional charac-
masses and open voids. The solids are the space de- teristics in comparison with other landform types.
fining elements (the landform itself), while the voids For instance, the le\'el landform is the simplest and
arc the hollow arcc1s crcc1ted in between the solids. most stable of all . Because of its lack of any distinct
In the exterior environment, these solids and voids elevational variation, the level landform is static,
are to a large extent established by the various land- nonmoving, and in balance w ith the earth's gravita-
form types outlined below: level, convex, ridge, con- tional forces (Figure 1.44). This landform has also
cave, and valley. Although segmented for the pur- achieved an equilibrium with geological influences
pose of discussion, these landform types are in ac- of the earth . Because of this, a person feels comfort-
tuality found side by side, blending into and rein- able and surefooted when standing on or walking
forcing one another as previously shown in Figures across a level landform. A level area of ground pro-
1.34 and 1.35. vides an ideal location for people to stand and
gather or sit and rest because no extra energy has to
be expended to balance their weight against the pull
Level Landform. Level landform is defined as any
of gravity. A person is not pulled to one side or an-
land area visually parallel to the plane of the hori-
other or confronted with a feeling of "falling over"
zon. While theoretically possible, there is no such when standing or sitting on relatively level ground.
entity as a perfectly level landform in the exterior
For the same reason, level areas are also choice sites
environment because all ground has some degree of
for buildings. In fact, we typically attempt to artifi-
slope even if imperceptibly small. Consequently, the
cially create level areas and terraces in sloping to-
term "level landform" is used here to mean any
pography for the placement of buildings because of
landform that generally appears "level," even if it is
the stability established.
slightly sloped or gently rolling. It should also be
pointed out that some people distinguish " level"
landform from " flat," although most lay people and 1
~Wcl,stcr's New Collegiate Dictio1111ry, 1977 ed., p. 437.
Landform Types by Form 35

j
t-0 .s:'ATIAL Pf=FINfTlOI---J OfZ PRl\/,AC>( wrrH LEVt:L LN--IDFOR\v'J
-
B, \T5ELP

FIGURE 1.45

The lack of the third dimension of a level land- they ,,·ere usually located on rela tively level topog-
form creates an open, spacious, exposed feeling, as raphy.
suggested in Figure 1.45. There is no definition of On a level landform, there is an innate emphasis
enclosed space (thoug h the sky and horizon line do on the horizontal; horizontal lines and forms are
act as implied spatial edges), no sense of privacy, no harmonious elements that fit comfortably into the
protection from objectionable sights and sounds, environmental setting, as suggested in Figure 1.47.
and no dcfcnsle' against sun and wind. 13 The ground The "p rairie house" archi tectural style of Frank
plane itself mus t be altered and/or other design ele- Lloyd Wright utilized strong horizontal forms and
ments such as vegetation and walls must be added lines in direct response to the level landscape of
to the site to alleviate the problems associated w ith Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin. In addition to the
the lack of spa tial definition (Figure 1.45). use of horizontal lines, this architectural s tyle
Also owing to the openness of the level landform, often included prono unced roof overhangs to
views may extend uninterrupted for considerable shade building walls in the visually level, open land-
dis tances (Figure 1.46). The horizon line, often the scape.
limit of vision, may take on great significance with In contrast to the horizontal, any vertical element
its abstract silhouette character seen against the sky. that is introduced to a level landform has the poten-
These potentially lo ng views may help establish a tial of becoming a dominant element and focal point,
sense of unity on the level landform because most as shown in Figure 1.48. It does not take much
elements can be easily seen and visually related to height to attract attentio n on an otherwise level area
one a no ther. The long a/lees of the French Renais- of ground. Again, driving through the Midwes tern
sance garden style, often arranged in the goosefoot states, one's eye is easily drawn toward storage silos
pattern, were powerful visual connectors because and church s teeples of small farm communities.
Even the limited height of overpasses and inter-
changes along the interstates causes them to stand
1
;John 0 . Simonds, Landscape Arcilileclure, p. 65. out and be easily seen from far away.
36 Landform

FIGURE 1.46

The visual neutrality of the level landform allows comte and Versailles, for example, took on great vi-
it to be further characterized as peaceful and restful. sual prominence because they so -easily stood out
This quality makes flat topography a very suitable against the surrounding flat setting of the adjoining
setting for quiet, still, reflective sheets of water. The gardens. This quality was magnified to some extent
tranquil character of quiet water in turn enhances by slightly elevating the ground floor of both cha-
and reinforces the restful nature of the landform it- teaux above the garden levels themselves. Beyond
self. In an opposite sense, the peaceful aspect of this, the neutral quality of 'the level land form allows
level landform allows it to serve as a setting or back- the ground surface to be sculpted into pleasant sol-
drop to the eye-catching use of other elements. Bold ids and voids. This is often desirable simply to add
forms and colors can be placed on a flat site to take interest and relieve the monotony of an existing
advantage of this quality as in the case of a sculp- level landform.
turelike piece of architecture. The tabletop quality of · In addition to being a neutral setting, the level
the level landform allows it to act as a stage for the landform can be described as multidirectional. As il-
theatrical focal point. The chateaux at Vaux-le-Vi- lustrated in Figure 1.49, it allows for equal choice of

FIGURE 1.47

< >
Landform Types by Form 37

I, .

FIGURE 1.48

movement in all directions to and from a particular Because of this quality of level landforms, design
point. The ground plane of a level landform in and forms and elements tha t are added to a level land-
of itself offers few clues as to what direction of form may easily and appropriately be .spreading and
movement or layout orientation is correct. All pos- multidirectional. Massive buildings or other sprawl-
sibilities are of equal validity based on the landform. ing elements such as parking lots or athletic fields
:.-!any landscape architects find it initially more dif- can be located on level ground with minimal grad-
ficult and challenging to design on a level landform ing. Figure 1.50 graphically portrays the scale and
than one that has more distinct slopes and elevation layout of a multibuilding complex compatible with
changes because the site permits so many design al- the level landform .
ternatives. Similarly, abstract geometric, crystalline, or mod-

FIGURE 1.49
38 Landform

.. .
.·:.-.· ~ ~ ~ - 1 1 '
~ (1.-------------,
r.IT.rl. :·: ··:·_... ..
~ - ·_ .. -

~IVE, 5PREAOI$ e,(JILDlf-..-051 PARK.lt---16 AA.EA$ I AND REc-

~TIOl-4AL t=ACILITIES ARE eE5f Lo::ATeD 01---l .LJ::YE:L
LANDFORM.
FIGL'RE 1.50

ular patterns that repeat themselves in a potentially Another example is the building plan based on a
endless fashion (Figure 1.51) are also appropriately module of a single unit such as might occur in a dor-
located on level ground. 16 Again, the tabletop qual- mitory or office building that is then "stamped out"
ity of the level .l andform permits the extension and in a recurring manner across the landscape. All in
repetition of patterns and modules to occur without all, level topography is a very flexible and practical
limitation due to topography. And there exists a type of landform with many potential visual and
much greater sense of unity within a pattern on level functional uses.
land because the various parts can all be related to
the whole. One example of strict geometrical pat-
terns applied effectively to level landform is found Convex Landform. The second basic landform type
in the use of parterres and other g round designs in is the convex landform, best described as a high
French Renaissance gardens. point of ground defined by a generally concentric ar-
rangement of contours. Examples of convex land-
forms include knolls, knobs, buttes, and mountain
16
lbid., p. 6-t or hill summits. A convex landform is a positive
Landform Types by Form 39

FIGURE 1.51

solid (mass) and a negative space (filled space). "down to" seems to create a greater feeling of rever-
Compared with the flat landform, the convex land- ence and respect for the object or person. Churches,
form is a dynamic, aggressive, exciting landform im- government buildings, and other important struc-
plying power and strength in defiance of gravity tures are often placed on top of convex landforms to
(Figure 1.52). Throughout history, the hilltop has take advantage of this feeling of being "looked up
held both military and psychological significance. to." Their symbolic importance is enhanced by this
An army that holds a strategic hilltop often controls siting. The United States Capitol ("Capitol Hill"), the
the surrounding area as well (thus fostering the White House, and the Washington Monument are
"king of the mountain" concept). Emotionally, hav- all sited on higher points of ground in relation to the
ing to "walk to to" something as compared with mnll that they adjoin.

FIGURE 1.52
40 Landform

C.a.tVEX Cot--.CAVE

FIGURE 1.53

The convex landform, while a negative space it- As a positive point on the landscape, the convex
self, does establish the edges for surrounding spaces landform has other aesthetic and functional charac-
by means of its side slopes. The slopes and crest of teristics as ,.veil. The convex landform can serve as a
a convex landforrn establish the perceived limits of a focal point or dominant element in the landscape,
space and control views into and from it (Figure particularly when surrounded by lower, more neu-
1.53). Generally speaking, the higher the summit of tral forms. Mt. Katahdin in Maine or Mt. Rainier in
a convex landform and the steeper its side slopes, Washington (Figure 1.54) serve as exclamation
the stronger the definition of space (also see later points, captivating the viewer's attention. And ow-
sections of this chapter on the use of landform to ing to this property, a convex landform can also
define space). serve as a landmark for referencing one's position or

FIGURE 1.54

f )l~1'Ii~:;f~fi7}r{: ..
(''f.(."· . ·-·.~ .•
Landform Typ~s by Form 41

FIGURE 1.55

movement in the landscape. A person's location can Coit Tower on Telegraph Hill in San Francisco (Fig-
be determined by periodic glances to the prominent ure 1.56). Together, the tower and the higher point
high point of ground. of ground function as a well-known landmark.
The focal point quality of convex landforms can The height of a convex landform may also be ac-
be enhanced by placing other elements such as centuated by lines and forms that move straight up
buildings or trees on the summit, ns illustrated in its sides to the summit perpendicular to the contours
Figure 1.55. This adds height to the convex land- (Figure 1.57). Lines and forms that wrap around a
form, making it more readily seen from the encir- convex lnndform parallel to the contours diminish
cling environment and adding to its symbolic impor- the pl'rceived height.
tance. A classic example of this is the placement of Another chnr,1eteristic of the convex landform,

FIGURE 1.56
42 Landform

----NEGATE---~

FIGURE 1.57

shown in Figure 1.58, is that a person located on it overlooks along highways or fire towers in forested
will have a general feeling of outward orientation. country are other examples that take advantage of
Depending on relative height and slope steepness, views away from a higher point of ground. One ex-
definite and sometimes striking views are created ample of the potential vie,vs from a convex landform
outward and somewhat downward from the higher is shown in Figure 1.59. Another example is the
vantage point. Actually, more attention is often di- placement of mushroomlike platforms on Mt. Wash-
rected away from the vantage point (or site) to an- ington overlooking the city of Pittsburgh. These
other point in the landscape than the point where platforms take advantage of the outward orientation
one is standing. Consequently, convex landforms to provide breathtaking views of downtown Pitts-
provide superior vie.ving areas from which to ob- burgh and the adjoining river valleys.
serve the surrounding environment. For this reason, The convex landform also lends itself to the dy-
they make excellent building sites. Higher points of namic and exciting use of falling water. Falling water
ground in such hilly urban areas as Pittsburgh, Cin- expresses the gravitational pull and movement
cinnati, San Francisco, and Seattle have considerable down the slopes of a hill or mountain (see Chapter
real estate value and in some instances are legally 6 on water). In nature, examples of dramatic falling
regulated by zoning ordinances in an effort to pre- water are found at such locations as Niagara Falls,
serve the views to and from these areas. The scenic Yosemite National Park, Yellowstone National Park,

FIGURE 1.58
Landform Types by Form 43

FIGURE 1.59

and numerous other locations throughout the posure to the sun in the winter. Conversely, north-
United States. The use of water a t Villa d'Este in It- facing slopes are undesirable sites for most devel-
aly exemplifies the gravitational forces (and counter- opment because they receive little if any direct sun
forces) of wa ter falling from a high point of ground in the winter, making them cold. In terms of wind,
in an artificial setting. southeast slopes of a convex landform in the conti-
Lastly, the convex landform is a topographic ele- nental temperate zone are windiest in summer,
ment that distinctly modifies microclimate in the ex- while northwest-facing slopes are exposed to th e
terior environment. As discussed earlier in this coldest winter winds. In winter a convex landform
chapter, different slopes of a convex landform may blocks wind from the areas to the southeast of the
have noticeable variations in sun and wind exposure high point, allowing them to be warmer and more
because of their orientation. South- and southeast- energy efficient (Figure 1.60).
focing slopes are favorable locations in the continen- In summary, the convex landform is a visually
tal temperate climate zone because of their direct ex- strong element in the landscape with a number of

FIGURE 1.60

~v~ ~ c o ~ ~ -
l=ORM.
C°'-tYEX L.AJ-..JPFDRJv15 CAJ---1 eE. LBED Q..l 1He t---O~T o lt:E:
ot= A 5P.ACE 7D BLCC:K COLP W l~R. Wl~D.
44 Landform

FIGURE 1.61

potentially exciting and dramatic uses. Because of its f igure 1.61. Such views often make these points
possible dominance, the convex landform must be ideal building sites.
used carefully and thoughtfully. Unique to the ridge is its directional quality and
implication of movement. From a visual standpoint,
Ridgg. A Iandform type similar to the convex land- a ridge has the ability to capture the eye and lead it
form is the ridge. A "ridge" is a high point of along its length. Therefore ridges in the landscape
ground that is linear in its overall mass as compared may be used to move the eye through a series of
with a convex landform that tends to be more com- spaces or direct it to specific focal points. From a
pact and concentric. A ridge may be thought of as a functional standpoint, both vehicular and pedestrian
"stretched out" version of a convex landform. Simi- circulation work most easily if they are located on
lar to the convex landform, a ridge defines edges of top of or at least parallel to the ridge . Movement can
outdoor space and modifies microclimate on its be quite difficult if not impossible against or perpen-
slopes and in the surrounding environment. A ridge dicular to a ridge, particularly if the sides of the
also provides vantage points that have a general ridge are steep. Consequently, the ridge tops make
feeling of outward orientation into the surrounding logical locations for roads, paths, and other elements
landscape. Although there are often many points of circulation. And outward views plus positive
along a ridge that furnish views, the ends or termi- drainage is provided in such locations as well. This
nal points of a ridge are apt to give the most pano- concept, portrayed in Figure 1.62, is often utilized in
ramic vie,,vs in a wide angle cf vision, as shown in the site planning of housing projects where the
 45

FIGURE 1.62
46 Landform

10
f<-IDSE
A ~ose f{JI---CTIOf-.-5 K:> A WAiE.RSHED DIVIDE.
FIGURE 1.63

roads, parking, and hol1sing units are placed in a ing a feeling of "here" and "there." The linear high
linear manner along the ridge tops while the valleys point of ground also functionally isolates one area
and swales in between are preserved as open space. from another. This may be an advantage when the
This concept works very effectively with the topog- land uses on either side of the ridge are incompati-
raphy while respecting some of the more sensitive ble. Conversely, a ridge may be an inconvenience if
areas of the site. As indicated here, design forms it separates two uses that would ideally work best
and structures themselves should also be propor- when placed directly side by side. From a drainage
tionally long and narrow in layout when located on standpoint, a ridge functions as a "watershed di-
the top and side slopes of a ridge. Such an approach vide" (Figure 1.63). Water that falls on one side of
allov-:s the design forms (buildings, parking areas, the ridge top flows into one drainage basin while
etc.) to blend in visually with the ridge as well as w ater that falls on the opposite side of the ridge
minimize the amount of cut and fill. Sprawling or flows into a different drainage basin.
multidirectional layouts are typically inappropriate
for the ridge. Concave Landform. The concave landform can be
One other characteristic and use of the ridge in defined as a bowllike depression in the landscape. It
the exterior environment is that it often functions as is a negative solid and positive space (void) that
a separator. As a spatial edge, the ridge acts as a completes a Jandform composition when placed next
wall dividing one space or valley from another. to a convex form. A concave landform can be rec-
Boundaries around one region or site are o ften vi- ognized in plan by contour lines that are concentric
sually defined by the presence of a ridge, establish- in their overall arrangement with the lowest num-
Landform Types by Form 47

SA-1<..TH AbDEDlO
r ~ ' \ / E LPI--Cf"OR}-/1
.,,,...-----........_......_
EXl51lf-.G Gf<O.Jf.-1.D // '-..
t· ~/ SPA:E. c:reA1Eb "-."

-=iJ--
E-)R.TH EXCAVAlED FROM
EX\5TI~ Gf<OJ"° - - - - - - - -
A ME=THOP !=OR CF.EAT\µ'.:, A cot-CAVE:. !...Ak-JtJRJRM FroM FLAT -ro-
FOSRAP+-IY.
FIGURE 1.64

bered lines located near the center. A concave land- The concave landform is an inward-oriented and
form can be created .vhen earth is excavated from an self-centered space. It focuses the attention of any-
area of ground or when two convex landforms are one in the space toward its center or bottom floor.
situated next to each other, as shown in Figure 1.64. As portrayed in Figure 1.65, the concave landform
Concave landforms are the fundamental spaces of produces a feeling of seclusion, isolation, refuge,
the landscape in which most of our activities are lo- confinement, privacy, and to some extent protection
cated. They are the basic, underlying structure of from the surrounding environment. The sense of se-
outdoor rooms. The degree of spatial enclosure in a curity though is rather false because the concave
concave landform depends upon the relati\·e height landform is vulnerable from higher ground sur-
and steepness of the surrounding slopes in relation rounding it. When in a concave form, one has a
to the width of the space. weak connection to other nearby spaces and func-

FIGURE 1.65

LATERAL Y\E.v\5 el.OCKED BY LAI---JDFORM \ A F-i=.ELI~ OF \~-

LATIW AI---ID PR.JV.ACY ~LiS.
 Landform
48

FIGURE 1.66

tions. One may not be able to see out from or be- form has the disadvantage of being potentially wet,
yond the outer rim of the convex landform to other especially near its lower floor area. Precipitation that
areas of the landscape. Likewise, one may not be foils in a concave landform drains toward and col-
able physically to get out of the concave landform. lects in its depression unless some means is pro-
Depending on the steepness of its sides, it may both vided to catch and carry it out of the area. In fact, a
figuratively and literally hold a person in its space. concave landform can be thought of as a drainage
The enclosure and inward orientation of a concave basin or watershed within its own limits. Thus a
landform make it ideal for staging performances on concave landform has an additional potential use as
its bottom floor where they can be viewed by ob- a site for a permanent lake, pond, or retention basin
servers on the side slopes of the space. The actor- that holds water temporarily after a storm.
audience relationship is handily adapted to the
"fishbowl" quality of the concave landform (illus- Valley. The valley is the last landform type we dis-
trated in Figure 1.66). For this reason, amphitheaters cuss. It combines some of the characteristics of both
or other similar structures involving viewing audi- the concave landform and the ridge previously out-
ences are logically located on sloped ground or in lined. Like the concave landform, the valley is a low
natural concave landforms. Rockefeller Center in area in the landscape that functions as positive space
New York City is a classic example of an urban con- or room where many activities occur. But like the
cave landform, where ice skaters perform several ridge, the valley is also linear and directional. It will
levels below the street for the passersby and sight- be remembered from eadier paragraphs that a valley
seers attracted to the area. can be recognized in plan by contours that point
The concave landform has several other character- uphill.
istics. It is protected from direct exposure to the Because of its directional quality, the valley is also
wind that blows over the top of the space. And the a suitable location for movement through the land-
concave landform is apt to act as a sun pocket where scape. Many forms of primitive travel occurred along
air temperatures are higher because of the direct ex- the valley floor or on streams or rivers of the valley
posure of the slopes to the sun. All in all, a concave owing to the relative ease of movement. Today, local
landform is typically warmer and less windy than roads and even interstate highways frequently wind
other sites in the same general region. While pos- through valleys for the same reasons Indian foot-
sessing a favorable microclimate, the concave land- paths did. The difference, however, between placing
Functional Uses of Landform 49

'\/ALLEY FL0:R PRE-

~ R:)F!. OPE=t-4 I I F - - - - - - - - - - - -
SffCE ~ JiGR\CUL--
1Uf<_E.

...:..,/rv ~ ------ ~
-----·- ··-
.,.
..-
----- -
-~- - -- - -
_____ ..,,,.- - -. --· - -- ---------- - -
- - - '.
. .

FlGURE 1.67

circulation in a valley as compared w ith on a ridge tions of this chapter. In all cases, the use of landform
is that a valley is typically a sensitive ecological and depends on the designer's skill and imagination. It
hydrological area with the location of streams and should never be forgotten that what one does with
rivers and associated floodplains. Likewise, the val- the landform in a design ultimately affects all the
ley floor is often fertile ground and consequently the other design elements placed on the ground. The
location of very productive agricultural land . There- various uses outlined on the next few pages have
fore more care is required in siting roads and devel- been separated for ease of description. However,
opment in a valley to avoid wet areas and the de- many of these would occur simultaneously in a de-
struction of the sensitive ecology. Given an equal sign.
choice between locating roads and development in a
valley or on a ridge, it is advisable in most cases to ~i:2atial Definition. Landform may be used to create
place these uses on the ridge, thus preserving the and define exterior s pace by several different means.
valley for more compatible land uses like agriculture, Space may be created by excavating into the existing
recreation, or conservation. If roads and develop- base plane, filli ng (adding) earth and building up
ment must be placed in the valley, then they should from the existing base plane, complementing exist-
be located along the edges of the valley floor above ing convex landforms with added high points, or
the floodplain or on the valley sides as suggested in changing elevation to establish terraces or level
Figure 1.67. In these locations, structures and other variations. Most of these techniq ues are effective
design elements should gen erally be linear to fit the means for creating concave and valley landforms.
slope of the ground and reflect the directional qual- When defining exterior spaces with land form, three
ity of the valley. variables are critical in influencing our perception of
space: (1) the floor area of the space, (2) the steep-
ness of the enclosing slopes, and (3) the horizon/
Functional Uses of Landform silhouette line. These are g raphically shown in Fig-
There are a number of functional and aesthe tic uses ure 1.68.
of landform in the outdoor environment. Some are The floor a rea of the space is the bottom or base
quite common and taken for granted while others plane of the space and generally represents the " us-
are limited to special situations. Some uses of land- able" area. It may appear as a distinct flat area or be
form have already been alluded to in previous sec- more subtly defined , blending into and appearing to
 Landforrn
50

rbRIZON/Slu-toUETTI=. L I N E - - - - - - - - -
01.!JPE $TEE.PN~ - - - T - - - -- - - - -
Fl--OC)R. AREA - - -

FIGURE 1.68

be part of the side slopes. Typically, the large r the The horizon/silhouette line, the third variable in-
floor area of a space, the larger the space is per- fluencing spatial perception, represents the edge be-
ceived to be. . t\·v een the perceived top of the landform and the
The second variable affecting our sense of s pace sky. We read this line as being the upper edge of
created by landforrn is slope. Slope assumes the the slope, or rim of space, regardless of its size. Its
functio n of the vertical plane by acting as walls of an position with respect to height and distance from the
exterior space. As s tated several times p reviously, position of the viewer, as illustrated in Figure 1.69,
the slo pe steepness has a bearing upon spatial defi- affects views out of the space and the perceived spa-
nition : the steeper the slope, the more pronounced -tial limits. The area seen w ithin these limits is some-
the delinec1tion of space. times referred to as a "view shed." At the regional

FIGURE 1.69

FE:RCclY'i=D LIMrrs
functiont1l Uses of Landform 51

--------+----SfATIAL LIMrf5----.

Tl-iE PEl<CEPTIOH OF 5PPCE ~D !i5 !-lMrr:5 CHAHGE:5 ,65 Ot-lE.

MO/E-5 FROM ON!=- LCCAT/0~ 7D Af-...lOTHE.R..
FIGURE 1.70

scale, the horizon/silhouette line may be defined by depending on one's position in relation to the hori-
the ridge of the distant hills or mountains many zon./silhoue tte line.
miles away. This very large space may then be sub- All three va riables (floor area, slope steepness,
divided into smaller spaces in the more immediate and horizon/silhoue tte line) interact simultaneously
foreground. Figure 1. 70 shO\\'S that the horizon/sil- with one another to enclose space. The d egree of en.-
houette line (and the relilted perception of space) is closure perceived in any given space depends on the
apt to change as one moves through and about a amount of area within the field of vis ion (the size of
space. The space may seem to expand or contract area seen with normal eyesight) filled by the floor

FIGURE 1.71

A ~ E OF RJLL SPATIAL ~ R E . cx:cUR.S WHEt--i

A .l.PJ--iDFORM M,.l\55 FI LlS A 45° ca--4E OF VI 5\Q-4.
 Landform
52

·----~····- .. ...

liv'iPL\EC'
5PACE=.

.,

~ 5Aiv'\E
'
.r
.
}I
. ' .

f FLOOR. A!<.E:AI
I I
l '~~

PlrrE:.RB--rr 5PA1IAL A:EL-1~ EVEµ THCU31-4 FLCOR.

15 THl= ~E.
FIGURE 1.72

area, horizon 'silhouette line, and slope. The normal one, or from a twisting linec1r valley space to a static,
field of vision spans a vertical angle of about 60 de- contained space. One may even mold different qual-
grees with 40 degrees above the eye-level plane and ities of space by utilizing the variables in different
20 degrees below the eye-level plane. 17 The feeling combinations. For example, three vastly different
of full enclosure illustrated in Figure 1.71 is gained spaces can be created by varying the slope and ho-
when the combination of the three variables fills rizon/silhouette line while keeping the size of the
and/or extends beyond a 45-degree cone of vision (or floor area constant, as shown in Figure 1.72. Like-
creates a 1: 1 distance to height ratio). 18 And only a wise, the character of the floor area itself may be
minimum sense of enclosure occurs when the vari- changed to establish dissimilar qualities of space. As
ables occupy an 18-degree field of vision. 19 mentioned previously, a relatively level floor area
Using the \·ariables of floor area, slope steepness, provides a stable space while a sloped floor area cre-
and horizon/silhouette line, the landscape architect ates an unstable space. A person feels uncomfortable
can create an almost limitless variety of spatial ex- having to stand too long in a space that has a tilted
periences from an intimate space to a monumental ground surface and is therefore encouraged to move
on to another space or location. The one factor that
cannot be affected by landform is the overhead
17
Yoshinobu Ashihara, Exterior Dcsis11 i11 Arc/1itcct11r,·. rev. ed. plane. Unless a cave is formed (which is rare), land-
(New York: Van :--.:ostrand Reinhold, 1981), p. 42. form is unable to manipulate what happens on the
"Gary 0 . Robinette, Plcmts, People 1111d Em•iro11111mte1/ Q1111/ity ceiling of an exterior space (other than influencing
(Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park
Service, 1972), p. 18. the amount of sky seen).
1
"ibid. Landforrn cannot only define the edges of a space
Functional Uses of Landform 53

FIGURE 1.73

but also its orientation. A space, like a liquid, tends frame views to a particular focal point in the envi-
to move toward areas of least resistance. Thus the ronment, as illustrated in Figure 1.73 landform can
general orientation of a space is toward open views. be built up on one or both sides of the sight line.
Using landform, a mass of high ground on one side The higher ground on either side of the sight line
and a mass of low ground on another produces a acts as blinders blocking out any distractions while
spatial orientation toward the lower, more open side concentrating attention on the focal point itself.
and away from the higher ground. Figure 1.17 illus- Landform may be used to "show off" or exhibit a
trated this point. Similarly, spatial orientation also particular object or scene as well. Objects placed on
tends to move downhill, like water, to lower a high point of ground or summit are of course eas-
ground. As a result, a space with a sloped floor area ily seen from potentially great distances. Likewise,
will orient and focus itself on the area of the lowest objects or areas located on the side slopes of a valley
floor elevation. or ridge are also readily seen from lower areas in the
In creating space or fulfilling other functions such valley or slopes on the opposite facing side of the
as directing surface drainage or influencing move- valley (Figure 1.74). The steeper the slopes, the more
ment, the ground's surface should not be graded to they become like vertical walls and the more they
a slope steeper than 50 percent, or 2: 1. A 2 : 1 slope directly stop and capture the line of sight. One ex-
is the commonly accepted absolute maximum slope ample ,vhere this concept is sometimes applied is in
for soil to be graded to. Slopes over 2: 1 are highly a zoo where a particular animal exhibit is placed on
susceptible to erosion unless stabilized with stone a side slope so it can be more easily and completely
(riprap) or other hard, nonerodible material. Even a seen. Another similar use of landform is to create a
2: 1 slope is quite vulnerable to erosion and must be series of vantage points from which to view an ob-
covered with ground cover and other plant material. ject or space. Each vantage point can be so located
as to provide a new or different perspective of the
Control Views. As outlined earlier, landform, by object being viewed.
filling the vertical plane, can direct views to specific A related use of landform is to establish spatial
points in the landscape, influence what and how sequences that alternately reveal and hide views of
much is seen at any given point (view shed), create objects or scenes. This concept is referred to as "se-
sequential viewing or progressive realization, and quential viewing" or "progressive realization." 20 As
completely block views from objectionable scenes.
As with spatial orientation, views are directed along
lines of least resistance toward open spaces. To en- 20
Ibid., p. 30.
 Landform
54

---~--D\5PLA'i AREA - - - - -

>

FIGCRE 1.74

illustrated in Figure 1.75, a sense of anticipation and as one moves toward the object and up the hill, the
curiosity can be created when one sees only a por- object is next hidden, then revealed, then hidden for
tion of an object. The viewer is teased by liking the a second time, and finally revealed in its entirety as
partial view of the object but nevertheless being un- one arrives at the top. In other situations the crest of
able to observe the whole thing. When this occurs, a slope, illustrated in the bottom half of Figure 1.76,
the viewer is encouraged to move toward the object can hide an object at the toe of the slope from the
with the hope of seeing more of it. This concept can more distant vantage points on top of the high
be taken one step further by using landform to cre- point. But the same object can be suddenly exposed
ate a sequence of changing views as one moves to- as the viewer moves toward the crest. This same
ward an object. As one possibility, shown in the top concept is also shown in Figures 1.77 and 1.78. In
half of Figure 1.76, an attractive object at the top of Figure 1. 77, the view is focused on the distant ter-
a hill may at first be seen from the valley floor. Then minus of the axis while views to the area just below

FIGliRE 1. 75
 55

FIGURE 1.76

FIGURE 1.77
56 Landform

viewer's position with respect to the landform con-

figuration has influenced what is or is not seen.
In an opposite fashion, landform may be built up
in the form of earth mounds or berms to screen out
displeasing objects or scenes (Figure 1.79). This ap-
proach is common along roads, parking areas, and
commercial establishments to block undesirable
views of cars, service areas, and storage. This use of
landform is most applicable where space permits the
slope to be graded to the desirable steepness. It will
be recalled from earlier sections of this chapter that
earth should be graded only to a 4: 1 slope if it is to
be covered with turf and mowed with a lawn
mower. With this criterion, it would be necessary to
have an area at least 40 ft (12.2m) wide to accom-
modate an earth mound 5 ft (1.525m) in height (20 ft
(6.lm) needed per side at 4:1). Less space would be
required if the slope were steeper. Consequently, if
space is limited, some means for screening bad
views other than earth mounds should be utilized.
As already indicated, the crest of a slope itself can
screen views of objectionable objects located at the
toe of the slope for vantage points on top of the hill
(Figure 1.80). Such a technique could be used to hide
roads, parking lots, or service areas in a park setting
while maintaining desirable views to more distant
portions of the landscape. A similar method was
used in the English landscape garden style to hide
FIGURE 1.78
walls and fences. In pastoral landscapes, walls re-
ferred to as "ha-ha walls" were placed below the
slope crests in valleys and depressions so that they
the wall on the opposite side are blocked. As one could not be seen from certain vantage points, as
moves forward toward the wall, a new \·iew previ- illustrated in Figure 1.81. The result was a view of
ously unseen (Figure 1.78), is revealed showing a the pastureland as a continuous and flowing unit,
small herb garden and brick terrace. Again, the uninterrupted by walls or fences.

FIGURE 1.79

\/1~.
Functional Uses of Landfonn 57

CRe3T OF 5l-CfE LBEO TO 5:-\<.E.~ O&JECTlctJ.AeLl=:. \/IEW

AT ITo .BAe>E: .
FIGURE 1.80

FIGURE 1.81

A term that has significance for views and the lo- more distant views to the middle ground and back-
cation of elements in the landscape is the "military ground. Furthermore, the military crest is an impor-
crest." 21 The military crest illustrated in Figure 1.82 tant point for locating structures that visually blend
is the point near the top of a slope or brow from in with the landform. When an object is placed on
which the entire slope below can be seen. This stra- the summit of a convex landform (Figure 1.83), it is
tegic vantage point has historically been vital for an easily seen as a silhouette against the sky and is
ilrmy's control and defense of the high point and more exposed to the wind. This same object located
surrounding countryside (hence its name). The mil- down slope from the summit near or just below the
itary crest is also a desirable building location be- military crest tends to blend in visually with the
cause of the views it affords. It provides clear views landform if the summit remains silhouetted against
of the immediate slope in the foreground as well as the sky. The summit and slope above the object then
serve as a backdrop to the object, "absorbing" its
21
Kevin Lynch, Site Pla1111i11g, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: M.I.T. outline and protecting the object against the wind.
p.
Press, 1971), 50. This concept is not only the key to siting buildings
58 Landform

CR.E5T"')

FIGURE 1.82

but should also be considered in the location of location for roads and paths is on the level landform,
other elements such as roads and high-power trans- along the valley floor, or on top of the ridge, as sug-
mission lines. gested previously. The level landform of course per-
mits the greatest degree of flexibility in movement.
Influence Movement. Landform may be used in the As slope of the ground surface increases and/or
exterior environment to influence the direction, more obstacles occur, movement becomes more dif-
speed, and rhythm of both pedestrian and vehicular ficult. More physical energy must be used to get up
movement. As suggested previously, the configura- and down slopes; consequently more travel time is
tion of the ground's surface has a direct bearing on required and sometimes frequent stops are neces-
where and ho\\' we move through the landscape. sary to rest. For walking, each step needs to be more
Typically, circulation follows paths of least resis- carefully placed w hen going up or down a slope,
tance, which in terms of topography are usually rel- and our sense of balance is disrupted on sloped
atively level flat areas devoid of any obstacles. Here, · ground. The result of all this is that circulation
minimum energ:' expenditure is necessary to walk in across sloped surfaces should be minimized and,
a surefooted, uninterrupted manner. Thus an ideal \-vhen feasible, not allowed to exceed 10 percent in

FIGURE 1.83
Functio11<1l Uses of Lnndform 59

UNCE51RA5LE. ;"TCO 5fEEP

FOf<.- E-A5Y IVPvE:tvfEl'---t"r ~ __ _ _ ~----zo
~-- --- --'7
20.,, -"'-\:- - - - - - ----- <
\~\6 ,---=' =- - - --..........-.....--. - - - ...._ -- - ~--
Cl-
-- -----Jl ,/'/ ....- - - - - - ...--\e
14 ---- -1-- - _ ............... ~ ,...........-lb
l -.. . . . -
\2.. ------=t-;;--
~ f~~'--_________. .
', ~

' ,
- -- -- - \4-

, _ _,,,, ,....,. \-e,_

-- ------
FIGURE 1.84

the cases of pedestrian movement. lf movement is the rate of movement in a design as illustrated in
required up or d own a steeper area of ground than Fig ure 1.86. If the intent in a portion of a design is
this, .is in Figure 1.84, it should occur askew to the to permit people to move quickly through an area, a
contours, not perpendicular to them, to minimize kvel ground aren should be used. If, o n the other
path steepness. When there is a need to cross a hand, the objective is to make the u ser walk more
ridgelike landform, it is easiest to do so by moving slowly through a space, sloped su.rfaces or changes
through a "gap" or "saddle" if one is present in ele\·ation between a series of levels should be ap-
(Figure 1.85). plied. And where it is intended to have people stop
Another application of these principles is to affect their movement altogether, a level ground area

FIGURE 1.85
60 Landform

5LDW RAPID

FIGURE 1.86

FIGURE 1.87
should again be utilized. Athena Tacha, an artist
who teaches at Oberlin College, utilizes landform in
her environmental sculpture as a means of directly
influencing the regularity, speed, and direction of
walking in her designs. 22 .
Landform in the form of slopes and earth mounds
can be used as obstacles or barriers, forcing move-
ment around them and through the valleylike
spaces. The degree of control and containment may
vary with the situation from subtle to well-defined
regulation, depending on the steepness of the defin-
ing slopes. Earth mounds and slopes have direct ap-
plication in large open spaces where there is a large
volume of pedestrian traffic moving through them
such as in shopping malls or college campuses. Two
FIGURE 1.88
examples of landform used in this manner are
shown in Figures 1.87 and 1.88.

Affect Microclimate. Landform can be used in the

landscape to modify microclimate. In terms of sun,
south-facing sloped surfaces can be used or artifi-
cially created to establish areas that receive direct
winter sun with resulting warme~ surface an d air
temperatures (Figure 1.19). Similarly, sun pockets
with a southern orientation can be created with
landform to provide spaces that are warmer and
more enjoyably used for longer periods of the year.

2=Athcna Tacha, "Rhythm a5 form, " La11d$capc Arc/1itect11n! 68

(3):196 (~.!,1y 197S).
Functionc1I Uses of Landform 61

..--- .....
/
I .,,,....... \ "
I I '\
II"'-' I
.,,- _,,, I / 1 I \, - _.. . ..-- -...
/ ..,111\ \
I / ) \ '------... I
I I , _,,-./ / " \ ~"-----.. 'I I
aJILDJj-,.p ~TEO I~ l I I , ..- "- ,_ ) / /
1CE.A.L ft6rr10--4 m eAlt-4 I I \ \ (HP.'\ ) I I I
EXfCc3.JRE iO Wll---lD \ I\ \ '--'- --io------
12:..,., / / / /
\ '- .._...f! __ _.... .,,, I
R.Jl,.U-...lEI l:=:D THROU9H &D-
OLE: I~ L~Dl=O™· - - - - - '-., '--~-,-.-----
<"- G_

FIGURE 1.89

In terms of wind, landforms such as convex forms, and is then situated on the southwest side of a space
ridges, or earth mounds can be used to block cold in the temperate climate zone of the United States,
\,·inds from a site during the winter season (Figure then the southwest summer wind can be funneled
1.60). To do this, the earth sh ould be built up on the into the outdoor space. Different orientations of this
sides of the site or use area facing the winter winds. opening will be required in other climatic regions.
In the continental temperate climate zone of the The \".'ind that flows through this type of opening is
Cnited States, for example, this generally is on the apt to be intensified because of the effects of funnel-
\,·est and north sides of a space. A similar function ing and consequently causes a greater cooling effect.
of landform is to build up earth along the north and
\,·est sides of a building wall. The earth here func- Aesthetic Uses. Finally, landform .can be used as a
tions as an additional layer of insulation that reduces compositional and visual element. . Earth for the most
heat loss and infiltration of cold air. In contrast, part is a plastic medium with the capability of being
landform may be used to capture and channel the sculpted into aesthetically pleasing solids and voids
\,·ind in the summer months. Wind can be chan- of almost any character. Earth is quite similar to clay
neled through a valley or low, saddlelike space be- with its pliable qualities, allowing it to be pushed
tween two high points (Figure 1.89). If this valley or and pulled to create a desired form. In the land-
low point is oriented on a southwest-northeast axis scape, anything from a pick and ·shovel to huge
62 Landform

LANbFORM tv\A.Y es L6ED P6 A SCULPTUR,AL E.LEMEITT WTTH

5TRI KJNe f1\TIERNS oP LIGHT AND .::HAPE.
FIGURE 1.90

earthmovers and bulldozers can be used to artisti- architect Jacques Simon have used Iandform both in
cally excavate, push, or fill earth in designs varying its soft, natural state and in its hard, manmade state
in scale from a small, enclosed condominium garden to create "environmental sculptures" of different
to a site thousands of acres in size. scales and characters. Athena Tacha has used land-
The potential visual qualities of Iandform are nu- form in her designs as an expression of rhythm and
merous. As soil, Iandform can be shaped into soft, time through twisting and stepping ground forms.
sensuous forms that can easily capture the eye and Her objective is to involve people in her designs by
move it through the landscape. With rock and con- using landform to directly influence how people use
crete, landform can be molded into hard forms with and move through the design. 23
well-defined edges and planes. Each of these uses of In 1979, King County (Seattle) in the state of
landform suggests a design with distinctly different Washington sponsored an International Earthwork
visual qualities and feelings. Sculpture Symposium to focus on the potential of
Landform not only has the ability to be shaped in reclaiming strip mines, gravel pits, mining heaps,
a variety of ways but may also produce different vi- barrow pits, and other earth disturbances as works
sual effects under the influence of light and cli'mate. of earth sculpture. As a related effort, a number of
The way sunlight strikes a particular ground form artists were commissioned to prepare design solu-
and the pattern of shade produced are apt to be a tions for gravel pits in the greater Seattle area. Other
delight in themselves (Figure 1. 90). And of course examples can also be cited for other artists and areas
these factors change throughout the day as well as of the country.
from one season to another. The visual effects of Edward Bye and Lawrence Halprin are two land-
rain and snow also modify the appearance of land- scape architects among many who have employed
forms. landform as an integral sculptural element in their
The molding of the earth's surface, while always designs. For one Long Island estate project, Bye
a basis for landscape architectural design and an in- molded a large open lawn area into subtle, rolling
tegral part of the functions previously discussed, can undulations to reflect the rolling English countryside
be thought of as a pure art form in its own right as near Salisbury. 2~ This landscape is not only appeal-
well. Sometimes referred to as "site sculpture," ing in the summer but also during . the winter
"earth art," or "earth works," this artistic endeavor
attempts to create works of art by molding landform
in the exterior environment just as a sculptor models n lbid., pp. 196-198. .
24
A. E. I.lye, "Shifting Subsoil by Grader and Bulldozer Reert?-
a piece of clay. Such artists as Robert Smithson, Rob- ates the Contours of Salisbury Plain," Lnmtscnp,: Arcllitect11re 59 (4):
ert Morris, and Athena Tacha, and French landscape 278-280 (July 1969).
Functional Uses of Landfonn 63

H\SH f0lt--rr5 BL.0-N~ eARt.

e'1' WI~. - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . .
5t-¥:JW CR\FTEb lf-...ITO lD\V
fOINT,5. -----s--- -----..

..
I

,At:5T1<ACr PATTEl<.1--JS CREATED E:>1 S}--OHDR.1Fi5 ,AµD ~ · <:,F<OLJµD.

FIGURE 1.91

months when abstract patterns of exposed summits ter, New York, are examples of Halprin's use of dra-
and sno\.v-filled swales are created in the lawn area matic abstract landforms. In each, the ground plane
by the interaction of sun and wind (Figure 1.91). has been stepped in a manner resembling cut con-
Lawrence Halprin is noted for th e use of \,·ater and tour lines of a model to establish striking forms and
bold, sculptural fountain forms. Halprin has spent patterns.
numerous hours observing rock and land forma- When aesthetically shaping landform, a number
tions, especially in the H igh Sierras, and has been of principles should be kept in mind. First, the land-
able to abstract these into hard, manmade landforms form should have a harmonious character with the
in some of his designs. The Lovejoy Plaza and the overall appearance of the site and region. A hard-
Auditorium Forecourt, both in Portland, Oregon, edged landform, for example, would not be compat-
and the p laza in Manhatten Square Park in Roches- ible in a setting of rolling hills and gentle slopes. The

FIGURE 1.92

4 4
2 2.
2 2.

U~DESIRABLE: PROFOSEP ~ -
10.JRS Al<..E Gi<A.PED "10 ~RP
C~ERS.
 Landiorm

new or graded landform should look as if it "be-

longs." This is especially critical \•.:hen blending
slopes and earth mounds into an existing slope. Un-
less it is intended, sharp points or edges between
planes should be avoided when grading with soil by
itself. This is often effectively accomplished in plan
by rounding the intersections or corners of contour
lines when they change direction, as shown in Fig-
ure l. 92. In section, the top or crest of the slope
should be shaped into a convex slope (not to be con-
fused with a convex landform), while the toe should
be graded into a concave slope (again, not to be con-
fused with a concave landform), as shown in Figure
I. 93. This approach establishes a visually smooth,
comfortable transition from one plane or slope to an-
other. Likewise, earth mounds should not be graded
to a too pointed summit. This looks awkward and is
susceptible to erosion. Earth mounds should also
not be applied to a site like lumps of clay on a table-
top or snakes twisting through the site. Berms
should seem to be an integral part of the site, not
some applied afterthought. This can be accom-
plished by blending the slopes of mounds to the
other ground planes as suggested previously and by
visually linking the earth mounds and high points
with one another so they "flow together.''
FIGURE 1.93 Another suggestion for shaping the ground plane
is to create strong, clean forms. The landform should

FIGURE 1.94

UhlOE5l~E:: : FO~ ~ -
ATED B"t' CQ-TTCUR Ll~ES
ARE ''BUSY'' 4= Y-/EAK.
Summt1ry 65

FIGURE 1.95

not become too busy or lumpy. For a naturalistic down if it has a precarious visual connection to the
scheme, the contours should be formed into strong surrounding base plane. This concern for the visual
curves that echo one another as they move up and relation between building and supporting landform
down the slope, as illustrated in Figure 1.94. For a has changed from one era to another. Capability
scheme with definite planes, the contour lines Brown, best known for his imitation of naturalistic
should be straight a nd parallel to one another. Any and pastoral landscapes, has been criticized by some
wiggles or bumps should be eliminated. Generally authors because of the lack of straight lines or level
the sa1ne basic design principles that apply to other planes immediately adjacent to the homes and
media apply to the grading of landform as well. buildings in his designs. 15
Landform has other aesthetic functions beyond its
use as the sole compositional element in a design. In
some situations landform can serve as an integral Summary
element in a piece of architecture by extending Landform is a very significant element in the exterior
planes of the building into the landscape o'r by serv- environment. It influences the aesthetic character of
ing as a ground element for the building to relate to. outdoor spaces, spatial perception, views, drainage,
As an element of structural support, the ground microclimate, and land use organization. Because of
plane may be flat, rolling, sloped, or mounded to its importance and the fact that all other elements in
create a pedestal for the building to rest on. Of all the landscape rest on the ground plane, it is one of
these options, the one that makes a building appear the first considerations in the evolution of a design.
most stable and strongly connected to the site is the How landscape architects shape landform affects the
level terraced site (Figure 1.95). A building looks appearance and function of buildings, plant mate-
least comfortable when sited on sloped or rolling to- rial, pavement, water, and walls.
pography. Here, points of uneasy tension are cre-
ated between the building and the site. Likewise, 25
Norman Newton, Desig11 011 /lie La11d (Cambridge: Belknap
the building may appear about to tip over or fall Press of Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 212-214.
 2
Plant Materials

Significance
Significance Plant materials are another extremely important
Functional Uses of Plant Material physical element in the design and management of
the outdoor em·ironment. Along ·with landform and
Architectural l"ses of Plant Material
Creation of Srace
buildings, plant materials constitute the major com-
• o,,,.,, SJ>:lft! • E11do;cd C/llltlpkd SJ'll(('
ponents used by landscape architects in most proj-
• Semfop.·11 ;pace • \ ·c,tica/ $/~Ke ects to organize space and solve problems. And be-
• Canopi,'d spac.·~ yond serving essentially practical roles as structural
Screening elements of a design, plant materials provide a touch
Privacy Control of lif~ and beauty in an environment. This chapter
Visual Plant Characteristics focuses upon a number of factors related to the use
Plant Siz.e of plant materials in the landscape including unique
• Large a11d i11tcr111t?di.i~t trees • [11tcrmcdiat,· s!tmb, characteristics, functional uses, architectural and
• Small Ire.',, a11d oma111e11tals • Low s!tmbs space-defining functions, visual characteristics, and
• Tall sltrn!·; • Gro1111d co11,·r aesthetic uses along with a suggested process for de-
Plant Form signing with plants in the evolution of a design so-
• Fn,tigialt? • Pyrn111idnl!Co11irnl lution.
• Colm1111:ir • Weeping
• Spr,mdi11g Hori;o11lal • Pict11rc;.q11c
The term "plant material" is used in this chapter
• Ro1111d1Gfobtlar
to represent native and cultivated woody plants of
Plant Color all types, from ground cover to trees. With only a
Foliage Type few exceptions, herbaceous plants and annuals are
• Dccidiou; • Broad-le,wcd cucrgrcms not included in the discussion, even though they too
• Coniferou;._et•,·rgrct'n are important elements in some types of settings.
Plant Texture Woody plants themselves are extremely diverse in
• Coarse texture • Fine textur,• size, form, color, texture, and overall character.
• Medium tt?xlurc They are potentially one of the most varied elements
Aesthetic Uses of Plant Material of all in the landscape with infinite possible func-
Complementors tions resulting.
Unifiers Despite the numerous potential functions of plant
Emphasizers material, many lay people and design professionals
Ackno\\'ledgers
think exclusively of plant material as decoration. As
Softener
\'it'\,· Enframement
a result, plants are often placed in the design of an
outdoor space as a final step in the completion of a
Planting Design Process and Principles project. Foundation planting around the base of
Summary homes and small commercial buildings is one exam-
ple of this narrow, uneducated approach. Founda-
 67

tion planting is typically added to a building as an The illusion of plttnt material's preeminent role in
afterthought to the building's design in order to landscape architectur.-,tl design stems from a gener,11
''dress it up." Today, foundation planting is nothing misunderstanding of the profession's expertise and
more than an outdated practice in cosmetics that a confusion about the distinction bt>tween landscape
was once applied to hide exposed foundations. 1 architecture and the nursery industry. In addition,
Similar nttitudes about the use of plant material some lay people still believe the primary focus of
also han~ nffected the popular image and kn_o v,ledge landscape architecture is residential garden design
ilbout the profession of landscape architecture. and estate planning in which plant material is ac-
Again, many lny persons and uninformed design tually one of the critical design eleme.nts. Howe\'er,
professionals equate landscape architecture to essen- the landscape architectural profession is in\'oh·ed in
tially designing with plant material for ornamenta- a much broader spectrum of projects than this \\"ith
tion. A corollary of this attitude is the notion that an underlying concern for the stewardship of all
designing an outdoor space is limited to the process land resources regardless of scale. With this wider
of arranging plants in a visually pleasing manner. concern, plant material, while still a significant de-
Likewise, the landscape architect is mistakenly be- sign element, is considered just one of many poten-
lieved to be an expert on all matters related to plants tial tools at the landscape architect's disposal to sat-
including their propagation, growth requirements ·isfy the objecti\·es of a given situation. And plant
and habits, disease and pest control, as well as their material is viewed not just as decorati\'e elements
use as beautification elements in the landscape. but also as having other equally and sometimes
Commonly, when a person is identified as a land- more valuable functions in landscape architectural
scape architect, the response is to request an opinion design.
on where to locate a favorite tree or to diagnose the The landscape architect's expertise with regard to
reason for the yellowing and falling of leaves from a plant material lies in a thorough knowledge of its
particulc1r shrub. In similar thought the primary functions and a sensitive, skilled ability to utilize it
professional duty of the li!ndscape architect is con- in the context of a given design. This includes an
sidered to· be "landscaping," a term misused both understanding of its design characteristics such as
within the profession and without as synonymous size, form, color, and texture and a knowledge of its
with "plant arrangement" or planting design. The growth habits and requirements ." The landscape ar-
term "landscaping" is a narrow one and should not chitect does not need a thorough acquaintance with
be used as a substitute for the name "landscape ar- the botanical minutiae such as the _shape of bud
chitecture." scars, petiole size, or serration of the leaf. Nor does
The misunderstanding of the relative importance the landscape architect need to be an expert on plant
of plant material has resulted in a public relations propagation and cultivation. Such knowledge is
problem for the profession of landscape architecture. rightly held by horticulturalists and nurserymen.
In 1972, the "Report on the Profession" by Albert The landscape architect's wisdom should be an un-
Fein to the American Society of Landscape Archi- derstanding of the overall visual characteristics of a
tects suggested the profession consider changing its plilnt, its ecological requi rements for proper growth,
name, partially in an attempt to divorce the profes- and its environmental impact \\'hen planted in a
sion from the "landscaping" syndrome. The report given situation.
stated: "Another aspect of public posture has to do Plant materials have a number of traits that set
with the name of the profession. The Gallup Study them apart from other landsc<1pe architectural design
indicates rather ,\·idespread dissatisfaction ·w ith the elements. Perhaps the most sig nificant characteristic
title 'landscape architecture.' ,,z The report went on is that plant materials are living, growing elements.
to suggest cautiously that a name which implied a Few if any of the other materials dealt with in land-
broader professional expertise \vould more truly rep- scape architecture or the other design professions
resent the profession. 3 This thought of a new name are living, variable elements. A number of other
has since been dropped. uniq ue qualities result from this. First, plant materi-
als are dynamic; that is, they are constantly chang-
ing color, texture, opaqueness, and overall character
'Fred !-: . ll-1::ch.:: .1;1d Jut D . C.i rp.-nter. ··_.\ Brief Hi,:h.iry of with seasons and with growth. For example, some
foun,fa:i,,:i l'l,111:i.:b ... L.11:d;:,·,;;·, ..!rd1ite.:t11r,· l•:-151: .\13-l l6 ,s~tt. deciduous plants in the continental temperc1tt' zone
1977).
have four distinctly different \·isual characteristics
~Albert F~in, "Report on the Profossion, " La11d:'Ct1)'<' A rd1itcct11re
63(!): -13-!6 (Oct. 1972 1. based on the seasons of the year: (1) spring with
~Ibid .. p . .\6. flowers and lush yellow-green foliage, (2) summer
68

with ~fork green foliage, (3) autumn with brightly This time factor difficul ty is not present (at least
colored foliage, and (4) winter with bare branches not in the same magnitude) in other design profes-
and visible trunk bark. While some plants in other sions, where judgment of the design can take place
climatic zones may not vary as dramatically as deci- almost immediately upon completion of the project.
duous plants do, they nevertheless alter with sea- True, a building or piece of sculpture may weather
sonal flowers and the development of new foliage in with time, but the change cannot be compared \\"ith
response to warm and cool or wet and dry seasons. the change in a sapling that grows from 6 ft (2m) in
E,·en in the desert, plants modulate in appearance height after installation to more than 50 ft (15m)
especi.:illy during winter and spring bloom. And all many years later.
plants expand with growth. This growth is often im- Thus the landscape architect must not only study
perceptible on a short-term, day-to-day basis, but it the short-term effect of the design with plant mate-
is apt to be very dramatic over a long span of time. rial but the long-term consequences as ,veil . This
Both these dynamic qualities of plant materials poses additional problems in attempting to explain
ha,·e implications for their use in design. The chang- to a client what a design will look and feel like soon
ing seasonal appearance of some plant materials after completion. Typically, the landscape architect
makes them difficult to select and place within a creates and draws a design based on plants that are
planting design. The designer must not only be con- approximately 75 to 100 percent of their mature size.
cerned ,,.-ith how a plant or group of plants will ap- A client must be informed of this fact to understand
pear and function at one particular season but also what the immediate result of the design will be and
\,·ith how it will fill its role throughout the year and ho\,· it will change with time. If this is not made
with growth that develops over time . A mistake can clear, the client is apt to be shocked and disap-
easil~· be made in selecting a plant that is attracti,·e pointed to see a different en\"ironment from that dis-
at one season within its setting but quite unattracti,·e played in a model or graphic plan where plant ma-
the ren1c1inder of the time. This problem is simplified terials were shown as near!~- or completely mature
somewhat if only some of the elements of a plant elements. To avoid the initially spotty appear-
composition are allowed to change throughout the unce that results from installing nursery-stock-sized
year \\"hile others remain more visually constant. plants, some designers overplant numerous smaller-
The problem is most complex, and potentially cha- sized plants that more quickly fill an area. The prob-
otic, when all the elements vary, some at one pace, lem \\"ith this approach, howe,·er, is that the plants
others at another. soon overgrow c;ich other and the space in which
The growth aspect of plant material has other im- they were planted. This require5 extra maintenance
plications too. Typically, young nursery stock is and cost to selectively thin the planting or to prune
planted in the installation of a new design bec,1use the plants to a manageable size.
it is less expensive and easier to transplant and has A secontj distinguishing characteris_tic of plant
t1 greater chance for sun·ival than more mature materials based on their being living design ele-
stock. But this also has distinct disadvantages for the ments is that they require a certain set of em·iron-
designer. It may take many years for this young nur- mental conditions for survi\'al and proper growth.
sery stock to reach its mature height, width, and Such factors as soil chemistry, soil dra_inage, sun ex-
o\·erall shape. For larger trees in temperate climates, posure, wind exposure, and temperature ranges all
15 to 20 years are often needed for a newly planted influence the health of a plant. Because each plant
tree to reach an appearan,0 of maturity and even species needs a particular set of environmental con-
more may be required for it to reach its full dimen- ditions for optimal growth, one of the first steps in
sions. The problem is compounded because ground designing with plants is to determine what condi-
cover and shrubs typically reach maturity before tions exist on a given site. Ha\'ing ascertained this,
trees do, thus requiring a maintenance program of one may then choose the plants that will grow under
periodic replacement for ground cover and shrubs those conditions.
that ha\·e gone beyond their prime. As a conse- All plant materials also require some degree of
quence, the landscape architect is not able to ade- maintenance for adequate health. Plants are not like
quately judge and evaluate the intended quality of a som e design elements that, ha\·ing been installed,
design for many years (perhaps more than 20 to 25 can be forgotten. Certain plant species require more
years). This makes it extremely difficult to conclude care than others, but"even plan~ species indigenous
what \\"i\S good or bad about a design so that im- to a particular region require attention from time to
provements can be made in the next design. time. Watering, pruning, fertilizing, and pest control
Function.ii Uses of Pl.int :\latl?ri,,l 69

are major maintenance tasks that vary in frequency naturally growing plant can be predicted based on
from one plant to another. its species, a factor of nature still remains to influ-
One desirable objective of a design using plant ence the size and the form. Plants of a particular
material is to select plants requiring little upkeep. species are like people; they all fit a general mold
One such approach becoming more accepted is to while the specifics \·ary from indi\'idual to indi\·id-
use native plants in ecological groupings rather than ual. \Vhere will a branch de\'elop? How high and
popular, nursery variety culth;.ars. For example, long will it be? What \\·ill be the autumn color and
some landscape architects in the Midwest are using will it be the same as last year? To make a plant con-
native prairie grasses and flowers in their designs form to precise standards requires cxtrn care, time,
along with native trees and shrubs to create more and moneY. Gencr.11 maintenance and/or bonsai
self-sustaining environments. 4 Such a concept is not techniques, for example, can be employed to man-
only more self-supporting but also requires less time age the size and form of a plant. These exceptions
and money to maintain. aside, most plant materials react to the irregularities
Again, because plants are living, we often hold a of nature to pro\'ide little surprises throughout the
special reverence for them that goes beyond the environment.
more practical concern about whether they receive
adequate water or fertilizer. Like animals, plants are
a form of life that many people believe should be
preserved and protected against harm and death. Functional Uses of Plant Material
Looking back in history, we find that certain primi- As already indicated, plant material fulfill a number
tive cultures such as the Mandeling tribe in Indone- of roles in the landscape other than decoration and
sia and some American Indian tribes actually refused ornamentation. Although the visual quality of plant
to cut dov\'n living trees out of religious respect for materials is an important one, it is necessary to un-
their life. 5 E\·en today, we often hear about the derstand other possible functions as well so that
struggle to sa\·e a particular tree or woodland from plant materials can be used to their fullest potential
destruction in the wake of new development. In ad- in the outdoor environment. Among the numerous
dition, there is often an emotional attachment for uses in the landscape, plant materials may create
plants resulting from nurturing them and ·watching space or outdoor rooms, block unsightly views, sta-
them grow. Like people, plants have a way of be- bilize steep slopes, direct movement through the
coming part of our lives and •Nhen something hap- lands_cape, Yisually unify a group of buildings, and
pens to them, we feel personally and emotionally in- modify exposure to sun and wind. An individual .
jured. The stories of people talking to and having plant or group of plants may serve only one of these
mental telepathy with their plants as described in functions in a particular setting or it may fulfill a
the book The Secret Life of Pla11ts, by Peter Tompkins number of them simultaneously.
and Christopher Bird, tends to further support the In addition to these plant material functions in
potential attachment people have for plant material. any one design, plant materials also solve a number
All in all, the symbolic quality of plant materials sets of endronmental problems as well. Plant materials
them apart from other design elements. cleanse the air, retain moisture in the soil, prevent
Still another characteristic of plant materials is erosion and loss of soil, modify air temperatures,
that they pro\·ide a feeling of the natural ·within an and provide habitats for birds and animals. A green
environment, especially in urban settings •..-here belt planting 600 ft (183m) wide can reduce airborne
plant materials offer \'isual refreshment to the harsh- particulate matter by as much as 75 percent. 6 A wa-
ness of the surroundings. Plant materials not only tershed that has been developed and stripped of
provide relati\'e softness in a controlled, rigid envi- most of its native vegetation experiences a notable
ronment but also a quality of irregularity. Plant ma- increase in amount and rate of surface runoff with
terials in their natural habit of growth cannot be con- resulting higher erosion, especially during construc-
trolled to the same degree as manmade elements. tion when soil is unprotected. In a ·woodland, the
While the o\·erall habit of growth of an unpruned, volume of sediment may be in the magnitude of 100

'DMr<?I G. :\k,~ri;tm... Re;:orin_.; th~ :\lidh·e~tern L.1nd, cape: ·

La11d;.:ape Archi:cCturt· 65(-1): 398--103 (October 1975). ~Gan- 0 . Robinette, Pfo•::::. P,·,1pk 1111d [1:,·ir,11111:t'III,,/ Qu,;!ity
;James Underwood Crockett and Editors of Time-life Books, (\\"ashington, D.C.: U.S. D~partmcnt of th<? ln\erior, i\:ational
Trl"t'; (i'-!ew York: Time-Lifo Books, 1972), p. 7. P,,rk Sen·ice, 197:!J, p. 56.
70 Pl.int t-.fatcri,, ls

Vl5UAL..

FIGURE 2.1
*
tons/sq mi/yr, (350kg/hectare!yr.), while in heavy de- elements, plant materials affect air quality, serve as
velopment the volume of sediment can reach 100,000 erosion control aids, influence water quality, and
tons/sq mi/yr (350270kg/hectare/yr.).7 The lack of a modify climate. Finally, as visual elements, plant
complete, year-round vegetative cover on agricul- materials may be used as dominant focal points and
tural land contributes to an erosion rate of 500 tons/ ,·i$ual connectors or linkages or for their character-
sq mi/yr (1751kg/hectare/yr.), a loss that occurs year i:;;tics of size, form, color, and texture. In this last
after year. 8 category plant materials are utilized for their appear-
While improving the general quality of the envi- an(e. Again, a plant or groups of plants can serve
ronment, plant materials also contribute to real es- more than one of these functions at the same time
tate value of buildings and their sites. It has been in a design.
estimated that a well-designed site, including plant Gary 0. Robinette in his book Plants, People and
materials around a home, can add 30 percent to the Em•iromnental Quality classifies the functional uses of
value of the property.9 If well used, plant materials plant materials in a slightly different _manner. He
are a good investment, not a one-time expense with identifies the four major categories of plant functions
no return. as architectural uses, engineering uses, climate con-
At this point it ..,,.oLtld be helpful to categorize the trol uses, and aesthe tic uses .10 Architectural uses of
various functional uses of plant material to under- plant materials, discussed in greater detail in the fol-
stand them better. One way to do this is to realize lowing pages, include definition of space, screening
that plant materials can fulfill three major functions oi undesirable views, provision of privacy in out-
in the outdoor environment: structural, environmen- door spaces, and creation of spatial and view se-
tal, and visual. As structural elements, plant mate- quences (progressive realization). 11 Engineering uses
rials act as walls, ceilings, and floors in the land- of plant materials include control and prevention of
scape by defining and organizing space, affecting glare, control of erosion, control and modification of
views, and influencing direction of movement. The noise, and directing of vehicular and pedestrian
size, form, solidity, and opaqueness of plants are traffic. 12 Climate control uses of plant material in-
important considerations when dealing with plant clude shading, buffering and modifying wind move-
materials as structural elements. As environmental ment, modifying air temperatures, and influencing
rain and snow accumulation.13 Aesthetic uses of
plant materials, also outlined in greater detail below,
~C ha rles Thurlow , William To:ier. <1nd Duncan Erley, Pafar-
111,1,Kt" Stm1d,1rd;: /t>r Sc11::ititv L1111,I ; ; _; Pra<"lical Guide f.Jr i.Clt'III Ad·
1•:i1:i::tmt,1rs (Chicago: .-\m.:ric,,n Sociel\· or Planning Offid,,b. · Gan· 0. Robin,·tt~. P/,111:;. f',,,,,.1c awl E11,•i1w:•w1:t,1f Q:1:1/iw.
I 9i.5), p. 11. . :-::- -:-9. · .
%id. . . ::Ibid., p. 6.
9
"Study Says Trees Can Provide Cleansing Effect in Environ- ::Ibid., p. 7.
ment," Col11111b11s Dispatch. June 25, 19iS, Sec. I, p. 10. :'Ibid., p. 8.
:\rchitl'(tur,d Uses of rl,inl ,'1.lateric1l 71

involve providing visual accents, enframing \'iews, GRa-11--lD

complementing o ther design elements, acknowledg- 4----CO/ER
ing special points in the environment, and serving
as a neutral background to focal points. 14
lAWN
The following comparisons, illustrated in Figure
2..1, are useful for equating the two systems of clas-
sification: (1) structural uses are similar to Robi-
nette's archi tectural uses, (2) e nvironmental uses are
similar to Robine tte's engineering and climate con-
trol uses, and (3) \·isual uses are similar to Robi-
nette's aesthetic uses. No matter which classiiication
system or set of terms is used, the m ost important
points to understand a re (1) what functions plant
materials can serve, and (2) how they can be used in
the la ndscape to fulfill their intended functions most
effecti\'ely. While all functions a re important, this
chapter concentra tes on the s tructural/architectural
and v isual/aesthetic u ses becau se they contribute
mos t to the organization of a landscape architectural
p~
design project.

Architectural Uses of Plant Ma terial

Architectural uses of plant material are extremely
important in the overall organization of the outdoor
en\'ironment and the creation of outdoor space. In
the development of a design, the architectural uses
are usually one of the firs t studied. The visual char-
nctc ristics of plnn t mntcrials arc gcn crnlly selected
only after their architectural function s have been re-
solved. As stated previously, p lan t ma te rials used
architecturally in the landscnpe function as structural
components such as fl oors, ceilings, walls, w in-
dows, and doors. Architecturally, plants are the spa- IMPLIED 5PATlAL i::CGE CREATED
tial envelope of a design or outdoor room. However, e:Eiv<lf=E}-..J GROJ~D COJER.
the term "architectural use" is not meant to imply A/--.JD l..AWl-l.
the use of plants in only rigid, artificial environ- FfGURE 2.2
ments. Plant materials in natural settings may also
be equally successful in accomplishing ''architec-
tural" functio ns. The following sections discuss sev-
eral of the more noteworthy architectural uses of definition through variations in height and material.
plant material. Here, plants do not physically define space ,·ertically
but do suggest a ,vall a t a lower level. As illustrated
Creation of S12ace. A sense of space depends upon in Figure 2.2, the edge between a lawn a ren a nd a
actual and implied enclosure crea ted by modifying ground cover bed suggests the limits of a space
the g round plane, ve rtical plane, a nd O\·erhead wi thout any physical barrier or alteration of views
pla ne both individually and collectively. Plant mate- into a nd from the implied space. Of all the potential
rials may be used in the lnnd sca pc to influence each ways plant materials can d efine space, this is the
of th ese planes of enclosure. On the g round plane, weakest and least important.
ground con•r or low shrubs ma>' subtly imp!:, spatial In the vertical plane, plant materials can influence
the perception of space in senral ways. First, tree
trunks act as ve rtical columns in an exterior setting,
"Ibid ., p. 9. again defining space more by implication than in ac-
 Pbnt 1\1,,teriab
72

IMPLIED
SPACE

<)

llv1PL\Eb SPATIAL E=.[)3E CRE.ATSJ B'( MA551i----KS O F TRE:E.

~1<5.
FIGURE 2.3

tuali ty (Figure 2 .3). The degree of enclosure w ill va ry examples of tree tru nks imply ing spatial ed ges can
wi th the size of the trunks, their density of massing, be obsen·ed along a street lined with trees or in the
and their pattern of arrangement. The more trunks country where the massing of trunks in hedgerows
present, as in a natural wooded condition, the or woodlots during the winter sugges ts limits of
stronger the feeling o f enclosure (Figure 2.4) . Othe r space e,·en without foliage .

FIGURE 2.4
 73

The fuli,1gc mass oi pl.rnts is the second means for

influencing tht:- ,·ertical plane of spatial enclosure.
Here too, the density and height o f the foliage mass
c1ffects the quality of the space. The taller the plant
,rnd the larger and mo re closely its leaves or needles
are spaced, the stronger the feelin g of enclosure.
One definite change of enclosure is apt to occur with
seasonal ,·ariation in deciduous foliage. In summer,
a space m;iy be completely enveloped \.vith foliage
(Figure 2.5), gi\'ing the space an inward feeling of
isolation. In ,,·inter, on the other hand, the same
s pace may by compcHison seem larger and more 5P,ACE: IS t:::1---C-LOSEb ~D
open \\'ith \'iews extending some distance beyond 11'---WAR.P Qf<Js--.rTE:P.
the limits of the space itself. Spatial definition in
\\'inte r is implied by the branches and trunks of the
plants. Evergreen plants. of course, provide the
WINTl=R~N
strongest year-round deiinition of space in the ver-
tical plane. .
The o,·erh ead plane ot a space can also be modi-
fied by plant ma terii\l. The foliage mass and
branches in the canopy of trees create ceilings over
an outdoor space, limiting the view to the sky and
affocting the \·ertical seal,:, of the space (Figure 2.6).
Here too, there are ma n:,· ,·ariables including season,
foliage/branch density, c1nd the spacing pattern of
the trees themselves. The sense of a ceiling is
strongest when the trees are placed so their canopies
overl.ip, thus shu tting out exposure to the sky. In
Tn·,s i11 Url1a11 Dcsig11, Henry F. Arnold recommends FIGURE 2.5
that trees in urban settinss be spaced 10 (3m) to 15 ft

FIGuRE 2.6

0 \/E ~ D
FLAJ-lE.

~1 •...
3.t >~ I !'~hf •£MS½
OF 1REE
7-!

FIGURE 2.7

(5m) apart. He also observes that trees lose their vi- viewer relative to the surrounding vegetation, as de-
sual effecti\·eness when planted more than 30 ft (9m) scribed in Chapter l. For example, a space feels very
apart. i; enclosed when the encircling plant materials are tall,
As indicated in Figure 2.7, the three enclosing dense, tightly spaced, and placed close to the
variables of space (ground plane, vertical plane, and viewer.
overhead plane) operate together in defining rooms In the formation of outdoor space with plant ma-
in the exterior environment and may be altered o r terial, as with any other d esign elements, one
combined in an almost infinite variety of ways. In all should first determine the objectives to be met and
situations, the degree of p erceived enclosure varies the spatial quality desired (open, enclosed, intimate,
\\'ith the relative height of the surrounding \·egeta- monumental, etc.). Having done this, the landscape
tion, its spacing, density, and the position of the architect can then proceed to select and organize the
plants that fulfill these desired criteria. For instanct:>,
some basic spatial types created with plc1nts are de-
15
Henry F. Arnold, Tras i11 Urban Di:sig11 (Ne \,· York: \'an ~os- scribed in the following paragraphs and shown in
trand Reinhold, 19S0), p. 62. the accompanying illus tratio ns.
,\rchitccturc1l Ust'S of Pl,,nt i\latcrials 75

Opc11 spnci:. Using only low shrubs and ground

CO\'er as the spatial definers, one can create a ~ ....
-~ • . ·' .' Y;
• ~ ,.J' ...
space by implication that is open in all direc-
tions. Such a space is airy, out\\'ilrd-oriented,
lilcks privacy, and is exposed to the sun and
sky (Figure 2.8).
FlGLlRE 2.S

Sc111iop1?11 space. Similar to a completely open

space, a semiopen space as shown in Figure 2.9
is partially enclosed on one or more sides with
taller plant materials acting as ,·ertical walls
blocking views into and out from the space.
This spatial type possesses qualities similar to
the completely open space but is less transpar-
ent while strongly oriented to the open sides.
Such a space is often appropriate for a residen- FIGCRE 2.9
tiill terrace where privacy is required in one di-
rection but vie\\'s are desired in another.

Cn11opied space. Using a mass of shade trees \\'ith

a dense canopy, one can create a space that is
enclosed overhead and open to the sides, as il-
lustrated in Fig ure 2.10. Overall, this space has ,.. f .. ' . ~-- :---_ ~ • • .- ..
~

a feeling of breadth sandwiched between the r''-~ r ./ .

"": - \ · .
on~rhead plane of the tree canopy and the
ground plane for a person moving through and
among the tree trunks. A canopied space also
establishes a strong sense of vertical scale by
capping the spatial height. Architecturally, this
type of space is often experienced when stand-
,, 11,. , ,
ing in an open ground floor of a building or in
a parking garage that has open sides. In the -~ .--c.~::·o ~.:,::;-: "!¼.I..J'.N."::,--, ,'.)" ~:N1::,E,-I ecT-TO'--'\ ~ T R2=.
·:,·,.;:,,-,.,· A-...:..: ::-,,~t---,.:) f-'L.A~:·..
landscape, this space is characteristic of a green FIGURE 2. 10
urban park where the understory has been re-
moved. With the exception of filtered sun
through the canopy and lig ht seeping in from
the sides, this space tends to be relatively dark
during summer but open during w inter. This
space is cool c1nd permits fi ltered vie\\'S into
and from it through the sides. One variation of
this space is the "tunnel" space created by
shade trees along c1 road or ·walk. This c1rrcmge-
ment, shown in Figure 2.11, reinforces the lin-
ear mo\·ernent of the road or path by focusing
attention ahead while also permitting occa-
sional views to the side.
76 Plan t l\faterials

FIGURE 2.11

Enclosed cnnopied ~nee. This space, illustrated in

Figure 2.12, Fias the same characteristics as the
canopied space just explained, but a major dif-
ference is that it is enclosed on the sides with
medium- and lower-sized plant materials. This
space, typical of that found in wooded forest
conditions, is quite dark and oriented in upon
itself, providing feelings of privacy and isola-
tion.

FIGURE 2.12
Vertical spa~. Using tall, narrow plant materials,
one can create an outdoor space that is vertical
in orientation and open to the sky as depicted
in Figure 2.13. Depending upon how much
emphasis is desired on this upward movement,
the space can be either open or enclosed to the
sides. This vertical space has the potential of
becoming almost like a gothic cathedral, lifting
one's attention upward tmvard the sky. One
possible variation of this space is created by the
use of tapered plant material for the space-de-
fining elements so that the space either ex-
pands or contracts as it becomes taller.
\!:.Z-,:::;e.,_
().=~-s,:...:;
.=".-'CE. =--C-..OSc:.:) ,-.. -..,= 'v:::'Zi CA_ :::,~--..::=: :::?:::....;

FIGURE 2.13

In summary, the landscape architect can create

numerous types of spatial character using only plant
material as the space-defining elements. ;\ combi -
nation of these spaces in a small park is illus trated
in Figure 2.14.
In addition to being able to develop individual
outdoor spaces of different qualities, the landscape
Architectural Uses of Plant Material 77

EL.Ai--\ 05Llq.JE OF D\F~ERE:r-IT SPATIAL.. T'(Pffi.

FIGURE 2.14

architect may use plant materials to establish inter- modulate all dimensions of spatial definition ,vith
linked sequences of spaces. As illustrated in Figure plant material except the elevation of the ground
2.15, plant materials may act as walls and doors that surface itself to create pulsating and exciting spatial
direct people into and through a space. While doing sequences.
this, plant materials may alternately enframe and To this point the discussion has centered on the
block views from the path of interconnected spaces use of plant materials to define space by themseh·es
in addition to altering the overhead canopy. Plant in the landscape. However, plant materials are more
material can effectively "squeeze" a volume of space often than not combined ·w ith other elements to ar-
to gi\'e it tension and then subsequently "release" ticulate space. For example, plant materials may be
this confinement in an open area. The designer can integrated ·with lanclform either to accentuate or to
78

PLANT tvtAT!=.RJAL USED m CREATE. AI--\D LINK A 5EQJEI----CE OF

~ E S 11---l A)'-l AACJ-ilTt=.CTON\C FASHIOt---t,
FIGURE 2.15

FIGURE 2.16.

:)1..#-rr MA!ERIAL ~~TE

An:hitc..:tur,,1 U~es of Pl,rnt r--1.~:.:-rial 79

FIGURE '.?..17

negate the spatial structure established by landform increase the feeling of space crea ted through mold-
on the base plane, as sho\rn in Figure 2.16. Placed ing of the ground surface, plan ts are m ost effecti\·ely
on or near the summit of ?. com·ex or ridge land- located on summits, ridges, and other high points,
form, plant materials increa~e the apparent height of ·while lower areas are left mo re open and d evoid of
the mass and consequently accentuate the sensation \·egetation.
of spatial e nclosure in the adjoining concave and Plant m aterial may also be used to modify the
v;:illey landforms. Converse!~-, plant material placed spaces created by buildings. In this application, a
inside a conrnve and vrilh:.-y landform o n i ts floor or major function of vegetation is to subdivide larger
surrounding sides contradicts the space initially spaces delineated by build ings into smaller spaces.
formed by the topography by " filling it in." Thus to A good example of this is an urban setting or u ni-

FIGURE 2.18
so

COMPLl=TcD EP3E
.OR\6\~LEDSE

PLANT rv'A.TERIAL USED FOR. CLCl::URE.

FIGURE 2.19

\·ersity campus where the primary extremities of and organization that has been suggested by build-
the outdoor spaces are created by the buildings. ings or other design elements. Two common meth-
'Within these hard-edged spaces, plant materials ods for accomplishing this include the following:
are able to provide another hierarchy of subspaces,
usually more delightful and human in scale (Figure
l. Cfo511re. 16 This term d escribes the completion of a
2.17). Without this use of vegetation, m ost urban
spatial enclosure th.:i t has been ·almost, but not
em·ironments would certainly appear harsh, inhu-
quite, articulated by a building or enclosing wall.
man, and too open. A similar function of plant
A space surrounded by a building or wall on two
material occurs in a rural landscape \vhere forest
or three sides can use vegetatio n for "closure" or
edges, w oodlots, and hedgerows all subdivide the
completion of the space on its other o pen sides,
countryside into a hierarchy of spaces. A classic ex-
as indicated in Figure 2.19.
ample of this is the rural English landsc,1pe shown
in Figure 2.18.
Plant material may also be used from a n architec- 1
•GarY 0. Robinette, Plant;, Peopll! and Em•iro1111:e111<1/ Qual-
tural standpoint to complete the spatial definition ity, p , 23.
.-\rchitcctltrnl Uses of Pl,1nt 1'.l.1tcrial SI

- -- -} ..

PLA}-.fr ~TE.fZJAL USED FOt<.. LINK,66E.

FIGURE 2.20

2. Linknge. 17 This term applies to plant materials closure. The example in Figure 2.20 shows a
that finish the delineation of an outdoor space by comtyard edge that has been started 6}1 sur-
visually connecting otherwise separate elements rounding buildings but completed by the plant-
in the land scape. Like closure, linkage w ith p lant ing . Masses of trees and shrubs \'isually link
mate rial ful fills the spatial definition partially sug- these separate buildings togethe r to form a con-
gested by the other elements by providing more tinuous spatial enclosure.
enclosure than that given only by the separate
elements. As illustrated in Figure 2.20, linkage Screening. If the creation of outdoor space is one
can be accomplished by massing plant material architectural u se of plant material, another is to
toge ther in a somewhat linear manner between conceal unattractive objects or scenes in the environ-
the initially isolated elements, th ereby \·isually ment.18 Plant materials as \'ertical barriers can con-
t~·ing the m together and fini shing the spatial en- trol d e ws so thc1t desirable FOints in the landscape

1' lbid .. 15 (bid., p. 2-l.

p. 23.
82 Pla nt M<1terial$

---*--~~---1-~---

ofEP O}-.!E.:
~W 5\6HT Ll}-..\E.

--- - ---- - - -
- - - -- - -- -

FIGURE 2.21

~re observ_ed ~vhile ugly points are blocked. Depend- ergreen plants arc most successful for establishing a
ing on obiechves, a vegetative screen may be com- permanent wall of vegetation that prevents views
plete!~ opaque to totally screen a view or it may be throughout the year.
of vanous degrees of transparency to provide partial
screening. To establish an effective vegetative
Privacy Control. Somewhat similar to screening is
screen, one needs first to analyze the point(s) from
the use of plant material for privacy control. 19 Pri-
which th: viewer will be looking, the height of the
vacy control is the technique of encircling a well-de-
unattractive element(s), the distance between the
fined area with plants of such a height that views
viewer and the unsightly element, and the landform
into ~nd from the space are prevented. The purpose
configuration. These factors collectively affect the re-
of privacy control is to isolate the space from its sur-
quired height, arrangement, and placement of the
roundings, as illustrated in Figure 2.22. Thus the
plant material screen. Taller is not necessarily better
subtle difference between privacy control and
for screening, though it certainly might be in some
screening is that the former encompasses and seg-
s_ituations. The best method for studying the varia-
regates a space, thereby blocking all views, while
tions of_ t_he plant_ screen is to draw a section along
screening is the judicious placement of barriers stop-
the anticipated sight line, as illustrated in Figure
ping only selected views. Privacy control eliminates
2.21, and to plot acct'.rately the eye level and height
freedom of movement through the enclosed space,
of th~ un~es1rabl: obiect \-vithin the section. By then
whereas screening allows movement around and
dra\\:mg m the _sight line, one can study the proper
~hrough the plant material barriers. Privacy control
location and height of the screen. In Figure 2.21, the
1s often a desirable design objective for an intimate
m~s t effective !~cation would be at Point A, though
sitting area or the terrace of a residence.
Points B or C might be acceptable if more of the fore-
ground landscape \\'ere desired in the view. An ad-
diti~1nal factor to rnnsider is the season(s) during
\\'htch the plant material is to block the views. Ev- '"Ibid., p. 2$.
.'isu,11 Plant Characteristics 83

As with screening, the degree of privacy control

is directly affected by the characteristics of plants
1sed to block the Yiev,s. A dense planting of vege-
ation over 6.5 ft (2m) tall usually provides the great-
est sense of privacy. Chest-high plants produce par-
tial privacy (but total privacy while sitting), and
-vaist-high plants furnish little if any privacy.

Visual Plant Characteristics

:>[ant material used architecturally within a design to
define space, establish spatial sequences, screen
'views, and pro\·ide privacy may also serve a number
Jf aesthetic functions. While architectural uses con-
cern themselves primarily 'vvith the structural aspects
of a design, aesthetic uses deal principally with the
visual qualities. Plant size, form, color, and texture
;ogether with compositional arrangement and rela-
tionship to the surroundings are all factors affecting
· the aesthetic quality of a design. The visual quality
of a planting design is vitally important because a
person's first response is apt to be a reaction to its
· appearance. A planting design may successfully ful-
fill other valuable functions such as creating space,
modifying air temperatures, and stabilizing soil, but
it will nevertheless be ill-received if it is offensive to
the eye. To be successful, a planting design should
be at least nondescript, if not attractive, in conjunc-
tion with accomplishing various other functions.
This section outlines the different visual plant
characteristics including size, form, color, and tex-
ture along with applications and suggested guide-
lines for their use in designing with plant material in
the landscape. Each visual plant characteristic has its
own subcategories, qualities, and uses in the out-
door environment, which are discussed in the fol-
lowing sections. FIGURE 2.22

Plant Size. Size is one of the most visually signifi-

cant characteristics of plant material and should be
~early in the selection of plants for a design. Examples of large and intermediate . trees include
Plant size directly affects the scale of a spac~ com- sugar maple (Acer sacclmr11111), "vhite oak (Q11ercus
positional interest, and the overall framework of a r./ba), white ash (Fraxinus americana), American
aesign. Plant materials maybe categorized according beech (Fagus grandifolia), and red gum· (Eucalyptus ca-
to the following sizes. 111c1ldule11sis). Some functions of large and intermedi-
ate trees in the landscape are listed below.
Lnr e and i11termediate trees. Based on size, the This category of plant material are dominant vi-
most significant plants from oth a compositional -~ elements . b~\:aqse of tl)~_ir }J~jght and .I'Q~Ss.
and spatial standpoint within the landscape arc large Their function is similar to that of the steel and
and intermediate trees. Large trees grow 40 ft (12m) ,.,·ood framework of a building: they gh·e a compo-
tall or more at maturity, while intermediate trees sition its O\·erall three-dimensior1alTor,r i1by:·e sJaF
have a maximum height of 30 to £10 ft. (9m-12m). ·1Ehing the basic structure and skeleton of an out-
----------
8-l Pl,rnt \!,1terials

FIGURE 2.23

door environment, as illustrated in Figure 2.23. Like- space becomes larger. Seen across an open field or
wise, large and intermediate trees may be the first plaza, large trees are the first, and perhaps the only,
plants seen in a composition and consequently may plant materials noticed. Smaller trees and shrubs are
sen·e as focal points (Figure 2.24) ,..,·hen placed seen and appreciated only after closer inj_pe~.
among smaller plant materials. The importance of Therefore large and intermediate trees should gen-
large and intermediate trees as compositional ele- erally be the first plant material located within a de-
ments becomes greater as the scale of an outdoor sign because their pla.c ement will ha\'e the biggest

FIG(.;RE 2.2-l
\'i~u.1I !'I.int Ch.uacteri:;tic~ S5

F!GCRE 2.25

impact on the appearance and feel of the entire com- space will feel more human if the canopy is 10 (3m)
position. 20 Once the larger trees have been located, to 15 ft (4.Sm) above the ground or quite mori'uinen-
smaller t r e e ~ s can be arranged to comple- tal if the canopy is 40 (12m) to 50 ft (15m) above the
merlt and ~inforc.e the compositional and spatial ground, as it sometimes is m a mature forest. Large
qualities of t e large and intermediate trees. Smaller and intermediate trees are also useful elements for
plant materials p rovide d etail at a more personalized subdividing expansive urban and rural spaces ini-
scale within the overall framework established by tially defined by buildings and landform into smaller
the larger trees. On small sites, caution should be spaces (Figures 2.17 and 2.18). Here, the height and
exercised not to overuse large trees, as they are apt sides of the canopy mass become critical aspects in
to ovenvhelm the scale of the design and the smaller defining the edges of space and its scale.
elements within it. Large and intermediate trees may also be used in
Another similar function of large and intermedi- the landscape to provide shade. This is desirable for
ate trees in the environment is to enclose sp,11.:e in outdoor sp,1ccs ilnd bu1Tiings in summer w hen tem-
the overhead and vertical planes. As previously de- peratures can become uncomfortable where an area
scribed, the canopies and trunks of large and inter- is directly exposed to the sun's rays. In the shade,
mediate trees can establish ceilings and walls for air temperatures may be as many as 8 degrees lower
outdoor rooms (Figures 2.6, 2.10, 2.11, nnd 2.12). than in the open. 21 In turn, the shading of a lightly
The feeling of such outdoor rooms may vary somc>- constructed b uilding can result in interior tempera-
what depending on the actual canop~· heig ht; the tures as much c1s 20'F lower th.in outside tempera-

11
:,'Svlvia Crowe, Gnrde11 O.:;iz,: (Funtington. En~l,1nd: Parkland "Study Says Trees Can Pro,·ide Cleansing Effect in En\'iron-
Publishing Limited, 1981), pp. '113-1 14. ' mcnt," Coi11ml111s V i;patc/1, p. 10.
86

FIGURE 2.26

tures. 22 To be most effective for shading, large and Small trees may define space in both the ,·ertical
intermediate trees should be placed on the south- and o,·erhead planes. Depending on canopy height,
west, west, and northwest sides of the space or small trees can imply spatial edges in the vertical
building to be shaded, as depicted in Figure 2.25. plane with their trunks or they can completely en-
Because of the varying height of the sun in the sky close space in the vertical plane if their canopy mass
as it moves during the afternoon, the tallest trees are extends belo-w eye level. When views are afforded
required on the southwest side while shorter trees through the trunks and lower branches of small
can provide adequate shade on the northwest side. trees, as illustrated in Figure 2.26, they may beha,·e
Shading of air conditioners in summer can also in- as a semitransparent foreground and thus gi,·e a
crease their efficiency. A study by the American Re- greater sense of depth to the space one is looking
frigeration Institute has shown that shade trees can into. Ch'erhead, the canopy of a small tree can estab-
reduce the required capacity of a split-system air lish the ceiling of an outdoor space that is often in-
conditioner to cool a home by 3 percent. 23 timate in feeling. In some cases, the canopy may be
so low as to prevent a person from walking beneath
Small trees and ornamentals. Moving down the the tree. In all situations, small trees and ornamen-
scale of plant size, we define small trees and orna- tals are appropriately used in small-scale spaces
mentals as trees that grow to a maximum height of where area is limited and/or the designer desires to
15 (4.Sm) to 20 ft (6m). Examples of small trees in- create a comfortably scaled spatial quality.
clude European olive (Oiea ~uropaea), mesquite (Pro- Small trees and ornamentals may serve as \"isual
sopis sp.J, Cornelian cherry (Camus mas) that has and compositional accents, as shown in Figures 2.27
been limbed up, and fringe tree (Chionanthus i•irgi11- and 2.28. This may result from a size contrast \,·ith
nicus). Ornamental trees include such plants as crab lower plant material or from distinct form, flowers,
apple (Matus sp.), flowering dogwood (Cor1111s .flor- and fruit in the case of ornamentals. Ornamental
ida), and Canadian redbud (Cercis ca11adc11sis). Like trees arc logically used as focal points in places
large and intermediate trees, small trees and orna- where the landscape architect desires toattract at-
mentals have a numbe~ of potential uses in the land- tention (near an entrance, at the terminus to a space,
scape. on a projecting point, etc.). Ornamen_tals may be
used at the end of a linear space like a piece c•f
sculeture or abstract sign, as in Figure 2.29, to lead
2
:Anne Simon ;\lofiat and Marc Schiler, Lamt;cape Oe;;ii,: llh1: ancl draw people through the space. Used sequen-
Sa,•es Energy (~ew York: William Morrow, 1981), p. 18.
u-rrane Air Conditioning. letter to Jeanne Blackburn Rick, tially, ornamentals can lead a person from one space
American i'\urserymen, Inc., August 26, 1977. to another and then on to the next. Moreover, or-
\
0

isu,1l l'lant Ch.-ir,Kkristics 87

O~ENTAL. TR.Ee, LSED /::,5 A FOCAL ro1NT lN A PLANT

CQv\POS!TIOt--\.
FIGURE 2.27

namental trees may simply be used in a design for mum height of 10 (3m) to 15 ft (4.3m). In compar-
their visual interest. Many ornamentals haYe four ison with small trees, tall shrubs are not only
different seasons of attraction based on habit of slightly shorter but are also distinguished bv the
growth, spring flowers, summer foliage, al!tumn lack of a canol?l.: Typically, the foliage mass of a
color, and winter branching habit. shnili extends to, or almost to, the ground while
that of a small tree is located some distance above
Tnll shrnb:;. The next category of plant materials the ground, forming a canopy or ceiling over an
by size is tan shrubs, plants that grow to a maxi- area. Although this difference is helpful in catego-

FIGURE 2.28
8S

~
ORt-JAM~I---ITAL 112.eE~ A::.T ,A5 .acc-EI--Jl5 ~ GARDE:t-l SF?6CE
ll<ACTORS ~ e~ce.
FIGURE 2.29

rizing plants by size, it' is not always so clear in ac- Tall shrubs can be used in the l a ~ e like walls
tuality, especially when many tall shrubs can be to furnish spatial enclosure in the vertical plane. A
"limbed up" to create a floating canopy. Neverthe- space defined by only tall shrubs is contained on its
less, the distinction is made here between tall sides but open above, as illustrated in Figure 2.30.
shrubs and small trees for ease of understanding. Thus the feeling of such a space is apt to be light
Some functions of tall shrubs in the outdoor envi- and sunny with a str~o..ts'lti.on upward to the
ronment are listed below. sky. Tall shrubs may also create strong corridorlike

FIGURE 2.30
Visu:d l'l,1nt Ch.1ractcnstics 89

FIGURE 2.31

spaces that direct movement and the eye to a termi- sized shrubs. They do this particularly well if they
nus, as demonstrated in Figure 2.31. The quality of are narro,\· while also possessing distinct color and
enclosure can vary greatly with season if the tall texture, as illustrated in Figure 2.32.
s hrubs are deciduous, while evergreen shrubs will In an o pposite use, tall shrubs can act as a neutral
keep it more consistent. background for other special objects placed in front
Tall shrubs may be used for both screening and of them such as a piece of sculpture or lower, flow-
pri\'acy control. This is a popular use of tall shrubs ering shrubs (Figure 2.33). Again, its ability to do
where a soft, green barrier is desired as opposed to this will vary depending on whether the tall shrub
the hard surface of a wall or fence. As indicated ear- is deciduous or evergreen.
lier, careful attention must be given to the selection
and placement of tall shrubs for screening and pri- l11ter111ediatc :ihrnts. This category represents those
vacy control so that they perform throughout the plant materials bet,veen 3 (lm) and 6 ft (2m) tall.
year as required. They may also be any shape, color, or texture.
Tall shrubs may be used as compositional accents Again, their foliage mass usually extends to the
when contrasted against 10\ver- or intermediate- ground or just slightly above it. Intermediate-sized

FIGURE 2.32

0/'/lt--t:S TO THt:IR RE:LATI\/E. HEl6HT > TALL SH!<Ll55 KT Po

Kf:_~T5.
90

G
TALL SHRUBS ~ E MS A E:ICK~f-..+D TO Al--\ UIENf lhl ~
FOf<E_Gf<a.JND.
FIGURE 2.33

shrubs serve the same types of design functions as l mo shrubs. Low shrubs are the next smaller plant
do low shrubs, but w ith slightly more spatial con- category inthe hierarchy of plant sizes. Lo,,· shrubs
tainment. Furthermore, intermediate shrubs may ac t a re 3 ft (lm) or fewer in m a ture height. However,
c1s a visual transition in a composition bet,,·een tall low shrubs are usually thought of as being taller
shrubs or small trees and low shrubs. than 1 ft (30 cm) because plants below th is height

FIGURE 2.34

COMP05lTION \S -SPLIT <f RE.A.PS AS ~ 6EP,AJ<ATE. Gr<O-JP5.

\'i~u,1I l'l,111t ChMactcri:;tics 91

c1ppear and function as ground co,·er. Examples of

km· shrubs include Jc1panese flov,,ering quince (Chnc-
Jll1//lcle5 jnpo11icn), cranberry cotoneaster (Cotoneaster
npirnlatn), Anthony Waterer spirea (Spiraea X bu111-
aldn cv. "A11tho11y Waterer"), and prickly pear cactus
(Opw1tn 111icrodasys). low shrubs may be placed in
the landscape to accomplish the following purposes.
low shrubs may define space or separate spaces
without inhibiting views into or from them. Because
low shrubs lack significant height, they articulate
spc1ce more by implication than by actual physical
enclosure (Figure 2.8) . Thus a space that needs to be
open to the sides can be defined in the vertical plane
with low shrubs. A related function is the use of low
shrubs along a walk or path to contain pedestrians
on the walk without affecting their line of vision.
Low shrubs can be used compositionally to con-
nect other unrelated elements visually. They do this,
however, somewhc1t differently from ground cover.
Ground cover can visually relate other elements by
serving as a common base plane on which the un-
related parts are placed, whereas low shrubs func-
tion as vertical connectors similar to a low wall, as
shown in Figure 2 .34. Therefore low shrubs act as
stronger visual links betvveen elements in a compo-
sition when viewed from normal eye level.
A similar function is to use lo.v shrubs as the sub-
ordinate element in a design. They can be used to
contrast taller components or bring the scale of a de-
sign down to a smaller, more intimate level. Because
of their size, low shrubs need to be used in large
masses to be visually significant. If used in small
groups (relative to the scale of the entire composi-
tion), they are apt to be lost. If overused in too many
small individual masses, as illustrated in Figure 2.35,
FIGURE 2.35
low shrubs can give a composition a spotty appear-
ance.

l Ground coi•e'.j The smallest plant category by size

is ground cover. The term "ground cover" is used to
describe any lovv or spreading plant material that to delineate the edges _of patterns on the ground
reZtches a maximum height of 6 (15 cm) to 12 in (30 plane. Ground cover is one effective means for out-
cm). Ground cover is found with a variety of char- lining a desired shape on the ground without using
acteris tics, from flowering to nonflowering and from hard architectural materials. The line created by the
w oody to h erbaceous. Examples of ground cover in- edge of ground cover when it adjoins lawn or pave-
clude Englis h ivy (Hedera Ire/ix) , myrtle (Vi11cn 111i- ment can be visually interesting unto itself and may
11or), pachysandra (Pnchysnndm tem1i11nlis), and com- have the ability to captivate the eye and lead it
mon ice plant (Cnrpobrotus edidis). Ground cover can around a space, as s hown in Figure 2.36. A similar
be though t of as the vegetative "rug" or floor mate- use of gro und cover is to define a nonwalking sur-
rtal of an outdoor s pace and a s such has il number face, especially \,·hen opposed to lawn or paveme nt,
of functions in design. as s ho\rn in Figure 2.37.
Like lmv s hrubs, ground cover can be u sed in a An additional u se of gro und cover to that just de-
design to imply spatial edges (Figure 2.2). In this re- scribed is to provide visual interest based on distinct
gard, grou nd cover is often used in an e xterior space color or texture. Grou nd cover can be particularly
92

Al'v~.A>JV>/'-"-AJ-.UJ-.....,.....1.l

~\~E 8EN-IE=t=µ lAW~ .A¼--\O GR:l.JI--ID CXN£R CAPTIVATES il-\E. E'1'E.

.At--lD LE..A[)S rT ARO..J~P A St°ACE.
FIGURE 2.36

appealing when juxtaposed to contrasting colored or

FIGURE 2.37
textured material. This use is an important one for
those ground covers that have attractive flowers or
autumn color.
Different from the function just described is the
use of ground cover to establish a uniform, neutral
background or setting for other more obvious ele-
ments or focal points. An example of this is a bed of
ground cover beneath a piece of sculpture or eye-
catching ornamental tree. To serve as a neutral set-
ting, the area of ground cover must be large enough
to eliminate the vis ual interfe rence of nearbv ele-
ments.
As previously mentioned, another design appli-
cation of ground cover is to link together visually
otherwise separate elements or groups of elements
into a unified whole. It can function as a common
element relating to all the various parts of a compo-
sition. As shown in Figure 2.38, groups of unrelated
shrubs or trees can be made to be part of the same
composition by a ground cover bed that intercon-
nects all plants into one common area on the ground
plane. This is a common technique for "border
planting" around the outside of an open lawn area.
A practical use of ground cover is to provide a
low vegetative cover in those areas where lawn or
other plant materials are impractical. Areas in awk-
ward locations near a building that are difficult to
gain access to with a Ia,,-r1 mower or are too da rk
and shady for grass are logical places for ground
cover. Likewise, ground cover generally requires
less maintenance than a lawn area of the same size,
Visu.il rtant Characteristic::;

FIGURE 2.38

once it matures. Over a long period of time, areas of slope over <1:1 in steepness and dangerous to main-
ground cover can save money, time, and energy for tain by mowing. Ground cover should be used as a
upkeep when compared with a grass lawn. substitute for la,vn under this circumstance.
Another related practical use of ground cover is
to stabilize the soil and prevent erosion on steep In summary, plant size is one of the most signifi-
slopes. It is difficult to establish a grass surface on a cant and visible of all plant characteristics, especially

FIGURE 2.39

~~ !=ORM M--10 VALUE., E:lIT Wl71-\ THE SAlvfE. 51Z.E'j LI rn.E

YISJAL I NTERoT. .
94

~161ATE:

NRA!v11DAL WEEPJl-10

FIGURE 2.,iQ
\'isuill rl,rnt Chilrilctcri~tics 93

FA5T\GIA1E N---IP COWM\--lAR ~ USt=D TO PRO/ID'E Ht::l6HT Al---lD

t'a::EITT lf-..l A CQv\POSITION.
FIGURE 2.4 l

from a distance. As previously indicated, plant size rastisi,11,·. A fastigiate plant form i~uprigh~, ~r-
establishes the total structure of a planting design row, and tapers to a p oint at its top. Examp es in-
while the other plant characteristics provide detail clude Lombardy poplar (Populus italicn nigra), Amer-
and small-scale interest. The size and height of ican arbor-\·itae (Tlwja occide11talis), and Italian cy-
plants in a composition gives it overall uniformity or press (Cupressus sm11-11.:ruire11s). In a design, fastigiate
variety ba sed on its silhouette. For example, if all the plant forms emphasize the vertical by leading the
vegetation within a small garden composition is the eye sh,\·ard. Thev give a sense of verticali~d
same size, as illustrated in Figure 2.39, it will not height to both a plant mass and to a s ace the ' en-
only appear uniform but also monotonous. On the c ose . 5ed m great quantity, fastigiate plant forms
oth er hand, carefully planned changes in height may actually give the illusion that the mass or space
among the plants give the composition more variety they are in is higher than it actually is. When con-
and intrigue. From a distance, alternation in plant trasted with lower and more rounded or spreading
height among a mass of plants is more obvious than forms, as depicted in Figure 2.41, fastigiate plant
a change in the other visual plant characteristics (ex- forms act as accents and exclamation points similar
cept perhaps bright color). Consequently, plant ma- to a church steeple on the skyline of a country town.
terial size should be one of the first visual plant Because of their ability to attract attention, fastigiate
characteristics determined in the process of planting plant forms should be used judiciously in small
design. Subsequently, the other qualities of vegeta- quantities at carefully selected points. Numerous
tion can be chosen based on the selected plant sizes fastigiate plants should not be placed througho ut a
in the design. composition because they will create a "jumpy" de-
sign with too many individual focal points.

Columnar. A columnar plant form is the same as

Plant Fonn. The next visual plant characteristic to be a fastigiate form except that it has a rounded top. A
discussed is form. The form of an individual plant sentry maple (Acer saccharwn 11101wme11tale) and Hicks
or group of plants ~s the overall_~_hape and habit of yew (Tnxlls media hicksi) are examples of columnar
growth, o r its silhouetted outline . While not as vl- pbnts. Columnar p lant forms have the same design
stialiy strong as size, plant form is nevertheless a uses as fastigiate forms.
key factor in establishing the structure of a Elant
composition, influencing unity and variety, acting as Spreadi11g!Horizo11tal. This type of plant fonn is at
accen ts or backgrounds, and coordinating vegetation least as broad as it is till!, with a gen erall}". horizontal
with the solid mass of other elements in the design. habit. Examples are saucer magnolia (Magnolia so11-
The basic types of p lant forms are fu!igiate, ~ - lange1111a!. \Vashing ton hawthome (Crateagus plwe110-
nar, S_£rcading 1horizontal, round:g\obular, pnan~- p_11n111iJ. c!rlli d\\'Jri Jc1panese ~-e\\' (Taxus cu:::pidM,1
dal!conical, weeping, and Ei~l~es~. All these dif- 1w1za) . Spreading pla nt forms can be used in a design
~ a n t ~ r e illustrate m Figure 2.40. Each to give it a_jeeling of, breadth and extent. Spreading
form type has its own unique characteristics and ap- plant forms carry the ey~__a lon_g in a_horizontal fash-
plications in design as described in the next pages. ion, as illustrated in Figure 2.42, and tli.us may be
96 Plant i\latt'rials

FIGURE 2.42

~REAOlN5 PLA--rr Fa<}.16 CARR-< HOR\Z.ONTAL. LINt:=.5 OF

EUlLDI~ INTO srrE..
FIGCRE 2.43

used ~ a corn~ositioQ to connect the other forms vi- their repetition throughout the composition. They
sually, especia ly if the horizontal forms are sensi- can serve as the neutral, soft plant form against
tively repeated throughout the design. In an oppo- which the oth e r more striking forms arc opeose9.
site manner, spreading plant forms may be used for Round plant forms may also be situated in a design
contrast with the vertical fastigiate and columnar to harmonize with and echo o ther curvilinear forms
forms within a composition. Spreading plant forms such as undulating landform.
tend to be at harmonv with flat landforms, long lines
Pymmida/lC011ical. This type of plant form is cone-
extending across the horizon, and lmv horizontal
like in appearance, gradually tapering from its base
building forms. Placed next to this type of building,
to an observable point. Examples include spruce (Pi-
they may extend the lines of the architecture into the
cea sp.), sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua), and kat-
surrounding s ite, as indicated in Figure 2.43.
sura tree (Cercidiplzyl/11111 jnponirnm). Pyramidal plant
forms are ;Lery sharp and distinct in their outline in
Ro1111d/Glob11/ar . As the name suggests, this type
addition to possessing an easily noticeable pointed
of plant material form has a distinct rounded or
top. Consequently, they may be used as visual ~ -
spherical s ha~. European beech (Fagus syluatica),
~ ts, particularly when .s,_on trasted against lo-wer
silver linden (Tilia tomentosa), Japanese maple (Acer
globular forms, as shown in Figure 2.45. In addition,
palmatwn), Cornelian cherry dogwood (Corn11s mas),
~They mc1y be used to ecba pyramidal b11ilding forms
and Indian laurel fig (Ficus 111icrocarpn) are all exam-
or peaked mountc1in landforms. Because of this,
ples of globular plant form . Rounded plant forms are
·some design theorists s uggest that conical plant
one of the most numerous ty,ges of plant forms and
forms be u sed cautiously in visually level regions
therefore typically constitute the majority of ptin'ts
\,·here mountains are lacking. 2•1 .Finally, conical plant
used in a design composition (Figu re 2.44). Linlike
either the fastigia te or spreading plant forms,
rounded plan ts are _nondirechonal and neutral in 4
" William R. Nelson, Jr., Landscaping Yo11r Honie (Urbana-
thei · ·t to lead the eve. Theretore globular Champaign, Ill.: Cooperative Extension Sen·ice in Agriculture and
plants can be easily used to give a design unity by Home Economics, 1975), p. 96.
\ 'isua l Pl,1nt Ch,1rnctcris tics 97

FIGURE 2.44

FIGURE 2.45

forms ma\· be harmoniously used in formal, archi- (Fngus sy/patica pc11dula), and cranberry cotoneilster
~tonic. designs where stiff, geometric s h a ~ (Coto11ea:;ta npic11/ata) are all weeping plant forms . In
appropriate. nature, \,·eeping p}a nt forms are often found in and
associated with low points of ground, like the \,·eep-
\:Veepi11s. A weeping pl.int form has predomi- ing willow along edges of \vater bodies (Figure 2.46).
nantlv pendulous, or downward-arching, branches. In a design, they can lead the eye tov,ard _}he
Weeping willow (Salix babylonica), weeping beech ground, a function that may be employed after the

FIGURE 2.46
 Plant Mat~ri.ib
98

FIGURE 2.47

eye has been carried up\,·ard with ascending forms. shape. A picturesque plant form is often a mature
Weeping plimt forms mc1~· also be used a t the edge plant that has ada tcd O\'Cr a long period of time to
of a curvilinear body of ,,·ater to reflect the undulat- 1e en\'ironmental conditions present at a certain lo-
ing form and to symbolize the fluid quality of the cation. The plant shown in Figure 2.48 is an example
water itself. To express the \,·eeping form of a plant, of a picturesque plant form that has responded to
it is sometimes desirable to place it at the edge of a the wind and soil conditions in a mountainous area
planter or elevated point of ground so the plant can of Arizona . Except for trained bonsai p lants, most

-- --
fall or "drip" over the edge, as shown in Figure 2.47.

Picturesque. The picturesque plant form is uni-

picturesque plants are the result of imique natural
forces. Owing to their uncommon appearance, pic-
turesque plant forms are best used as specimens lo-
quely sculptura l in s hape. It may be irregular, cated at a prominent point within a design. Usually
gnarled, windblown, or ~ an unusual
- -
no more than o ne picturesque plant form should be

FIGURE 2.48
\'bu,11 ['l.,nt Ch.:irai.:kristics 99

FIGURE 2.49

placed in any one area of sight at a time to a\'oi..i a entire color wheel of potential hues exists in the
bus\' t)r ch,1otic scene. spring and au tumn foliage, flowers, t\\'igs, and
trunks.
!\:aturally, not all plant materials fit neatly into the The organization of color in a planting composi-
categories of plant forms just described. Some \·ege- tion should be coordinated with · the other visual
tation is rather nondescript in shape while others plant characteristics. Plant color should be used to
cross the lines of the various plant form types. Re- reinforce the function of plant size and form in a de-
gardless, form is still ,in important visual plant char- sign. For instance, a plant that stands out as a focal
acteristic, particularly when a plant is to be placed point in a design because of size or form might also
by itself or used as an accent. Plant form tend5 to possess a color that further attracts attention. With
become a little less noticeable when vegetation is this approach, summer foliage color along with win-
massed together \,·h ere indi\'idual plant shape be- ter twig and trunk colors are typically given the most
comes lost. In this situation the significant fa cto r is consideration because they are present the majority"
the collecti\·e form of the entire group of plant ma- of the time. 25 Flower color and autumn color, while
terial. often theatrical and memorable, are typically short-
lived, las ting for no more than several weeks. It is a
Plant Color. After plant size and fo rm, plant color is mistake to select a plant p rimarily on its flower or
the most notable \'isual characteris tic of plant mate- autumn foliage color, owing to the comparatively
rial. Plant color may be thought of as an e motional short duration of that characteristic.
characteristic because it directly affects the feeling In selecting summer foliage color, it may be ad-
and mood of an outdoor space. Bright colors conn~y vantageous to have a range of greens in a composi-
a light, cheerful a tmosphe re while dark colors por- tion to give it an added dimension of appeal. A color
tray a more somber feelin g . Plant color is also signii- takes on more meaning if it is opposed to another
icant because it is easily seen. Variations in plant one . For example, white appears more white when
color can sometimes be noticed at relatively great placed against black, and green looks more intense
distances in the landsrnpe. when placed near red or orange. A variety of green s
Color is present in plant materials through differ- in a composition may also be used for o ther design
ent par::,; o f the plilnt including foliage, tlO\\·c:s, functions . The orgilnization of different shades c,i
fruit, t\,·igs and branches, and trunk bark. In foliiige
the principal color is of course green, \Vith many
variations from dark green to light green including : i\'illiam R. Nelson, Jr., Pla11ti11g D6ig11 (Champaign, !II.:
5

shades of yellow, blue, and bronze. Beyond this, an Stipes l'ubli5hing Company, 1979), p . 35.
100 Pl.int tv!c1tcri,lls

-)
..
Ls-IT FOLIAGE PL..N----TT5 II t--lrOIE A~VAY l\ FROM YIE:.'N'E=.R.
FIGURE 2.50

green can provide emphasis, establish unity through greens give a quiet, peaceful, and...:....if overused-
repetition, or visually link together various portions dismal feeling to an outdoor space, and dark hues
of the design. Darker greens typical of the Japanese tend to move toward the viewer. As i_ndicated in
yew (Ta.n1s rnspidata) can provide a sense of solidity Figure 2.50, dark colors at the end of a \'iew seem to
and weight to both a composition. and a related shorten the distance between the vievver and the ob-
space. It can act as the "anchor posts" of a design, ject seen. Likewise, a predominance of dark colors
as illustrated in Figure 2.49. Furthermore, dark in a space can make it feel smaller.

FIGURE 2.51

re:RE-
G\<O..INP

. ·JJ
\'isut1l Pl,rnt Charncteristics 101

FIGURE 2.52

On the other hand, light green foliage can pro- disjointed. Sensitively placed flower color should be
vide an ethereal, airy quality to a space. It gives a introduced for variet~· without distracting from the
feeling of cheerfulness, gaiety, and excitement in ad- overall unity.
dition to moving away visually from the viewer. If green summer fol iage is used as the basic com-
When combining the various ranges of green, dark positional color within a design, then flower color
greens are logically used for the base material (ow- and autumn color can be used as accents. Reds, or-
ing to their visual weight), to hold the composition anges, yellows, whites, and pinks can all give life
to the ground ,vhile lighter greens are used over- and excitement to design while simultaneously at-
head as an expression of buoyancy (Figure 2.49). In tracting the viewer's attention to certain points
other situations, as shown in Figure 2.51, dark-val- within the design. In fact, spots of bright color, if
ued foliage may be .used as a solid background ma- not carefully sized and located in a composition,
terial agains t which lighter, more visible colors are may be so visually strong as to oveq..1ower all other
placed. The opposite may also be desirable in some plant characteristics..-\reas of bright color are more
circumstances. appropriately used in larger quantities in open,
In composing the plant color of a design, a neu- sunny locations where the sunlight absorbs more of
tral tone green should usually dominate with all their brilliance than it can in shaded areas. Carefully
other colors played against it. Such an impartial used in shaded areas, on the other hand, bright col-
color can serve as the unifying thread by visually ors can provide an area of titillation in an otherwise
tying all other colors together, as illustrated in Fig- placid space. As previously stated, autumn foliage
ure 2.52. Contrasting greens should each occur in color and flower color should be secondary to green
masses of foliage clearly distinguished from one an- summer foliage.
other. Varying greens should not form too ma ny Plant color, the n, has a number of functions in an
small individual spots proportional to the overall exterior space. This visual plant characteristic is gen-
scale of the composition or a disorganized appear- erally considered to influence the unity and variety
ance 1;vill result. Caution also needs to be used in of a design in addition to the mood and feel of the
placing unusual foliage colors such as bronze, pur- space. As with other \·ariables, plant color should be
ple, or variegated colors, as these tend to be quite coordinated ·with all the other visual plant character-
noticeable because of their uniqueness. Uncommon istics in carrying out the intended objectives of the
green foliage should be reserved for a few special design.
locntions within a design. Likewise, bright flower
color should also be massed and placed in only cer- Foliage Typf. Some1,·hat related to plant color is fo-
tain areas. If too many individual spots of bright liage type, which refers to the form and permanence
color are installed in a design, it will be chaotic and of the foliage. In the temperate climatic zone, there
102 I'!., n t i\ !,, ll'ri,\b

_.. _,
1'.fi
. :if-j
""·A
. .
\

FIGURE 2.53.

are three basic foliage types: deciduous, coniferous can function to d efine space in all planes, serve as
evergreen, and broad-lea\'ed evergreen . Each has its accents and backgrounds, and act as the common
O\.\'n qualities and related potenticll functions in the foliage type against which evergreen and broad-
landscape. leaved e\'ergreen plants can be contrasted. In effect,
de~iduous plants are the " utility ·plant" in design,
being usable for most des ired fu nctions. Besides
. ~ - Deciduous vcgelc1tion loses ils lc,wes
having wide applications, some deciduous plants are
m autumn and regains them in spring. Deciduous
selected for distinct form, flower color, or autumn
leaves are generally thin, flat, and found in numer-
foliage color. Viburnum (Vibur11111n sp.), forsythia
ous s_hapes and sizes. In the continental zone, deci-
(Forsythia sp.), honeysuckle (Lonicera sp.), beauty-
duou~ plants cons titute the predominant foliage
bush (Kolkwitzia a111abilis), dogwood (Com11s f1orida),
typ: m terms of q uantity and adaptability to varying
and crab apple (Ma/us sp.) are some examples of de-
environmental conditions. Deciduous plants occur in
ciduous plants that have n otable flowers that con-
all shapes, colors, textures, and sizes from ground
tribute to their usefulness in the landscape.
cover to majestic trees.
Another trait of some deciduous plant materials is
Common examples include cotoneasters (Coto-
their ability to allow sunlight to interact with their
11easter sp.), viburnums (Vilmm11m sp.), oaks (Quer-
foliage to create a glowing effect. This phenomenon
CLtS sp.), and maples (A cer sp.).
is referred to as " luminosity" and occurs when the
Deciduous plants hav:: .:::veral distinct functions
leaves of a plant are located between the eye and the
in exterior spaces. One significant function is to em-
sun, as suggested in Figure 2.53. 26 When viewed
phasize t~e seasons. As mentioned previously,
from the underside and/or back, the individual
many deciduous plants have four distinct seasonal
lea~es are seen as bright yellow-green, giving the il-
app~a_rances and characteristics that directly affect
lusion that they are internally lit. This outcome is
qua~thes of the designs in which they are located.
most pronounced in the midmorning or midafter-
Deciduous plants are a dynamic element that make
noon when the sun s trikes the plant at a lower an-
the climatic changes of the year more obvious and
gle. The result is a radian t, shining effect that gives
meaningful. They also provide interest as one be-
~h~ understory of the plant an airy, light quality.
comes_ fascinated observing and mar\'eling at the
fh 1s consequence m.iy be desirable in locc1tions such
someti mes spectacular modifications in transpar-
ency, form, color, and texture that occur.
~e~iduous plants serve as the primary plc1nt m.i- l'A.F. Dye. Jr., "\\"hat You Sc•t:: Landscape Luminosit\"," La11d-
tenal m the temperate climate zone. As such, they scarc A:-c·1::t,·L·/ur,·, % (J): 20;'- 21)8 (April 19u6). .
Visual Pl,1nt ChttrMteristk~ 103

FIGURE 2.5-1

as sitting areas, walks, or building entrances where design. Some deciduous plants such as the sugar
a shaded, protected, yet light spatial quality is de- maple (Acer sacc!zanim) or amer privet (Ligustrw11
sired. am11rensc) are densely branched and possess a dis-
One unique characteristic of deciduous plant ma- tinct silhouette in winter, ,vhile others such as hon-
terials is that many of them have distinct and intri- eylocust (Gleditsia triacmztlros) and staghom sumac
guing branch habits observable during winter. This (Rims typl1ina "Laci11iata") have an open branching
quality is as important as the texture and color of the habit with an ill-defined, irregular outline.
summer foliage because deciduous plant materials ·The pattern of lines created by the branches them-
have bare branches in the temperate zone for as long selves, as illustrated in Figure 2.54, is still another
as they have foliage, if not longer. The density of design consideration. Some plant materials may
branches, their color, and their configuration or have noticeable horizontal lines established by their
habit of growth are all variables that need to be stud- branches, such as flowering dogwood (Conws florida)
ied in selecting and locating deciduous plants in a or Washington hawthorne (Cmtaegus phaenopyriim).

FIGURE 2.55
Visual Plant Charact~risti,::; 105

FIGURE 2.57

spectacular in the spring when seen against a back-

ground of dark evergreens. FIGURE 2.58
One important trait of coniferous evergreen veg-
etation is identified in the name itself; its foliage is
relatively nonchanging and permanently green.
Compared with deciduous plant material, ever-
greens are static and stable. Consequently, they lend
a feeling of permanence to a design. They provide a
timeless setting against which altering deciduous
plants can be compared . The seasonal variation of
deciduous vegetation is made more noticeable if cer-
tain parts of the environment such as coniferous ev-
ergreens change at a less obvious rate.
Because of their density, coniferous evergreen
plant materials are effective in blocking views and
air circulation. Evergreen trees are the choice vege-
tation to provide permanent, nonchanging screening
and privacy control throughout all seasons of the
year, as suggested in Figure 2.59. Furthermore, they
may be located around a b~tilding or outdoor space
to give it protection from chilling winds. Typically,
the most advantageous location for coniferous ever-
green trees to block cold winter wind in the temper-
ate zone is on the north..,ves t side of a building or
outdoor space (Figure 2.60). Here they can reduce
wind velocity up to 60 percent of its open field
speed. 27 This reduction in wind velocity minimizes
cold air infiltration into buildings while also cutting

2
;Gary 0. Robinette, Plcrnl; , People mid Em•ir,,1w1c!11tal Q11ality,
p. 77.
106

FIGURE 2.59

down on the amount of heat carried away. All in all, Bro11d-le11Pcd ct•asrec11s. The third gen~r~: foliage
a properly located and designed mass of coniferous type of plant material is broad-leaved e\·1::~reens,
evergreen trees can produce as much as a 33 percent which resemble deciduous vegetation in leai appear-
savings in the heating cost of a single-family home. 28 ance but retain their foliage throughout fr,.? year.
And a mass oi tall evergreen shrubs placed against Rhododendron (Rlwdod,·11dro11 sp.), azalea m::c>dode11-
the \,·all of a building can have similar effects. Here dro11 sp.), mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), A.ndrom-
the dense mass of shrubs acts as an added layer of eda (Pieris sp.), and leucothoe (Leucothoe sp.; are ex-
insulation by creating a dead air space bet\\'een the amples of broad-leaved evergreen p lant r.,aterials.
shrubs themselves and the building ,-val!. Characteristics and potential design uses o: broad-
leaved evergreens include the following.
Before leaving the subject of deciduous and ever- Like coniferous evergreens, broad-lea\·ed ever-
green plant material, one more word needs to be greens tend to possess dark green foliage. Ho•.,·ever,
said about their combination. As a general rule of a number of broad-leaved evergreens possess reflec-
thumb (without regard for specific objecti\·es of a tive leaves, making them shiny when placed in sun-
particular design), a proportional balance should ex- light. One potential use of broad-leaved e\·e:greens
ist bet\,·een deciduous and evergreen vegetation in a is to lend a sparkling, luminescent quality to an
plant composition. The two types complement each open outdoor space. They can make a composition
other by bringing out each other's best qualities. feel light and airy in a sunny location. Whe:-i placed
When used alone, as in Figure 2.61, deciduous in the shade, broad-leaved evergreen Ye;etation
plants may appear attractive enough during summer · may function similarly to coniferous evergreens by
but "disappear" durin6 ·:;inter because they lack appearing dark and heavy.
mass and visual weight at this season. From an op- As a group, broad-leaved evergreen plant materi-
posite standpoint, a design that contains only conif- als are known for their spectacular spring flower.
erous evergreen vegetation as in Figure 2.62 is apt to Many people place ~hem in a de~n solely for their
be dull because it is too heavy and dismal while flowers. This is not necessarily the best approach be-
varying little ,-vith the seasons of the year. So deci- cause the ~ only a short period of time,
duous and coniferous evergreen plant materials are as discussed earlier in the section on color. Rather,
best combined to diminate these potential problems broad-leaved evergreen plants should be placed in a
while visually s upporting each other, as in Fig- design b~ed primarily~ their foliage, with flowers
ure 2.63. considered an additional benefit. In some s ~
the showy flowers may be used as a focal ;: : :nt in
the design. (This works well too for plants 5·...:ch as
~;Anne Simon :-.loffat and Marc Schiler, Ln11dscnpt! D.-~ig11 //111/ rhododendron that have coarse foliage texture be-
S,n•es En~rgy. p. 20. cause this also attracts attention.)
\'isu;il Pl,mt Ch.1r,1Cll'ristics 107

.e--!ER6~ TF<,EES PJ..J¥:E0 O!--.l ~WE-5T 5 1Dt:: OF el.JIL.bl~

·,o e:J,..o::.K. COJ...D µyy W!f...trER. WI~.
FIGURE 2.60

Broad-leaved evergreens as a group are not very spiration from the leaves at times when water is not
hardy plants. Most tend to do better in mild climates readily available to the roots. Furthermore, most
(zones 5-10) or in conditions of partial sun and broad-leaved evergreens require acid soil for proper
shade in the temperate zone such as found on the growth, thus limiting their potential use in the land-
east side of a building. Broad-leaved evergreens can- scape to areas possessing all the necessary condi-
not tolerate intense hot or cold and should not be tions.
placed where they will get full sun in winter or In summary, as we study the color of a planting
where they will be exposed to damaging winter design, ,..,•e need to consider simultaneously the fo-
wind. Both conditions are apt to cause excess tran- liage type, very much an integral factor of plant

FIGURE 2.61

!I \. ,-.,,,.,,c.=---n
:::.:::,..-..l...U-1. -.:::;~1/.\J.....~ -~~
 Plant :--.lat..:-rials
108

FIGURE 2.62

FIGURE 2.63
-- /

color . Foliage type influences seasonal interest, \'isi- tion to varying with dis tance, texture is also apt to
bility, and unity of a design. Foliage type also relates alter ~th season in d eciduous pfiintmnterial. With-
directly to the texture of plant m aterials which we out leaves, the textural quality of a d eciduous plant
discuss next. during winter is different and generally more open
than in summer. In some instances, as with the
Plant Texture. Plant texture is the ~isual roughness honey locust, the texture may change dramatically
and smoothness of an individual plant or group of with the seasons. In summer the foliage gives the
plants. It is influenced by leaf s ize, twig_ and ~ honey locust a fine, airy texture w hile· in winter the
size, bark configura tion, the overall habit o f gro\,·th, branches themselves provide an open, rough tex-
and the dista·nce at which the plant material ~ ture.
~ d. At close range, the individual leaf size, Texture affects a number of factors in a planting ·i
shape, surface, and arrangement o n the twig a re the composition, including compositional unfu' and....Y..a - :,
notable factors affecting visual texture, w hile the ~)', perception of dista!!ce, color tone, vbual inter-
density of branches and general habit of growth are _£it, an"a mood of a dcsi~. Plant texture is usuaTiy .1J
the main variables impac ting texture ,.,·hen the plant classified as coarse. medium, and fine (Figure 2.6-4),
is \·iewed in its entiretv from a distance. 2,;, In addi- with the following properties anctp'Stential u5es in
the lnndsrnpe.
---- -- - - - ---
:?Florence Bell l{obinson, Planting Oesig,1 (Champaign, Ill.: Coar~i: texture. Coarse texture is usually created by
Gerrard Press, 19-!0), pp. 46---!7. large leaves, thick, massi\'e branches (lacking
Visu,1I l'lant C har,ictl'ristics 109

c:::se: l I \..

\ /

FIGCRE 2.6-l

small, fine twigs), and/or loose open habit of hold attention or to give a feeling of strength. Like
growth. Plants considered to be coarse-textured in- all other accents, coarse-textured p lant materials
clude plane tree (Plata1111s occide11talis), horse chest- should be carefully placed and used in moderation
nut (Aescu/11s lzippocastmwm), Austrian pine (Pim1s so as not to overpower a composition or call atten-
11igra), agave (Agm,e weberi), saucer magnolia (Mag- tion to too many individual areas.
nolia soula11gem1a), rhododendron (Rlzodode11dro11 sp.), Because of its strength, coarse texture causes the
and oak leaf h ydrangea (Hydrangea quercifolia, Figure sensation of "moving toward" the viev,:er, making
2.65). Some specific characteristics and functions of · the perceived distance between viewer and plant
coarse-textured plant materials are listed below. material seem shorter than it really is, as suggested
Coarse tcxt!:.!_re is highlv visible, bold, and ~es- in Figure 2.66. Similarly, coarse-textured plants in
s~. Placed among medium and fine textures, quantity can make an outdoor space feel smaller
coarse texture " jumps out" at the viewer and is the than it is by visually "moving in" on the space. This
first texture seen. As a result, coarse texture may be may be desired where the actual physical dimen-
used within a design as a foca l point to attract and sions are too large for normal human comfort but
110

FIGURE 2.65

undesirable where a space is tight and confined even ture, a medium-textured plant is less transparent
without plant material. Caution should be exercised and stronger in silhouette. Because the majority of
in locating coarse-textured plants in a small space vegetation has medium texture, it generally should
because they can overwhelm it if overused or located make up the largest pro ortion of texture in a lant-
improperly. in composition. ike medium-tone greens, me ium
Coarse-textured plants in many instances appear textu --snould ~rm the basic texture of a design,
more open, looser, and less distinct in outline than serving as a transitional element between coarse and
do finer-textured plants. Coarse-textured plants also fine textures. Medium texture can link a composition
usually have more variation of light and shade. Be- together into a unified whole.
cause of these qualities, coarse-textured plants are
generally more easily used in informal settings. They ~ Fine textllrc. Fine texture is prodL:-:ed by many
are more difficult to use in formal situations that re- small leaves, tii:!)', thin branches and t\,·igs, and/or a
quire perfect forms and precise outlines. ~ t , dense habit of"growth. Honey locust (Gleditsia
triacantflos), Japanese maple <Acer pal111atw11), white
pine (Pinus strvbus), cranberry cotoneaster (Cotoneas-
Mcdit1111 texture. Medium texture results from me- ter apirnlata), red bird of paradise (Caesalpinia pulcher-
dium-sized leaves and branches and/or moderatelv rima), and Vanhoutte spirea (Spirea rn11/1011ttei) are
aense habit of gro,vth. Compared with coarse te~- examples of plant materials with fine texture.

FIGURE 2.66

--)
 111

Fine-textured plants ha,·e opposite characteristics

and design capabilities from coarse-textured ones.
Fine-textured plants are soft and delicate in appear-
ance and consequently less obvious in the land-
scape. They are usually the last plants noticed in a
composition (based only on texture) and are the first
to be visually lost in a design as the distance be-
t\n~en vie;ver and composition increases. Fine-tex-
tured plants can be appropriately introduced into a
composition to act as a neutral background to more
aggressive textures, to provide a refined, smooth
surface character, or to add visual variety when
complemented with coarse and medium texture.
Because fine-textured plants are visually less ob-
\'ious in a composition, they have a tendency to "re-
cede away" from the viewer (Figure 2.66). There-
fore, when employed in quantity in an outdoor
sp,1Ce, fine-textured plant material may give it the
illusion of being larger than it is. This quality makes
iine-textured plants particularly useful in tight, small
spaces where the perceived edges should be permit-
ted visually to expand onl~·, not to contract.
Fine-textured plants often have a clearlv defined
silhouette and an overall smooth, solid-appearing
surface owing to the quantity of small leaves and/or
density of branches. (Some fine-textured plants look
carefully sheared and pruned even in their natural,
untouched state.) Consequently, iine-textured plants
are correctly used in some settings to provide a neat,
precise formal character.
As a guideline, it is best to attempt to incorporate
a balanced variety of the three basic textural types FIGURE 2.67
\,·ithin a design to make it ap pealing to the eye, as
shown in Figure 2.67. Too little textural variation is
_2e ..::~;d <ts monotonous, while too much is cha-
oc1c 1s aesired balance becomes most significant
for smaller-scaled spaces and is progressively less
important as the scale of spaces increases or as the The visual plant characteristics have a direct be<tring
\"iewer moves away from the plant material being on the order and uni ty of a design, visual variety
observed. Another suggestion is to arrange the var- and excitement, and the mood or feeling of the out-
ious textural types in proportionally large areas us- door en\'ironment. They need to be studied carefully
ing the medium-textured plants as a transition be- in creating a design and coordinated with the O\'erall
t\,·een coarse and fine textures. Too many small objectives of the design.
areas of dissimilar textures or too sudden a change
from coarse to fine texture is apt to make the com-
position feel disorganized and disjointed. And <ts
with all the other visual plant characteristics, the se- Aesthetic Uses of Plant Material
lection and use of textt,re in a planting composition Previous sections of this chapter discussed the var-
needs to be ~ d with pl<tnt size, form, and ious functional uses of plant material in genernl and
Cl~lor in order to reinforce these other qualities. then, m ore specifically, possible architectur,1l uses of
plant material in the landscape. Based on the \·isual
In summary, the visual plant characteristics of plant characteristics outlined in the preceding sec-
size, form, color, and texture are the designer's pal- tion, plant material can also fulfill a n umber of aes-
ette of variables in de~ning with plant material. thetic uses.
112 Plant :\ lc1terials

FIGCRE 2.68

Considered from an aesthetic standpoint, plant gested in Figure 2.70. Without street trees, this type
material may be employed in exterior spaces to re- of streetscape breaks apart into separate architectural
late a building form to its surrounding site, unify pieces. A strong massing of street trees, on the other
and coordinate an otherwise discordant en\'iron- hand, performs as a common element relating to all
ment, reinforce certain points and areas in the land- buildings and consequently links them visually into
scape, reduce the harshness of hard architectural c1 unified whole.
elements, and enframe selected views . It should be
noted here that aesthetic uses of vegetation are not EmP-hasizers. Another aesthetic function of plant
solely limited to plant materials as elements of dec- material is to emphasize or accentuate certain points
oration. Some possible aesthetic functions of plant in the exterior environment. 3~ As stated earlier in
material are described in greater detail in the fol\o\,·- this chapter, vegetation can do this by means of dis-
ing sections. tinct size, form, color, or texture that is at variance
with the immediate surroundings. The resulting
Com12Iementors. Plant material may complete a de- uniqueness is highly noticeable and focuses atten-
sign and furnish a sense of unity by repeating the tion on its location. It may be desirable to do this at
forms and masses of a building or by extendir:ig lines the entrance to a site, at an intersection, near a
of a building into the immediately surrounding building entrance, or in association with other visu-
site.Jo For example, the angle and/or h eight of a roof ally prominent locations, as illustrated in Figures
can be repeated using trees that are of the same 2.71 and 2.72.
height as the roof or of such a form as to earn- the
pitch of the roof into the site, as illustrated in F.igure Acknowledgers. A similar aesthetic function of
2.68. Or an interior space can be extended directh- plant material is as an acknowledger. 33 In this capac-
into the site by repeating the ceiling height, as i~ ity, plant materials point out or ''acknowledge" the
Figure 2.69, with the same height of the tree cano- importance and location of a space or object in the
pies placed next to the building. All these techniques environment (Figure 2.73). They make the space
make the architecture and site seem visuallv and more obvious and easily recognized. Again~ unique
functionally unified in one coordina ted en.viron- plant size, form, color, texture, or arrangement may
ment. be utilized for acknowledgment, as in the case of tall
trees placed in back of a piece of sculpture.
Unifiers. Used as unifiers, plant material can serve
as a common thread, visually tying together all the Softener. Plant materials may be used in an outdoor
different components of an environment.JI Within space to soften or lessen the harshness and rigidity
any given portion of the outdoor environment, plant of architectonic shapes and forms.J-t Vegetation of all
material may act as the one element that stavs the
same \,·hile other elements \'ary. Because of its con- ~ G.,n· 0 . R('~'ineth:. P!:in:f. Pl'tlp;t. 1H:d £,i~·irl,,:ml·>:t,i.' (>:!.;:::!,.
sistency in this area, ,·egetation unifies the otherwise p. l 12. . .
chaotic scene. A good application of this function is ;:[bid., p. 113.
3
:Ibid., p. 11-l.
along an urban street where each house or s torefront ;;Ibid., p. 113.
is often different from the one next door, as sug- ,-!!bid., F'· 11-l..
 113

~·
eQTTOM CF TREE: ~PY C ~lt--LIE5 FIR.Sr FLCOR. CE.\U\--6
\t---lTO 5/iE. 4- 7"HL1S ~EL.Po 10 U~\Pi' lt---iDX:Rs ¢- OJTI:CO'RS .

FIGURE 2.69

FIGURE 2.70

................
::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::
::::: :::::::::::
................
.................
::::::::::::::: ::
:::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::
.................
:::::::::::::::::

STREET Ltc:~~6 -n<EE5 15 U/-,.K:CO~l"1.ATE.0 N---1D D 15..:olN I ED.

114 Plant i\lat~riab

PlJ.Hf 't-Ml"ER.IALSUSEO AS E-MPHA5\Z.El<S.

F1GURE 2.71

LS F 1·
COFZFORA.TE.
.ti~RJEJ<S _I

PLA~ tv\A.TS<.l;\1£. U5E:P A'S EMPHA51:Z..ERS.

FlGURE 2.72

}. .

FIGURE 2.73

forms and textures appears more pliant and cottony View Enfrnmement. Plo1nt materials ha\·e c1 direct in-
th,111 the strict and often brazen look of b,1re build- fluence on \,·hat is seen or not seen and the se-
ings and unplanted urban settings. A space s1..1itened quence in which the \·ie\\'s are re\·ealed, as pointed
with plant material seems more im·iting and hu- out in the section on architectural uses of plant ma-
mane than one that has not. terials. Because of this, plant materials may directly
Planting Design Process and Principles 115

FIGURE 2.74

focus our attention on a particular point in the land- architect typically proceeds through a number of de-
scape by blocking out distractions to either side of cision-making steps referred to as the ."design _£ro-
the object \Vith their foliage masses, trunks, and cess." These steps proceed from the general to the
branches while providing an open, unobstructed ~cific and are outlined in greater detail "in Chapter
view of the object itself. Used in this fashion, plant 7. The functional use, organization, placement, and
materials act as blinders and create a frame around selection of plant materials is an integral part of this
the desired view. A classic technique for enframing entire process. Early phases of this process include
a view in numerous photographs and painted land- an analysis of the site to identify problems an9 po-
scape pictures is that of a tree trunk to one side and tentials as well as a review of the client's needs.
lower branch extending above the line of sight, as From this the landscape architect is able to specify
shown in Figure 2.74. what elements and functions need to be included in
the d~roblems that need to be solved, and the
intended feeling or charncter of the design.
Planting Design Process and Principles Next, the landscape architect generally prepares a
As with other physical elements used in the land- functional or bubble di~ram that depicts the major
scape, there are certain steps, techniques, and prin- elemenTs and functions of the design in an abstract
ciples for designing with plant material. All are manner. Loosely drawn bubbles and other diagram-
based upon the concept that plant materials are matic symbols are used to represent such items as
equally important in the landscape i~ meeting the spaces (outdoor rooms), ~ls, screens, views, an.9
objectives of the desi ner and solving environmental circulation. Where applicable in the design, the use
rob ems as o ot er p :1 • es1gn e ements sue of plant materials is determined for such fooctions
as an orm, u1 m s, pavement, an water. vVith as screening, shadrng, spatial definition, and focal
this view m mm , it is en 1ca to consider plant ma- points. The ~ l l9cation for mass plantingti'i
terials ~fiiearly_ as possibl~ the c.fe'sign process to beds is also studied during thisphase. Usually no
ensure t at they fit the situation both ~ thought is given during this phase, however, to the
~ - As suggested several times before, it is exact type of plant to be used (such as sugar maple
incorrect to study and use plant materials near the (i or viburnum) or to the actual layout and placement
end of the design process as ornamentation or "icing Jf of indi\'idual pl,rnts. The designer is concerned only
on the rnke" after major decisions ha\·e been made about the location and relative size of the areas in
about the function, location, and form of the other \\'hich the plant materials are to be placed, not the
physical elements in a design. arrangement ·within the areas. Specific forms, mate-
In designing with plant materials, the landscape rials, or details of construction are unimportant at
116 Plant ~l,1teri<1l~

...
t

. !j
. . . 1
· t
' ....
,
.... \

.OPEl---l LAWl---1· .. ·. \ ·1i!ti!

•l lj

- •j ;), I I I

. / 1'1 JI
dj
.. ;/III 'I I,
ii
I'

l
I j :

//~-..!.J ' !

'

I
I
I
~

fUl----!CTIONAL DIAGRAM.
FIGURE 2.73

this point. In many instances, several different alter- As decisions and priorities are made about the
nati\·e functional diagrams are developed in 9..raer to functional diagram and as the graphic diagram itseli
e valuate and select the best solution. Example of becomes further refined, more detail can be added.
functional diagrams are shown in Figures 2.75 Sometimes this more elaborated diagram is referred
and 7.5. to as a "concept plan." Figures 2.76 and 7.6 are ex-
Pbnting Design Process and Principles 117

._ ~E::}-ITA:,__ 7REE
WITH ~ O CTNER
eELOW
T,ALL ~~
5H~BS ------1- COt---CEPT P ~
FIGURE 2.76

amples of concept plans. During this phase of the plant materials of d ifferent.J..u?e, size, and form.
process, attention is gin~n _!..o the conceptual layo ut Again, howen~r, the designer deals essentia!Vin
within the planting areas themselves. Now, the broad terms. For example, the de~ig ner may choose
ia;dscape architect subdivides the planting areas to make one area w ithin the planting bed tall decid-
into smaller areas or bu5bles that each represent u ous shrubs, another area low coniferous evergreen
118 Plant tvfotcrials

~--LOJ../ bECltx.!a..6 8-tl<l..lES

1AL.L E:NER6\<-Ea-\ .s--\RUBS
MED\UM-HT. CEC\D..OJS s-t!<lle.5

eAST ELE:VATIO-l ..

~ "'"
f) ~ ~------- /
~,u1J/]]~IL1111uw111111i1iia111m1uwuD
s:::x..Jf-H l=J-eJAllO\-L
e-- ?!

lvW:6lh\<3 DlAGR.AiviS.
FIGURE 2.77

shrubs, and still another area a group of ornamental massing diagram (Figure 2.77). The pt1rpose of this
trees. The relationshi amon colors and textures diagram is to study the relative height of the differ-
should also be studied at this step. ut sti no effort ent areas of plant materials as masses or blocks in a
Ts made toarrange inaiviaual pTants or to identify generalized manner similar to the concept plan it-
exact species of plants. This permits the la ndscape self. The ele\·ational massing diagram or s ilhouette
architect to create the ideal relationships among the study permits the desi ner actuall ' to see hei hts
~ t visual lant characteristics in a conce tual an o eva ua e t eir relationships in a more effec-
fashion. ti\'t' manner than trying to ,·isualize them from only
In studying the height relationships in a planting the plan . As many ele,·ational massing diagrams as
nrea, it is often a good idea to prepare an elevational possible should be prepared for different sides or
Pl.inting Design Proce:;s .ind Principles 119

~5/~L.E TREE USED .k:3 A 5PECIME::N lf...l Ai--! OPEI--J LAWN MEA.
FIGURE 2.78

viewpoints so that the planting design will be pleas- material in a natural setting. Yet within the total or-
ing as an overall three-dimensional composition ganization, there is constant .variety of different
from all angles. plants changing from one group to another in a sub-
One critical aspect of the conceptual design stage tle manner to delight the eye. The massing of plant
that needs repeating is that plant materials are dealt material in nature also affords the individual plants
with as masses, not as individual plants. There are more mutual protection than if they were each lo-
several reasons for this. One is that groups of similar cated by themselves. Many plants grow where t.b._ey
items in a design contribute to a sense of visual do because nearby vegetation prondes the light,
unity within a composition. This is a basic principle wind, and soil conditions they require for survival.
of design that applies equally to any design disci- In nature, vegetation forms interdependent ecosys-
pline whether graphic design, interior design, archi- tems in which all plants help each other.
tecture, or landscape architecture. When the ele- The only time a plant should be placed in a de-
ments of a design are seen as unrelated and separate sign as a separate, individual element is when the
pieces, the design tends to break apart visually into designer wishes to attract attention to it as a ~ i -
competing parts. Massing or "gross collection," on men. A specimen plant may be a free-standing ele-
the other hand, consolidates the individual parts ~ t 5UCTl as the J?icturesgueornamental shown in
into a unified ·whole. Figure 2.78, which is placed in an open lawn area to
Another reason for designing with plant materials function as a dynamic piece of sculpture seen from
as conceptual masses is because they are usually all sides. Or a specimen might be located in a mass
found this way in nature. Native vegetation orga- of lesser plant material as in Figure 2. 79 to act as a
nizes itself in clusters and drifts that slowly change dominant element of the plant composition. Accord-
from one species to another in respL1nse to alterin.~ ing to our pre\·ious discussions about \'isual plant
environmental conditions. There is a definite sens~ characteristics, the specimen plant might be colum-
of order and unity to the massing pattern of plant nar, pyramidal, or picturesque in form with coarse
 ~o Plant Mc1tcri,1b

FIGURE 2.79

~xture and bright, showy flowers. Specimen plants individual plants within masses in a planting com-
1ould be fe\\' in a design to avoid the possibility of position.
tracting attention to too many different points. Another suggestion for drawing individual plants
Having completed the conceptual organization of in masses is that they should slightly overlap one
'ant masses within the entire design, the landscape another. Individual plants are usually allowed to
chitect is able to move on to the next step of the overlap one another by one-fourth to one-third the
;51anting design process. Now, the designer can be- diameter of each plant in plan, as shown on the
.n to take each bubble or area of the concept plan right side of Figure 2.81, for the sake of visual unity .
1d arrange the individual plants within it, as As stated before, a composition appears more uni-
~own in Figure 2.80. Still, the plants are dealt \.vith fied when plants are vie\\'ed first as groups or
·-; masses (except for specimens or focal points) and masses. But a planting composition looks more dis-
ranged to fill completely all the bubble areas of the jointed and chaotic when seen as a collection of in-
:nceptual plan. dividual plants. A plant arrangement with too many
Several thoughts need to be kept in mind when individual plants is called "spotty." One additional
·ganizing individual plants. First, individual plants suggestion about drawing plants in masses is that
,thin masses are shown as circles drawn at the ap- the outline around the entire mass be drawn heavier
'7!'opriate scale to be about 75 to 100 percent of the than the outline around the individual plants within
·ant's mature size. The landscape architect designs the mass. This places graphic emphasis where it
-.th plant materials for their ultimate effect and ap- should be (i.e., on the mass, not the individual
) arance, not their initial look. The application of plants).
·his approach does, however, cause some initial vi- Still another guideline · for placing individual
·al problems. When planted correctly, immature plants in masses is to group them in clusters of odd
1rsery stock should actually be separated from one numbers such as 3, 5, or 7-at least for groups of
"fnother to allow adequate room for growth. There- small numbers, as suggested in Figure 2.82. This is
re one must accept this early spottiness in a plant due to the basic design principle that odd numbers
mposition, realizing that with time the gaps be- of elements produce unified compositions because
~ 'een individual plants will close and disappear. the elements support and reinforce one another,
·one theless, the gaps should not be present once whereas even numbers compete with one another
e d esign has reached maturity. Thus, it is essenti.:11 owing to their easy division. In a group of three, the
_at the designer understand both the initial and the eye does not settle on any si ngle element but relates
~ventual mature plant size in order to correctly place to the cluster as a whole. ln a group of two, the eye
Pla nti ng Design Process i\nd Principles 121

15' HIGH OR!--.JAJv1EITTAL T F < E E : 5 - - - - - - - -

Gf<OJ~P ~ R -- - - - - - - ~

2.5' HI~ EYt=RGREE1'!

TRS=5 - -- - -- ----"A

OPEt--l LA~

7'TALL EYER-
Gf<E.Ef--..l S,RU:::-5 _ ____.
3' TALL OE:CIDJ::X.J5 5HR.LIB5 _ ____,
~
-~

111 =20'
5' T.ALL- 08::.IDJCU.S 6-\!<-UE:6--------'-

t-M5TER Plfe--..l.
FIGURE 2.80

moves back and forth between the two elements be- color, and texture to ma intain the visual unit v and
c,,use it is unable to rest on eith er one. Another dis- balance . As the dcsi_sn0r d ea ls 1,\·ith larger pbnts, it
ad\'antage oi organizing plants in e n:>n numbers is becomes more difiicult to ma tch size and form
that this approach often requires the individual among them. And if o ne p lant out of an even-num-
plants within the group to be of uniform size, fo rm, bered g rou p inf, should die, it becomes even more
122 Plant i\.laterials

· ·. ·.
O .

FIGCRE 2.81

difficult to replace it with a perfectly matched ne\,· Having massed individual plants together in
plant. These suggestions on the numbers of individ- groups, one needs next to consider the group-to-
ual plants w ithin a group are most useful when group or mass-to-mass relationship . The same prin-
dealing with 7 plants or fewer in a mass. Abo\'e this ciples apply at this level as they did for each plant
number, it becomes difficult for the eye to distin- \\·ithin a cluster of vegetation. Groups or clusters of
guish between odd and even quantities. plant materials should also be visually connected for

FIGURE 2.82
. . . .

.e /S-1 f4UMB1=l<S Of P.1.M--ft5

iEt-0 -ro SPLIT COI--/\PO -
SlTIO}-..l. :©.tr}·
. . .

\/'<'HEN F~/BLE:, USE PLAJ--lTS \}..J a:p NUM8E:R5.

rLinti11~ Design PwcL'SS and Principle$ 123

TIWP>-5'TED Sf'A:E \) CREATED eE- . SEPARATE PLA}--IT 0Rt:XJP5 ME

7\i<./EE}-+ 5EPARATE Fi.At---Tr ~ - . -~ .7'03ET1--tR.1 AWIDll--40 ~ -
ED 5P.ACE..
FIGURE 2.83

the same reasons as were the individual plants gether. With this approach, the height relationships
within the groups. Gaps or "wasted space" between can add fascina tion to a composition t1s low plants
clusters of plants, as shown in Figure 2.83, should drift in front of taller ones or as they mysteriously
be eliminated because they are unattractive, create a disappear behind a cluster of higher plant material.
disjointed appearance, and are apt to cause mainte- When considering spacing and relative height in
nance problems. In some compositions it is not very plan, the designer should not forget the space that
effective merely to have the different groups of exists below the tree canopies. The novice designer
plants touch or slightly overlap one another. Rather, frequently makes the mistake of thinking the canopy
it is more desirable to have the plant materials inter- viewed in plan extends down to the ground and
connect and wrap around one another to maximize therefore s tops the placement of other lov,er plants
the interface between the groups, as indicated in at the plan edge of the tree. This creates a void be-
Figure 2.84. Again, this adds to the unity and cohe- low the tree canopy that disrupts the flm-v and con-
siveness of a composition because the separate tinuity of the design, as shown in Figure 2.85. This
groups of different species seem to be wo\·en to- vvasted space is also a maintenance problem (unless

FIGURE 2.84

~ E 5 CF OIFrB~E!---{T PLAWT
~TER!AL MEREL'{ TO..JCH O}--E
~ER.
124 Plant l\fatcrials

p~·

1
· 1 WA5TEP ~JCE: \) CREATED SHRUBS CONTJ}-.J.UE f::E;LON
BELoH if<.S=. ~ - 7"'REE c»-OPY \/15UALL:(
J= l'LLlf-...er SP,ACE.
FlGlJRE 2.85

covered by ground cover) because access to it is apt could still be "read" by the masses of the plant ma-
to be troublesome. To eliminate this problem, lower terials themselves. Consequently, plant materials
plants should continue belO\-v the tree canopy unless should be organized in a rectilinear form around a
·the objective is to create a usable space there. pavement that is itself rectilinear (Figure 2.86), or in
The organization and placement of plants in a de- a curvilinear fashion in a plan that is free-form in
sign should be coordinated with other elements and character. In these instances, plants provide the
forms in addition to other plants ,vithin the compo- third dimension to the structure and form of the
sition. The planting design should relate to land- plan itself. Thus it would appear incongruous to see
form, buildings, walls, and areas of pavement and one character of forms on the two-dimensional lay-
open lawn. If designed correctly, plant material out of the plan and yet a different set of forms estab-
:Should complement these other elements by rein- lished bv the three-dimensional elements of the de-
forcing their forms and outlines. For example, plant sign.
material should generally (though not necessarily As the landscape architect completes the first lay-
atrictly so) echo the edges of paved areas so that if out of the individuc1I plants, certain parts of the de-
one were to remove the pavement, its original shape sign mav be seen as needing changes. Conse-
!,1nting Des ign Process and Principles 125

-+-
PLAJ---rr !'#.TERlAL 15 R:CRLY co-
ORb!~IEP Wl71-\ <SRJ..Jt-\D ~--.\S
FCRMS.
FIGURE 2.86

quently, a revised plan may be prepared to include fore. Recall mentally unifies a d esign. Then, other
the new alterations. During the p rocess of placing different plant species are added to the design com-
individual plants within the composition in masses position for the sake of \·ariety, but not in such
or as specime ns, the landscape architect also begins qua ntity or organizatio n as to nullify the unity of the
to study what species of plants will be used in what one c_o mmon plant species. The total n umber of
locations. The species of p lant materials chosen for plant species used in planting design, as in any
any one location should be done on the basis of the other discipline, should be carefully controlled so as
size, form, color, and texture selected earlier during not to become too many . Simplicity of species types
the concept design stage. The desig ner also needs to can be another means for unifying a design. Some
take into account s uch factors as sun, wind, and soil of the principles are collectively illustrated in
conditions present at any one location in selecting Figure 2.87.
plant sp ecies. It is importan t to u nderstand that selecting plant
Some other guidelines should also be followed in species or names is one of the last steps in the plant-
choosing and locating the different species of plant ing d esign process. As stated previously in this sec-
material in a composition. One common species of tion, the planting design process proceeds from the
plant material (and thus one common s ize, form, general or abstract to the specific. William R. Nelson
color and texture) s hould predominate in a compo- in Plallting Desig,r: A Manual of Theory and Practice re-
s ition in terms of quantity to further ensure unity. If fers to this as the "Backward Process." 33 Identifying
one follows previously stated guidelines, this com- specific names of pla nt materials in a d esign is done
mon species of plant material will typically be round las t to help insure the plant \ovill first function in its
in form, have medium-tone green foliage, and location based on its visual characteristics and envi-
be medium-textured. This unifying plant species ronmental needs for grO\\'th . Th is approach also aids
should visually carry throughout the d esign being
repeated from one location to ano ther. Seeing this 35
\ \'illiam R. 1':elson, Jr., P"11::i11g Dt'sig11: A A!a,111,1I of Th~ory
sam e element a t various places within the composi- and Pr,,clict' (Champaisn, 111.: Stipes Publish ing Company, 1979),
tion p roduces "recall" or m emory of observing it be- p. 31.
 3
Buildings

Buildings, both individually and in clusters, are the

third major physical design element of the outdoor
Building Clus te rs and Spatial Defin ition environment, after la ndform and .plant ma terials.
Distance to l3uild ins Height Ratio They structure and define outdoor space, influence
Pl,111 Arrcrngement views, modify microclimate, and affect the func-
l3ui lding Charact,•r tional organization o f the adjoining landscape .
Buildi ng Clusters and Types o f Spaces Buildings differ from oth er design elements dealt
Centrnl Open Srace with in landscape architecture because all buildings
Focused Open Sr ace have interior functions of their own tha t occur
Channeled Linear Space within the confines of their walls and/or in the ad-
Organic Line.u Space jacent s ite. Buildings and their environs are the pri-
Design G uidelines for Building C lusters mary location of most human activity including ea t-
Siting Individual Buildings
ing, s leeping, loving, child rearing, working, learn-
ing, and socializing. The objectives of this chapter
Rt•l,1ting lhiildi ng, tn ,1 S ilt' nn' tn describe thl' vnriciu s ty pes c:f ou tdoor spaces
l.,1ndform
crcnlcd by buildings, lo provide some design guide-
Pl,1nl Material
lines for organizing buildings in a composition, and
Building Df!sign
Tr,rn~itinn Spacl'
to outline different methods for integrating buildings
Walls and the landscape toge ther into one well-coordi-
P,wt•me nt nated environment.
A particularly noteworthy aspect about designing
Summnry
with buildings in the outdoor environment is that
this process idenlly involves a number of professions
working together in close cooperation. Although it
is the architect's responsibility to design the building
and its inte rior spaces, it is the d uty of the landscape
architect to help properly site the building and de-
sign its environs. A great amount of time in the
professional career of many landscape architects is
spent locating and arr.inging buildings or in some
wny dealing with the interface between build ing and
site. The siting of an individual residence, the design
of a condominium complex, the layou t of a college
ca mpus, and the development of an urba n plaza are
all examples of projects tha t involve coordination be-
tween architecture and the outdoor environme nt.
 Buildings
28

11
51f--BLt=. a.JILDlt-G IS Ytl=.WE::P .bS ,Aj.J 05.JECT IN 5PACc i IT 15 A Fl6-
_:...lRE" 1D BE .SEB-l Fl<OM ALJ_ 5~E5.
FIGURE 3.1

,..he design of the building interface overlaps tradi- terior spaces into the whole scheme. The design of
ional professional boundaries and requires close co- . each individual space or building is less significant
-operation between the architect and landscape archi- unto itself than it is to the overall development.
tect. Neither professional should work a lone with In the second situation, siting an individual build-
,uilding-sitc interrcl.1tionship because' each ecu1 cnn- ing, the concern is like ly to be more focused on the
ribute v,1luablt: l'Xperti::;e lll the derivt1tion uf a sen- building itself and the l,rnd immediately surround-
sitive design. ing it. Here the building is treated either as a special
In dealing with the building and its surrounding visual focal point that stands out against its site or
ite, the design professional is likely to confront one as a unified element blending into its setting. Many
of three situations: (1) siting and collectively arrang- award-win ning contemporary residences designed
'-:,g a number of buildings on a site (a housing proj- by architects fit one or the other of these circum-
ct, college campus, downtown urban development, stances .
.Jffice/commercial complex, etc.), (2) siting an indi- In the third situa tion, the objective is commonly
"'.idual building as a lone structure on a site (single- to add onto or alter the existing conditions in order
:imily residence, church, bank, etc.), and (3) adding to fulfill a revised program so that the new design
,nto or renovating an existing building and site. appears to be a logical and sen sitive extension of the
In the first situation, the concern is the correct sit- older environment.
1g of the buildings with respect to existing con-
tructed and natural site conditions, the outdoor
spaces created by the buildings, and the functional Building Clusters and Spatial Definition
"nd aesthetic relationships among the buildings By themselves, individual buildings are viewed as
\emselves. When a group of professionals design a solid objects in the landscape surrounded by open,
,luster of buildings, emphasis is typically placed on negative space. A single building does not create
the integration of all the buildings and adjoining ex- space but rather is an object in space, as suggested
Building Clusters nnd Spntial Definition 129

.{ . -1
·( 50\r'E \
I r~
1
·I .I
\
- ._ __ • ·1
.)

EXTEl<ICJR SPACE \5 CREATED WHEl-1 l'v\O 01< ~RE- BUILbl~ ,AJ<.E

CLUSTi=R.ED 10'.SETHER.
FIGURE 3.2

in Figure 3.1. When a group of buildings are clus- tion in the feeling of the space, but the walls them-
tered together in .in organized manner, however, selves alter little if at all.
positively defined outdoor spaces are established in Another unique quality of outdoor spaces defined
the voids between the building masses, as indicated essentially by buildings relates to the effect of win-
in Figure 3.2. The collective massing of exterior do,.vs on spatial perception. Windows produce var-
building walls limits views and establishes vertical ied spatial phenomena with changing light condi-
edges of outdoor rooms. The sense of enclosure is tions between day and night. For a person standing
strongly implied by building walls situated on two in an exterior space during the day, the limits of the
or three sides of an area and completely delineated space seem to stop at the building fa~ade unless
by building walls lornted on all sides. there is a view into the building through a windo\.V
Outdoor spaces, whose primary means of enclo- to a lighted room. But even with this view, an exte-
sure is building fa~ades, possess some unique char- rior space seems to have well-defined boundaries.
acteristics when compared with those spaces demar- For a person inside a building during the day, views
cated by more natural elements such as landform or easily occur to the exterior, so that an interior space
plant material. Outdoor spaces encircled by build- tends to "bleed" or "leak" outward, as indicated in
ings tend to be well articulated with exact sharp Figure 3.3. At night, the opposite occurs. The exte-
edges that remain fixed in place. The edges and re- rior space loses its sharp boundaries for a person
sulting spaces are hard and nonpliable; if extended standing in it and tends to become ill-defined when
over a large area without relief, they may even be- not lit. Moreover, views into light interior spaces oc-
come unappealingly harsh. And spaces defined by cur readily so that the exterior space now bleeds in-
buildings lack dramatic seasonal variety in compari- ward, as illustrated in Figure 3.4. On the other
son with those established primarily by plant mate- hand, the interior space now definitely stops at the
rial. True, the angle of the sun and shadow patterns windows for a person inside because views into the
change during the year, with some associated varia- dark exterior space are weak if at all visible.
130 Building:-

FIGURE 3.3

The exact type and quality of spaces created by The distance to building height ratio also affects
buildings, while almost infinite, does depend on the the feeling and use of an outdoor space in addition
distance to building height ratio, the arrangement of to influencing spatial enclosure. In Exterior Dcsig11 in
the buildings, and the character of the building fa- Arc/1itcct11re, Yoshinobu Ashihara analyzes the effect
~ades themselves. Each of these variables interacts of the distance to building height ratio on the hier-
,vith the others to influence the identity and feeling archy of exterior to interior spaces. As illustrated in
of the resulting space(s). Figure 3.6, the most intimate and interiorlike space
11.1s a dis~ancc to building height ratio of between 1
Distance to Building Height Ratio. The amount of and 3, while the most public and exteriorlike space
enclosure and the res ulting degree of spatial percep- has a distance to building height ratio of 6 or over. 3
tion partially d epends on the distance to height ratio r\ person would feel mos t comfortable talking to a
between a person s tanding in an outdoor space and friend in a space with a low distance to building
the height of surrounding building walls, just as it height ratio and least comfortable in one with a high
was previously described for both landform and ratio.
plant materials. According to the standards stated by Although a strong sense of spatial enclosure is of-
Gary Robinette in Pla11ts, People n11d Environmelltal ten a design objective in arranging a cluster of build-
Quality, full enclosure occurs when the surrounding ings, care must also be taken not to create outdoor
~uilding walls create a 1: 1 distance to hei~ht ratio or spaces where the building height and mass over-
hll a 45-degree cone of vision (Figure 3.5). A thresh- powers that scale of adjoining exterior areas. This is
hold of enclosure occurs with a distance to heig ht c.1pt tn occur when the distance to building height
ratio of 2: 1, minimum enclosure with a ratio of 3:1, ratio becomes much less than 1, as in Figure 3.7. A
and loss of enclosure with a ratio of 4: 1. 2 In other spatial volume of these proportions seems like a
words, the s.trongest sense of spatial enclosure is felt deep well for the person standing inside. And the
when a building wall fills and extends beyond the surrounding buildings themselves cannot be fully
cone of vision. Howe\·er, when the building is so appreciated under these conditions because much of
low or a person is standing so far away as to see the their exterior walls extend beyond the cone of vi-
building as a small part of a larger environmentc.11 sion. Some architectural theoreticians suggest that
context, little or no enclosure is sensed . the ideal viewing distance of a building is at a dis-
tance to building height ratio of 2: 1. 4 At this ratio,

1
, ~~ry 0. Robinette, Plant,. Peoph- and Em•iro1111rc11tal Q11ality
(Washing ton, D.C.: U.S. Dcp.irtmcnt of the Interior, !\,1tional 'Yoshinobu Ashihara, Extaior Dcsig11 i11 Arclritccture, rev. ed:
Pilrk St!rvice, 1972), p. IS. (:\c\\' Yori-: \ ',in Nci~trand Reinhold , 1981), p. 63.
~Ibid. 4
lbid.,p. 42.
Building Clusters and Sp.itial Definition 131

FIGURE 3.4

the top of th e building walls is seen at a 27-degree

,, ngle c1bove the horizon (Figure 3.8). 5 Therefore an FIGU RE 3.5
idec1l distc1nce to building h eight ratio for spatial en-
dosure without crec1ting c1n uncomfortc1ble feeling is
bet,\'een 1 c1nd 3.

Plc1r1 Arrnngement. Very closely linked to the facto r

of distance to building h eight rntio in defining out-
d oor space is the plan c1 rrangeme nt of the clus ter of
buildings. The strongest sen se of enclosure occurs
\,·hen the buildings c1re arrnnged as to comple tely
surround c1nd "wall in" a given space, th us prevent-
ing views to the ou tside of the space for a person
st,r nding in it. Such views, illustrated in Fig ure 3.9,
are called "spatial leaks" and function just like the
holes in any other contain e r. The more spatial leaks
there are, the weaker the perception of spatia l enclo- RJLL SPATIAL ~ R E \5
sure . One m ethod for elimina ting spatial leaks when FERCEIVEP WITH A D15TA\---CE
w orking with a multiple building layout around an 10 HE.l6HT RATIO OF 1: '\ .
outdoor space is to overlap the building fac;:ades as
much as possible to prevent views into or out of the
space, c1s shown in Figure 3.10. Spatial leaks ca n also
be e liminated or reduced through the use of other
design e le me nts such as landform, plant m a terial, or
frees ta nd ing walls tha t block views, as indicated in
Figu re 3.11. It will be remembered from previous
chapters that these o ther eleme n ts can be utilized for
both "closure" and "linkage" of a space that h as
been suggested, though not completed, by the pla n
layo ut of the buildings themselves. 6 . '

LOe6 OF Pl=RCEI\/ED -5°A11AL

l=~I ceu~'E. CCCURS Wrn-t
;Ibid .
''Gary 0 . Robinette, Pln11t;. fll'OJ'lc n11d F.11,•ircm1111·11 t,1/ Qualitv.
A D15Tf\N'.::E TO HEIGHT
p. 23 . . f<AllO OF 4:).
 Building:;
132

~~-n~I ~~~
....
. ..

lj!,j!jH:j::::U::I:::
B<n=RIOR ~ E Wm-4 71-415 EXTER.\Of<-. .::PtCE Wl"TI-4 TH\5
AATIO CAN eE OE5CR15ED RATIO ~ BE CEXRIBEP
11
~ '' lt----tilfv'IATE • ~''FueL\C\).
FIGURE 3.6

As shown in Figure 3.12, the ,veakcst definition subtle implication. The buildings are viewed as lone,
of exterior space by buildings in plan occurs when unrelated elements surrounded by "negative" space
they are organized in a long row or are scattered so (i.e., space without containment or focus).
indiscriminately on a site that no logical perceptional While spatial enclosure is a desirable design ob-
relationship among them can be realized. In both jective, circumstances exist in which it is best to per-
these situations, there is no containment, even by mit and even encourage ,·iews to the outside of an

FIGURE 3.7
I OR.IE55~
Dl$~~E: TO
H1=10HT AA710
...
,,,-:::•:::•,,•,,,-
·······
,,,-,,,-:::•,,,-
································
...........................
··························
::::::::::::::::::::::::;:::::
.. ..........
·······································
.......................................
·············
:::::::::
..
,,,•,,,•,,,•,,,, ~

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :: : :::::;
' .......... .......................................
......................... .. .......... .
,
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
........... :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::: ::::-:: ::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::: :
:::::::::::::: ::: :::: :::::::::: ::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::: ::::: ::::
........................... :: ::: :: ::
............
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :: ::::::::::
.......................................
··································· ·· ··
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::: :: ::::::
:::::::: :: :::::::::::::::::::::::: :: :: : - - -
.......................................
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
..... ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: : : ::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::: : ::::::::::
.......................................
.......... .............................
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.......................................
-
.... ..... . .................................... ..
.......................................
.......................................
... ...... .......................................
................. ......................
~~;;;;:t;:;:;:;;;:::m;;*~ :::::::: ::: ::::::::::::::::: :: :::::::::
·······································
.......................................
.......................................
.......................................
·········· ····················· ········
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::1:::
~ !~~;:Ii:~;~~; ~ii;~ Ii;\ ;~i ~i ii iii;~\ ;ii

M-4 EXTER.\OR SP.ACE Wl"TI-i THIS RA.110 15 APi TO r=E'EL- iOO

S---CL-Cl5ED ,A}-.!D Ca--oEQJENTL'-( Uf-...COMfO~Ae>LE.
13 u ildi n~ Clu :;t~' rs a n d Spa tiJI Ddinition 133

r 1
:: :: : :: : :: :: :::::: :: ::
:::::
..... :::::::::::::::::

.....
.....
.....
.....
.................
··· ··· ···· ·· ··· ··
!!iii ~!!~!~~!~!!!~!~!~
:;: :: : :: : :: :::: ::::: ::
..... ........ .........
::: :: :::: ::: :: :: : :::::
:::::
····· :::::::::::::::::
..... ... .............
... ...............
·················
......................
..... ...............
·················
. . .. . ...............
. . .. . . ... ... .......
..................
................
..
..... .. ..................
.. ...

<
.....
.... . ..............
:: .. .. ..; ..
.. .. :: ::
. . .::
. .. .:: :: : :::
. .. .. .. .. ..
. . ..

..... ··::: ::: ::: ::::::::

··· ··········· ·
::::::::: ::::::::
..... :::::::::::::::::

THl5 D\5TA}-..CE iO HE161-!i" RA-no \5 CO\---BlDERE=O !Dl:Sb-.L rOF<..

sPATlAL ~CL.Oe:UF<-E ~p \/IEWI~ A E:UILDl~.
FIGURE 3.8

outdoor space defined essentially by buildings. Sig- ample of an urban open space that has both a sense
nifican t fea tures in the surrounding enviro nment of enclosure and outward view s dep ending on
s uch as a river, lake, mountain range, or architec- w here one is standing. For a person sta nd ing in the
tural focal point s hould be taken ad\·antage of by al- main o utdoor level of Ghira rdelli Sq uare, views are
lowing views to them . Ghirardelli Square in San limited by the su rrounding build ings and one's con-
Frnncisco, designed by Lawrence Halprin, is an ex- sciousness is limited to this space alone, as illus-

FIGURE J.9
134

. .. . . . .
11
OYERl.APFlf--6 Of BU/L.Dlf-..i0 SIDES M/1--41MIZE:5 SPATIAL L.E:A\<5''.
FIGURE :u o
FIGURE 3. 11

. . . . . .
H-5PATIAL l..EAKS n ARE ELINl~TED 77-tRCU3H '( Ll"-lKbeE)l Wm-I
011-tB<. DESIGl--..l EL.Etv1Ei--.rTS.
 135

Uuildin~ Clusters c1ncf Sp,1ti«l Definition

WSA,K. ~A"TlAL -E)-..UQSU\<.E: CRE-·

ATEP 6-< e:LJ!LDl~ f1..KED
HAPHAZARDL"1 0\--l A 5rTE .
FIGURE 3.12

trnted in Figure 3.13. Yet as one proceeds to the up- The easiest me thod for creating outdoor space
per outdoor levels and to balconies of the buildings w ith buildings is by a simple continuous encircling
of the upper side of the space, views open toward wall of building fo<;ades, as indicated in Figu re 3.14.
San Francisco Bay. Thus with in a few steps, one can This is desirable where one clearly defined space is
experience two different perceptions of enclos ure required . Yet this may also be the least exciting and
while feeling pa rt of the same outdoor environment. intriguing by itself, because the entire space is at

FIGURE 3.13

5PKE1
.::i.-------11;11;
~
j____-----~--- ~-----·
~--
136 Buildings

CE.1-,ffl<AL
-~E.

F!Gl.RE 3.14

:mce easily observed and known . Such a s pace is volume to dominate in size to establish a focus for
stc1tic; it lacks subspaces and implied movement. the composition, as suggested in Figure 3.17. Then
When the plan outline of surrounding building vvalls the smaller subspaces are unable to compete with or
Jecomes more varied and complex with indentations detract from the major space.
and projections in the building fa~ades, as illustrated Another factor that influences spatial perception
i_n Figure 3.15, the resulting outdoor space takes on of central open spaces defined by buildings, and re-
1 richer quality with a number of implied subspaces lated to the distance to height ratio, is the plan hor-
contributing to the overall spatial fabric. For a per- izontal dimension of a space. Paul D. Spreiregen in
son s tanding at particular points within the outdoor Llrba11 Desix11: The Architecture of Towns and Cities has
,pace, certain other points and subspaces may be outlined the effect of dis tance on the feeling of out-
:lidden or partially disguised, thus establishing a door space. Spaces defined primarily by buildings
sense of mystery or intrigue. that are 80 ft (24m) or fewer in horizontal distance
As a simple outdoor space defin ed by buildings may be described as intimate (Figure 3.18). 7 In a
:,ecomes more complex, an inherent danger is that it space of this size we can distinguish d etail or a hu-
will become so varied that it perceptually breaks man face. He further suggests that "grand urban
apart into a disjointed sense of separate spaces, as spaces" be between 80 (24m) and 450 ft (137m). 8 The
ln Figure 3.16. The identity of one ample space is maximum distance for being able to see body action
lost to a feeling of a number of smaller s paces. Thus and movement is 450 ft (137m).9
if the design objective is to maintain the feeling and
·.dentity of one large space with related subspaces,
7
_:are must be taken to prevent the subspaces from Paul D. Spreiregen, Urbm1 Design: Tli,· Arc/1itcc/11n- of Towns and
Citic~ (New York: l\!cGraw-Hill, 1965), p. 75.
becoming too enclosed or separated from each oth er. ~Ibid .
Moreover, it is a helpful design aid for one spatial 0
Ibid ., p. 71.
 137

. .
E:UILOH--165 eR.E,L-,.TE ~--..lOi<.. "CRC·-;;6.,J41C. ~ " W !TH l<t:::LA-lED
~ Wn-t-1 RELAiED ~ - s..JB.SfACES.
FIGURE 3.15

FIGURE 3.16

~OR 5FACE Wm-t· "Tl-It:: ~UMB<0-15 8.JB5PACES 5ECOlv1E5 '::CJ

COMPJ...EX 11-¼T IDS--ITrTY OF tv¼JOR 5PACE 15 Loe-f.
 Uuild ing:;
138

O,::l~i I}-IA-\--.\T OfS-l. SPtC\=. Ul-11 Fl ES

COMft:o rnON cf Prov'lDES A F0::\..6~

FIGURE 3.17

Building Character. A third factor that <1ffccts the tu feel delicate, light, airy, and inviting if the space-
quality of spaces articulated by buildings is the char- defining building walls are warm in color, finely de-
acter of the building fa~ades that contain the space. tailed, and proportioned to the human. Many fine,
The color, texture, detailing, and proportion of a thin elemen ts in a building wall can lend a light
building fa~ade influences the personality of an out- enwtion to the space itself s uch as in the Court of
door space adjoining it. The space can be made to the Lions in the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. Here,
feel cold, harsh, and inhuman if the building walls the thin columns and intrica te detailing furnish a
surrounding the exterior space are massive, gray, light quality to the entire space. A colonnade too can
and Jack fine detail, as suggested in Figure 3.19. Or produce a less bulky temperame nt than a wall that
conversely, the same volume of space can be made is a solid mass . Here, the exterior space is allowed

FIGURE 3. 18

1
-~-00~450 - ~

..... ...
........
........
.... ... .
.... ....
........
.... ....
........
·· ······
........~~~~~~~~~~..
13uildinb Clusters ,111d Sp,1lial DdiniliL,n 139

eiJILD\1---GS 11-tAT ARE:. F\1--4EL'-{ CE-

TAILED ~ E ~ I W I ~ EXTER-
IOR 5P,6C:E5 ~ ri-1~ A\-lP
PLEA5ANr.
FIGURE 3.19

. to penetrate into and intertwine itself with the build- the resulting spatial character. Building walls that
ing mass, as suggested in Figure 3.20. Similarly, the are subdivided and proportioned to the size of a per-
solidity or transparency of the top of a building sil- son, particularly at ground level as shown in Figure
houetted against the sky can impress spatial charac- 3.21, give a space a more comfortable feeling than a
- ter. A \Vall or roof silhouette that consists of a finely massive wall with no relation to human size.
detailed pattern of solid and void areas along its top The use of reflective glass walls on a number of
edge creates a lighter effect tha n a straight, solid contemporary buildings is another treatment of
- edge between building and sky. And the scale of the building fac;:ades that has a dramatic effect on adja-
entire building as well as its components bears upon cent outdoor spaces. This wall material acts as a

FIGURE 3.20

I~ AeRUBTLY
!SPACE5"TOP.5

,.
1: ......... . ........... ......... .
, : :::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::·
!:
,. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::·

1 !I:l :::::::::::::::::::::::::::
1
il!!iiii!Il!!!:!i!l:!l:l
!!lllll!llll!ll!illlillillll 11111!11!1111111
FLAT 'NA.LL CR.EAlc5 A PEFl - CDLON~E PROJtCf:5 ll'--ITER.-
6-\ \TE <cf>ATIAL EDS£; r---D INTI=R- PE.l'--H=.Tl<ATION OF lf---lCC:t)R/ O.IT-
FE!-tf:::TFA1IO---I OF 5PACE. CCOR epACE.
140 Buildings

1'-A:Jf--JUM ENTAL Bl.HLDlt---16 W rTH eLJ\LDI~ wrn-t HU~ PROfOR.-

LI Tt".l...E. Ol=TAIL AND ~ 1 t=: GtvE-5 Tlq....tED E=L.E}/\8-fi5 ( Wt~rx»-15 >
.AOJOl~lf-.JG .SPACE Al--4 lf--..lHUMALl \Sf FLO::t<. 0£RliAJ-.G 1 EiC .) 6 N E5
Q.JJ\LIT '(. IOJO(t--1143 S~G A Ca-..1FORtAB-
Le. FEELII--IG .
FIGURE 3 .21

huge mirror by reflecting the surrounding environ- reflection. lt also has the potential of producing
m ent in the building fac;:ade. With this effect, the twisted and contorted kaleid oscopic patterns of re-
building is not just an object in the landscape; it be- flection that further confuse the mind as to what
comes part of the landscape. The mirror effect of the is real and what is not. Well-known examples of
building gives the adjoining space a property of reflective glass fac;:ades are the Hyatt Regency ho-
seeming limitlessness. The actual physical edges of tels in Atlanta (Figure 3.22), Chicago, Detroit, and
the space .ire perceptually los t and expanded by the Dallas.

FIGURE 3 .22
Building Clu~lcrs a nd Type~ of Spaces 141

.
c:a..rTRAL C()tvlMa.J OPE---l SP/ie:E= : $.LJ= -CENTEf<.ED Al-lb ll-WAl<.D-
ORIEJ-JTED.
FIGURE 3.23

Building Clus ters and Types of Spaces University, Syracuse University, University of Illi-
The potentinl plan arrangements of buildings and nois, The Ohio State University), Rockefeller Center
the types of related spaces are limitless. The possi- in New York City, and Mellon Squc1re in Pittsburgh.
bili ties are based on the environmental context, sit- All these spaces serve as the dominant space in the
ing, objectives, and desired spatial qualities. Some of immediate environment and are major meeting and
the more basic types of outdoor spaces crec1ted by gc1thering places. They act as powerful "magnets"
buildings arc described in the following sections . <1nd destination points. Because of their spatial d efi-
nition c1nd the activity that takes place w ithin them,
Central O12en S12ace. One very basic and common they tend to be self-centered and inward-oriented.
concept for composing c1 cluster of buildings is to A couple of additional notes should be mad e
group them around a central open space that rela tes about the s pa tial definition of the central open
to all the buildings in the clus ter, as illustrated in space. \Ve pointed o ut earlier that the strongest
Figure 3.23. This cen tral space can be con sidered the sen se of spatial enclosure was achieved when views
spatial focus of the entire design or surrounding en- or spatial leaks out of space were minimized. Two
vironment. It is the "hub" of the composition and examples of this concept are the Piazza della Signo-
possesses some of the same qualities as does the ria in Florence and the Piazza de! Campo in Siena.
concave landform described in Chapter 1. Historical Views through and from these two historically sig-
examples of central common open spaces include nificant mcdicv;:il open spaces ;:ire limited because
the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, Piazza de! they were organized on "windmill" or "whirling
Campo in Siena, Piazza di San Pietro in Rome, and squ;:irc" layouts. 10 As shown in Figure 3.24, streets
Piuzzu Sa n Marco in Venice. Examples of centrzil
open spaces in the United States are the New En- 10
Normiln T: N1:wton , 0~·$ig11 011 the Land: Tire Dc!'eiopmc11I of
gland village green or town square, the central La11dsca11~ Arch1tect11re (Cambddge: Harvard University Press,
quadrangle of many college campuses (e.g., Harvard 1971). p. 13-1.
142

FIGURE 3.24

FIGURE 3.25

CPEj-...j CORr--lER.5 CREATE A CL.0$EO -CO'R.hlERS CREATES A

\iv'EAK l=EELll--\6 OF SPATlAL ~ E , SEJ....SE. OF SPATIAL
9---IC.LOSLIR.E. . E::1--C.l..CSJR..E,
Building Clusters and Types of Spaces 143

that enter this type of open space "dead end" there;

they do not pass directly through. Consequently,
these spaces have a strong sense of containment.
Not only does this plan organization contribute to
strengthe ning the enclosure of the spaces, but it also
forces the pedestrian entering the space to experi-
ence or even stop in the space. A person cannot sim-
ply pass through by continuing along the edge be-
tween t·wo openings. The pedestrian is encouraged
to walk through, not by, the space.
Inherent in many o f the w indmill layouts is enclo-
sure of the central open space at the corners. When
the corners of a central open space are open as they
often are at street intersections or between two sep-
arate buildings facing 90 degrees to each other (Fig-
ure 3.25), the space is defined only by flat planes of
the enclosing buildings. Both views and space spill
outward through the corner openings. Yet when the
building walls themselves fill and turn the corner of
a central open space, there is a much stronger sen- UNPESIAABLI=: OPE"4Nl=55
sation of enclosure. 11 The corners turn the eye in- Of --=PP-CE: 15 Losr BY PLJCE-
ward and keep views within the central space. MENT Of SOLID t0A56ES IN
One further thought about a central open space is THE MIDDU=.
that its identity is strongest when the "hollowness''
of the space is reinforced. To do this, the central
portion of the space should indeed be left open. Any
planting of trees or the placement of other objects
should be kept to the perimeter of the space. The
least desirable thing is to place a large, space-occu-
pying solid object in the m iddle of the space, ns il-
lustrated in Figure 3.26. When this is done, n spatial
"doughnut" results. The quality of the central open
space is lost and replaced by a more linear space that
revolves around the solid center. One other concept
for accentuating a central open space is to slope or
step it down toward the m iddle . In effect, this places
a concave landform on the base plane of the central
open space and makes the openness of the space
more obvious.

Focused O12en S12ace. While the concept of the en-

closed central open space is appropria te in some sit-
uations, it is unsuitable in others. As in Figure 3.27,
circumstances exist in w hich it is desirable to allow
a space defined by a cluster of buildings to be open
on one side to take advantage of views to a promi-
nent feature in the landscape outside the space it-
self. When one portion of the building walls sur-
rounding an open space is lacking, the s pace created FIGURE 3.26

11
Yoshinobu Ashihara, Exterior Di:.sig11 i11 Arclzitcc/11rc, p. 79.
 Bui lding~
14-4

rec.USED OPt=f-l 5P.6CE., ~ILPl/.-.6 CLL\5TER HAS STROWG Pll<ECflOt--1

Al-1D ORI t::NTATIOI-J TO O~f-4 SIDE.
FIGURE 3.27

will be directed toward the opening. Remember United States are examples of this linear space, as is
from earlier discussions on landform that space, like the Mall in Washington, D.C.
water, flows toward the point of least resistance. Be- One of the noteworthy qualities of a channeled
cause of the strong orientation of a focused open linear space is that it is a space for movement with
space, every nttempt should be made to maintain the focus of the space centered at eithei· end. When
the sense of direction in the organization of other standing in this type of space, a person's attention
clements such as plant material or landform within is "squeezed" and " channeled" between the long
the overall space. linear sides, as in Figures 3.29 and 3.30. In fact, the
When organizing the buildings around a focused open ends of the space take on significantly more
open space, one caution is not to make the open side importance than the \'ertical planes along the two
too proportionally large or the feeling of spatial sides. Owing to the \'isual prominence of the open
identity and enclosure will be lost. The objective in ends, it is incorrect to attempt to compete with the
creating a focused open space should be to define termini of a channeled linear space by adding attrac-
'.he space adequately with sufficient encircling build- tors along the edges, as is often done wifrt the place-
:ng walls while still permitting some views outward ment of signs or other objects of interest. These ele-
from the space. ments merely fight one another and the spatial ends.
It is better to acknowledge the foci of the space and
Channeled Linear S12ace. A channeled linear space eliminate disruptive competition along the length of
is the third type of exterior volume that can be cre- the channeled linear space. This type of space can
ated by the clustering of buildings. This type of be successfully used in the environment to direct at-
,pace is proportionally long and narrow, with open- tention to significant landmarks such as a p iece o f
:ngs at one or both ends, as shown in Figure 3.28. A sculpture or an archi tectural feature.
channeled linear space is generally straight and does
"10t bend around corners or disappear. Standing in Organic Linear S12acc. Another fundamental type of
:his type of outdoor space, a person can readily see linear space that can be created by clusters of build-
either end. Most downtown urban streets in the ings is an organic space. Jt differs from the chan-
 145

. .
o--L41--.J~E:LED Llf-H?.AR SPACE j Aii1=/--li10f.-J 15 DIRECTED WWP..P~ THE.
Ef--t05 OF THE ~IC~.
FfCURE J.20

neled linear spnce in that it is not a simple, strnight spaces. Many streets in European medieval villages
~pace from one point to c1 nother but rather continues or towns of today fit this classification of space (Fig-
,,round corne rs and frequently disappears ou t of ure 3.32). While walking through th is type of space,
sight, as illustrated in Figure 3.31. This spatial type a . person's focus a nd concentration is consta n tly
may also include a linked sequence of separa te changing. Commonly, one's attention is directed to-

FIGURE 3.29 FIGURE 3.30

 Buildings
l-!6

. . . ..
~ I C LINEAR SPACE ; \/tew5 ALO RX.LS ~TN----rrl-Y CHA1JeE
A'3 ~E NP{E5 -n--tRO..teH 7r-i::. 5PACE .
FIGURE 3.31

ward the ends of the subspace in ~vhich he or she is

FIGURE 3.32 standing; as one then walks toward and arrives at
this point, a new leg of the space, previously un-
seen, comes into view and now concentration is re-
directed to a new terminus. This sequence of events
repeated again and again walking through an or-
ganic linear space can make it an enchanting expe-
rience because a sense of anticipation is provided by
wondering what "lies around the corner." A person
is enticed to seek out the unknown, and in doing so,
is rewarded by changing views and spatial surprises,
as s uggested in Figure 3.33.
These four spatial types just described are not
usually created or found as isolated entities. They
are frequently juxtaposed next to one another to
form a much larger sequence of spaces with each of
the parts contributing to the experience of the
whole. In this situation, the identity and essence of
each type of space can be emphasized by its position
with respect to an opposing spatial type. For exam-
ple, the static, containing quality of a central, com-
mon open space can be made more apparent if a
person must move through a tight linear space to
gain access to it. Buildings, as do any other design
element, can create a series of expanding (release)
and contracting (tension) volumes linked by views,
materials, or other common threads of unity (see
D.:sign Gt1iddines for Building Clusters 147

FIGURE 3.33

also Chapter -1 on Pa,·ement). [n the final analysis, it on the site with no effort to coordinate relationships
is the accumulated linkages of spaces that provide among them, as in Figure 3.34. This approach,
the life and emotion o f the outdoor environment. though desirable for some situ ations, typ ically re-
sul ts in a chaotic, fragmented composition. One of
the simplest and most commonly utilized concepts
Design Guidelines for Building Clusters to achieve compositional order is to place the build-
How a given cluster of buildings is organized in the ings in the cluster at right a ngles to one anoth er
landscape depends on a number of factors including (Figure 3 .35). This solution is automatically ordered
existing site conditions, functional relationships be- without any additional attempts to create a sense of
tween buildings, required u ses or activities in the logic and h as the added advantage of being easy to
ad joining site, intend ed characteristics of the out- lay out on paper and in the field .
door spaces, and basic principles of design compo- Yet the system of right-angle relationships does
sition. Some design suggestions have already been have potential drawbacks. If overused, it becomes
mildc in this chc1ptcr cJbout cre,1ting ou tdoor spilce. too p red ictable and monotonous, ns illustrntcd by
A number of other basic compositional guid elines the ever present grid layout of most urban street
also need to be taken into account. systems in the United States. Spatial surprises or
In plan, the designer should strive to provide a dramatic building relationships are lacking. [n build-
sense of order so that a meaningful relation appears ing clusters that are linear in their overa ll layout,
among the building masses as well as the spatia l vol- variation can be given by pushing some of the build -
umes they create. The least-ordered organization oc- ing masses forward and some back in relation to
curs when the buildings are plcJced indiscriminately each other, as illustrated in Figure 3.36. This estab-
148 Buildings

~ RELATlo-4 ~ eLJlLDl~ · A CHAOTIC ca"1P051'i!OI-..J RE-

SJLT.S 'FJ<Oh.1 U/--iccy....JTROLLED ORJatiATl~5.
FIGURE 3.34

lishes subspaces in association with the building procedure, however, must be compatible with both
offsets and breaks the monotony of a long continu- the context and the objectives of the design. If han-
ous rmv. dled by a skilled and knowledgeable designer, the
Another alternative to the rigidity of a completely entire building composition may be accomplished
rectilinear layout is to carefully place some of the with only nonninety-degree angular relationships.
building masses in the composition at angles to each Again, this approach is more organic, though we
other, that are not 90 degrees, as in Figure 3.37. This hope .r.ot less ordered, than the totally right-angled
interjects a degree of variety into the layout. This ·scheme.

FIGURE 3.35

ll--DIVIDU,AL WILD/H:35 PRE VISUALL'-t' RELATT=D TO EACH OTHER

B'i' 90° RELAi1~5HlP5.
 149

8-JiLPII--G MA'::£> /( Pw5'-ft::D 11

t=Oi<'NARD, - , - - - - - - - - - i -

FIGURE 3.36

FIGURE 3.37

. . ..
5PATlAL VARlA..TIOt-l ~71=0 I~ ~ILDl/--:ie COMPOSITIO~ BY -=CME..
~"TI~IPS.
~ - ' K )0
150 Buildings

FIGURE 3.38

When working with any of these schemes, one sequently results in a weakly defined outdoor space.
can strengthen the building-to-building association And this method, like the rectilinear layout, is some-
in a cluster by directly relating the forms and lines times too planned and logical in its order. To coun-
of one building to those of nearby buildings. One teract these two potential problems, it is sometimes
way to accomplish this is by extending imaginary advisable to overlap the relationship between oppo-
lines outward from the edges of a given building site facing building walls, as in Figure 3.39. This pro-
and then aligning them with the edges of nearby vides a sensation of spatial tension for a person
buildings, as in Figure 3.38. This method creates a walking through the area between the two build-
solution that has a thoughtful and readily apparent ings . The overlapping creates a stronger feeling of
visual alliance between adjacent buildings in the spatial enclosure within the central open space of
cluster. It also allows for a maximum amount of the building cluster.
views out of any one building into the central open Another guideline for the plan arrangement of
space without their being blocked by a directly op- building modules, such as individual townhouse
posing wall of an adjacent building. units that are to be massed together into one build-
On the other hand, there are certain disadvan- ing, is again to overlap the units to maximize their
tages as well to this system of aligning buildings. interface, as shown in Figure 3.40. Any corner-to-
This technique of relating building edges to each corner association between modules should be
other allo,vs spatial leaks out of a cluster and con- avoided becilusc s uch a relationship creates il point
 151

. .
TO CREAiE A ~ E R eE~SE: OF.-PATIAL. S-.CLOSUR..E: \f.lH~ ex-
lB-tDlf...p 1\v1661NAR'-{ LIi-JES, E:UILDll--6 ~ E = S Ai<-E- OYE~PPED.

FIGURE 3.39

FIGURE 3.40
 -,
1:::,_ Buildings

surrounding build ing masses. If the tallest building

is located too close to the outside of the cluster, the
design solution appears out of balance because too

I
----·- ·-
much visual weight is placed to one side.

·-- ---·- -·- .. ·· ·-

- ·-·- -··-- ·--- Siting Individual Buildings
While the discussion to this point has concentrated
U~PESfRAE>LE : o.::,tvfI ~ o n multiple build ing schemes, the landscape archi-
HIGH EUILPI~ \o f>.LACEO iO tect must frequently deal w ith th e siting of individ-
1'HE OJTSLDE ~ CQt-./tFOS\T\Ol-4. ual buildings as lone architectural elements on a site
as well. In siting isolated buildings, one of hrn basic
philosophical approaches usually prevails: (1) treat
ii 1 1 j I I~ ! the building as a positive sculptural element set off
I
from its surroundings, or (2) treat the building as an
:' : . element to b e blended harmoniously into its envi-
. i ! --~
iII I . rons. According to the first concept (Figure 3.-12), the
individual building is designed to be a n attractive,
eye-catching focal point (figure) contrasted against a
.. -·-- --· - - neutral setting (ground). It is a statement of human
and object dominating the environment. The site de-
velopment in this case is minimum in order to qui-
DESIRABLE : t:OMl~AJ-JT HIGH etly s upport but not compete with or overpower the
&.JILDlw:3 l3 PLACED l"O 7HE. building. A building placed by itself in an open field
11---m:::RIOR OF o:::t-.,1fOS ITlO~ . and the conte mporary w hite fa~ad ed residence in a
v\·ooded setting are examples of this design concept.
FIGURE 3.41
To be successful, no other building or noticeable
constructed element should be in the same field of
vision as the individual building so that it is clearly
recognized as the element of importance.
The s econd con cept for siting an individual build-
ing is at the opposite end of the philosophical spec-
of tension on plan and is structurally unsound in trum because it emphasizes the coordination of the
terms of the building construction. building with its site (Figure 3.43). This approach is
The building-to-building interrelation needs to be based on the theory that the building should be an
studied in h eig ht as well as plan for a successful integral part of the site with the two concei\·ed as a
compositional solution. Again, although there are continuum. H ere, people and their d evelopment are
many possibilities to the height organization of a viewed as being part of nature. An effort is made to
multiple building cluster, one should include a com- eliminate any d istinction between what is building
paratively tall building in the design to function as a and what is site. Site character and materials are re-
dominant elemen t. All other buildings, then, in the peated in the building itself to blend the two to-
cluster should relate to and support this dominant gether. Site development in this concept is apt to be
building. A suggestion in locating this commanding more extensive than in the figure/ground relation-
building is to place it somewhere in the middle of ship described above. Examples of this second ap-
the compos ition with the other building masses proach to the siting of buildings include Falling Wa-
gradually gaining height as they a re placed closer to ter at Bear Run, Pennsylvania, and Taliesin West
it, as in Figure 3. 41. As a result, lower buildings are near Scottsdale, Arizona, both designed by Frank
generally located near the perime ter of the groupin g Lloyd Wright. Neither of the two conceptual meth-
and taller buildings are situated to the inside. Th is ods for siting an individual building is n ecessarily
concept creates a gradual transition from low to high more correct than the other; the one to follow de-
and places the focus more to the interior of the com- pends on the context and objectives of the particular
position, where it can be properly supported by the design project.
Rel;iling Buildi ngs to il Site 153

INDIYl~ L t=:UILPI~ ~ A6Alt---l.ST IT5 SITE-.

FIGURE 3.42

H--OIVIPUAL BUlLO/f-..G BLE.1--\DE:D IH WITH l15 5 \TE .

FIGURE 3.43

buildin gs and the site, as well as drainage. Gen er-

Relating Buildings to a Site ally, it is easier and more economical to locate a
Th ere a rc a number of concepts a nd principles for building on a relatively level site than on one with
visually and functionally relating buildings, both as sloped or irregular landform. On a level site, costs
individual elements and as clusters, to their sur- of building construction and extend ing utilities to it
rounding site in order to achieve a totally cohesive are less than on steeper sites. And as pointed out
design solution . As with all other design guidelines, previously, the building layout can be much more
they need to be evaluated anew each time a project flexible on a comparatively level site . Nevertheless,
is undertaken and applied only when suitable . these initial costs and advan tages of b uilding on
level land should be weighed w ith the longer-term
Landform. One factor that must always be taken costs of destroying valuable cropland that is so often
into account when relating buildings to a site is located on relatively level sites before development.
Iandform. Landform, as discussed in Chapter 1, af- On level landform, a building can be integrated
fects the visual and functional relationship between into its site by extend ing outward in a number of
 Buildings
154

EUILDI~ BB:Olv1E5 Pt-I 11---ITT:G~ ~ T OF $fTE 6-< 'oUIL.Dlf-6 W\hl35

WH'CH ~TI=+-lP INTO 5ITE UKE. A ~ .
FIGURE 3.44

directions, as in Figure 3.44. These extensions of the in Figure 3.46. One typical method is to terrace the
building act like arms that reach out to hold onto ground to simulate a fla t site. The uphill portion of
and encompass part of the site. A visually level site the site where the building is to be located is exca-
also lends itself to both excavation and mounding vated and filled in on the downhill portion to create
that can be undertaken to relate a building to the a levei base for the building. As the slope becomes
adjacent environment. As in Figure 3.45, both steeper, retaining walls may need to be incorporated
spaces or solid land masses can be created to com- on the uphill and/or downhill side to minimize the
plement the architecture and carry selected building amount of cut and fill required to establish the level
forms into the site. terrace. In essence, retaining walls help minimize
As the ground surface becomes progressively site disturbance. Another way the building can be
steeper, it becomes more difficult and expensive as related to a sloped site is by a split-level first floor.
well as visually less stable to locate a building. The This permits the building to be placed into the slope
exact way a building relates to a sloped site depends in a steplike fashion with some of the grade change
on the steepness of slope as well as program objec- taken up in the building itself. With this concept,
tives. Three common techniques for siting a building part of the building structure actually functions as a
on more gentle slopes (3 to 8 percent) are illustrated retaining wall. For a building like a row of attached
 155

BJILDI~ ~ E S A\--4 ll--.!TB3RAL PAR:r Ot= -SITE: iH!<OUSH NOJW.0/1-,..K:1

AHO EXCA'A"TIO~.
FIGURE 3.45

townhouses, the split between levels can occur be- tions where the site is either too steep or sensitive
tween the individual units in the cluster. All these (like a wooded area) to grade. This concept also
concepts for stepping a building with the slope min- lends itself to dramatic architectural solutions with a
imize cut and fill in comparison with the terracing portion of the building cantilevered over the site.
approach. And the stepping technique is often the The plan layout or footprint of a building placed
most successful for expressing the influence of the on a slope should also respond to the difficult topo-
slope and for making the building appear as if it graphic conditions. Remember from earlier discus-
1,,vere indeed a natural part of the slope . sions of valleys and ridges that buiUings should be
On steeper slopes (10 to 15 percent), the split- long, narrow, and sited parallel to the contours to
level method may be taken one step farther so that blend in with these landform types (Figure 3.48).
there is an entire story difference between the uphill Such building plans express the directionality of the
and downhill sides, as shown in the top half of Fig- slopes and minimize the amount of grading required
ure 3.47. The uphill side will have one less story ex- in fitting the building to the ground. Conversely, a
posed above ground than the downhill side with the building will contrast with a slope to a greater de-
building built into the slope. A common example of gree as it becomes less elongated in pla n and/or is
this is a house with one story facing the uphill side placed perpendicular to the contours of the slope.
and two s tories facing downhill. In this situation, a The one situation where a building can be compact
person is able to walk out of the basement on the and ye t fit into the slope is at the end of a ridge or
downhill side. point of topography. Here the building plan can be
One last concept for siting a building on a very more rounded or U-shaped to relate to the bend of
steep slope is to support the building structurally the contours, as shown in Figure 3.49.
above the lower ground elevation, as illustrated in After locating a building on any of the slope con-
the bottom half of Figure 3.47. By means of pole ditions just described, one must give additional at-
construction or other support, the building is ele- tention to the ground directly adjacent to the base of
va ted above the ground with minimal if any change the building. For all conditions, the ground imme-
in the contour of the existing ground plane. This diately around the base should slope away for at
concept, while costly, is app ropriately used in loca- le<1st a short distance so that surface drainage like-
156

Plt....L
B<l5T1~6Rt\CE

CREATE A lERl<ACE BY cur 4 FILL:-----

--- --
Ct<EATE A --rERRk:,E: BY U51~
f<i=_TAINI~ WALL5.

FIGURE 3.46
Relating Buildings to a Site 157

E><\5Tl~G GRAPE

:;; : I I1111111111111111
1

&.I/LOI~ 15 ADAPrEP 10 SLOPE. BY Cf<..E,A.TH..JG

.4-l AbOITla--JAL ~ WHICH "STER=> O-JT 11 AT
LOWER LEYE:.l-.

euwn--.13
11
15 ADAPTED 70 c:LCPE. BY
f0.LE ~ T I O l - - \'' WHICH ELE\./AiE:S 7HE
aJllDlf-G ~ 71--IE G~~D.
FIGURE 3.47

wise flows away from the building to keep the walls o r more above the outside ground elevation (w hile
and floors of the building dry. On sloped sites such also sloping the ground away from the building for
as that illustrated in Figure 3.50, this means a swale drainage). This method safely places the main floor
or low area must be located on the uphill side of the above any possible inflow of water. If a basement is
building between it and the slope to catch the water part of the building, this approach also reduces the
flowing down the slope and divert it around the amount of excavation required. The disadvantage of
building. this method is tha t it tends to emphasize the dichot-
On the level site, the designer has several choices omy between indoors and outdoors because the
for relating the first floor (or ground floor) of a build- grade change acknowledges the separation between
ing to the outside ground level (Figure 3.51). One the two. The inside floor elevation and outside
common me thod is to locate the first floor six inches ground level do not link together as one continuous
158 Building~

---------, ' , '~-----~ \~

\b----,-....... . ' ......._
---- _.,,,.
\t!)
/

\0--/ .
5/
.,,,,.,----
.
.
. ......._
.
'-
- /-,..'
. \.. .
.___.,,,.
/
/
/\0 ........
l4----....... ........_ . . . . .....
....... -- - ·--
,.-,\b
. ,,,..,,,,.,,,\4
.'.
\2----- ,,. ._
---
, _.,,,
. ..-...... ' ............ . __ .,, / 4
10------ ........ . ·- __ ~10
-----------=== .,,,,.,/

t:x....llLDI~ PLAt---1 \SI~ HAR- eLJILDll---B PLPJ---J IS 11--l CON-

Mot-JY WITH SLOPE; CUT ff" ~ T WITH -5l.0Pl=j cur c!f
FILL 15 MINlMIZ..ED. FILL IS ~IMIZED.
FIGURE 3.48

phrnc but instead Me split by the grade change . connection between inside and outside. A related
Therefore a second means for relating the first floor advantage of this concept is the ease of access for
of a building to the ground level immediately ·wheelchairs or people with walking disabilities.
around it is to locate both at the same elevation so Again, though, ground surface immediately outside
that they do flow together, strengthening the inter- the building must s lope away from it to force the

FIGURE 3.49 N~:::Q ~

} I
@ R! 2( J) '° q- ,
(\J
I
I I I I
I I I I \ \
( I I I \ \
I I \
l \
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\
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\
I
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I
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r \
I \ \ j
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\
\ ' " '- \ I (
/

\ ' \.. '

\ "\.
...... I
I \0
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e, "\. "\. '- "' '
......

--- - r,_,,,
/

/
/

"\.

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lO
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10
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"U ,\_~ED BU\LD\l---o P.l..Al--! \5 COr-..1PAil~ WITH THE. ~O'FO~

/SJ" 1HE. E/--.Jb OP 7H=. R!t::GE.
RL'i,1ting lhiildings tn .:i Site 159

UPHILL

5IJA.LE OR LON AREA q...J UPHILL SIDE a= E:LllLDll-45

CATCHt::5 S.JR.ftcl= t:RAlt-.JP<SE cf: DIRECT.5 IT A@:.l(Jl-..\b
-n-tE E.i.JILDI~ .
FIGURE 3.50

surface drainage to do the same. The disadvantage

FIGURE 3.51
of this concept is the possibility of flooding in heavy
rains or in situations where water drains too slowly
away from the base of the building.

Plant Material. Another factor to deal with in relat-

ing a building to its site is plant material. In coordi-
nating buildings and plant material, there are two
areas of concern: (1) relating a building or group of b ''
buildings to existing plant material on a site, and (2) M/1--l.
relating buildings to a site by the correct plc1cement
of new or introduced plant mc1terial. In the first sit-
uation, the possible extremes of existing vegetation
conditions in the tempera te zone are the wooded
condition and open fi eld condition.
There are a number of techniques for integrating
a building into a wooded or forest environment
based on a philosophy of minimal d isturbance.
Wooded areas are sensitive ecosystems with a num-
ber of design constraints. They have limited ground
area available for buildings (without cutting down
trees), cannot tolerate compaction of the ground s ur-
face or major change in the elevation of the ground
plane, and are dark and shaded during summer.
Consequently, buildings located on a wooded site
should be designed to respond to these constraints,
as suggested in Figures 3.52 and 3.53. A building
s ited in a wooded area should be compact in plan
160 Buildi ngs

euu. .Olf-..G PLAi-l 15 COM-

PP-CT 4 '( ~ I C" ; ~
~ iO lf-.JDIV\.0..4-
,AJ.... TREE= LJXATIQ-4.- - - - = r

PLN-J : eu 1LOn-.1e .LOCATED I~ ~ AR.t:A.

FIGURE 3.52

layout in order not to tnke up too much ground area. gcstcd in order to minimize the amount of excava-
The less ground area covered, the fewer the number tion and grading required in the construction of the
::,f trees that have to be cut down. To provide for building. For pole-constructed buildings, excavation
needed floor area, a building should be organized is essentially limited to the individual locations of
vertically in a multistory arrangement. A proportion- the poles. The remainder of the ground surface in
1lly tall building takes up less ground area and vi- the vicinity of the building can be left reasonably un-
;ually echos the verticality of the trees. Besides disturbed. In a similar vein, walks or outside living
oeing compact, the plan layout must be flexible and areas associated with the building should be con-
organic to respond to the location of individual structed as wood decks also elevated above the
rees. In most instances a plan that is modular or ground. Again, this minimizes excavation, reduces
.neplanned before being sited requires more trees to compaction of the ground surface, an d allows sur-
be cut down th an one tailored to respond to the in- face drainage to filter through the decking to the
{ividual trees at a specific site. ground below.
Furthermore, buildings located in wooded condi- When buildings are placed in an open field, other
fions should ideally be constructed with their first concepts are suggested for relating them to the site.
floor slightly elevated above ground, as is the case Owing to the lack of constraints created by trees, the
f a house built with pole construction. This is sug- buildings can be much more flexible in their plan ar-
 161

t--0 0/ERHA}-..)S ~ Ro:JF TO ~IM\"Z.E

E:;XfO:::LJP--t= TO ~l6HT.------1-
Cl-ERE.S10R'( ~ ~fTlot-4AL-
L\6HT ~R.CE FQ<.. It---TTE.RIOR
-=f>,6C'E5.

FIGURE 3.53

rnngement (assuming other factors such as soil, rounding site by carrying lines, forms, and spaces
slope, drainage, and the like also permit this). Build- into the site, as shown in Figure 2.68. Recall that a
ings located in open fields can be more sprawling roof line or wall mass can be extended into the ad-
and low in profile as long as topography permits. joining site by masses of plant material that repeat
Changes in the ground plane can occur more easily lines and masses of the building itself. Or the ceiling
and with less disturbance in an open field than in a of an interior space can be extended into the site
woodland. Because of the lack of trees in an open through the use of tree canopies that are approxi-
field, exposure to the sun becomes a problem during mately the same height as the interior so that exte-
summer. To provide sun protection, shade trees and rior spaces are made to seem as if they were related
large roof overhangs on the buildings are required. portions of one overall, unified design.
Some of these concepts are shown in Figure 3.54.
The way introduced plant materials are selected Building Desig!}. The design and layout of the
and located, especially in an open field condition, building itself also influences its integration into the
also influences the integration of a building into its site. Factors that should be taken into account in-
site. Remember from Chapter 2 that plant material clude the functional relation between indoors and
can be used to complement the architecture of a outdoors, the interpenetration of space between
building. Vegetation rnn relate a building to the sur- building and site, and the use of windows. Of these
 Buildings
162

FIGURE 3.54

different considerntions that affect the relation of a and entertainment areas are public, while sleeping
building to its site, certainly the functional organi- and bathroom areas are private. To permit the house
zation is one of the more critical. It is essential that to properly relate to the site, the outdoor functions
the interior use in a certain area of a building is com- should be located so they are next to compatible in-
patible with the exterior function immediately out- door functions, as illus trated in Figure 3.55. For ex-
side in the site. ample, outdoor s torage, garden, and work areas
Ideal functional relationships between indoors should relate to the garage and the kitchen. The out-
and outdoors can be described and illustrated with a door living and entertaining area should ideally be
single-family residence. For instance, a typical sin- placed next to either the family room or the living
gle-famiiy residence can be divided into two primary room. Outdoor entertainment should not be located
functions: living quarters and the work/storage area . near bedrooms because of potential party noise.
The kitchen, portions of the basement, and the ga- Likewise, it would be awkward to have to walk
rage represent the work/storage areas, while the re- through the outdoor entertaining area to get to the
mainder of the house can be considered the living work or garden area. These ideal functional relation-
quarters. The living quarters can be further s ubdi- ships between inside and outside a single-family res-
vided into public and private areas: eating, social, iden ce are nothing more than logical arrangements.
Relating Buildings to n Site 163

--LIVl/--!6
. .
=+
..
IN:Yi<K.-

PRIVATt::
LAWN

I
FIGURE 3.55

Yet how many times have you experienced a home planed building, the separation between indoor and
that did not work well because of poor functional outdoor space is clean and definite. There is no in-
relationships between house ,md site? The same terlocking of the two spatial volumes. The building
thinking that is applied to relating the functions of a is seen more as an object sitting on the site than one
residence to its site should also apply to all buildings interacting with and becoming part of the site. How-
and site regardless of type or scale. ever, when portions of the building mass are pushed
Another architectural aspect that affects the rela- inward or pulled outward, indoor and outdoor space
tion between building and site is space. A building begin to interpenetrate each other. The building
that is a simple, flat planed box has a weaker spatial mass and the adjoining outside space become like
relation to its site than one that allows the exterior interlocking hands or pieces of a puzzle. Graphic ex-
space to interpenetrate the building mass. In a flat amples of this concept are illustrated in Figures 3.56
 Buildings
164

FIGURE 3.56

and 3.57. With the interconnecting of indoor and to fostering the continuity between the inside and
outdoor space, the division between building and the outside of a building is maximizing the amount
site begins to blur. The building and site become one of window area, which in tum permits s trong visual
total integrated environment rather than two sepa- linkage between indoors and outdoors. Windows act
rate entities placed next to each other. as physical barriers but not visual or psychological
One other architectural solution that contributes ones. Windows allow outdoor spaces and elements

FIGURE 3.57
Relating Building:- k1 i'\ Sile 165

FIGL'RE 3.58

to become visually part of the indoors for a person A transition space can be created by partially de-
sitting or standing inside a building, as shown in lineating c1n area outside a building entrance with
Figure 3.58. The ultimate use of glass for this pur- plant material, walls, mounding, and/or distinct
pose is the famous glass house designed by Phillip pavement pattern, as shown in Figure 3.60. An ad-
Johnson in New Canaan, Connecticut, in which the ditional option is to create a space by extending the
entire exterior fa~ade is glass. Here, site elements upper floors of the building over the first floor en-
such as trees become the true spatial edges of the trance area. This space, while physically outside, is
house. protected from the weather and produces an inter-
connection between building mass and exterior
Transition Space. A concept for relating a building
space, as discussed in the previous section.
to its site that is ,·ery similar to interlocking indoor
A critical factor in organizing a transition space is
and outdoor space is the provision of a transition
the placement of a grade change. As stated before,
space at building entrances. A transition space di-
the strongest sense of continuity between interior
minishes the break between indoors and outdoors
and exterior spaces results when the inside floor and
and allows a person entering or leaving a building
the ground immediately outside a building are at the
to make the change between them in a gradual man-
same elevation. Therefore, if a set of steps is needed
ner. It is undesirable to force a person to move
to accommodate a grade change, it should be either
abrup tly between two different settings because this
located a short distance from the building on the
establishes both a physical and a psychological sep-
outside or placed a short distance inside, as in Fig-
aration between the two. Rather, it is advisable to
ure 3.61. The steps should not be placed right at the
create a s pace that is neither indoors nor outdoors,
door because this eliminates any interior/exterior
allowing for a slow change between the two. In ad-
unity and is dangerous for opening or closing the
dition to this, a transition space is necessary to phys-
door. It is not safe to require a person to open a door
ically separate an entrance from other areas and
while simultaneously making a step up or down.
functions such as a pedestrian walk. It is inconven-
ient and dangerous to permit a door to open directly
onto a walk because of the congestion that results Walls. Both retaining a nd freestanding walls may be
c1nd the possibility of a person wc1lking or running utilized to visually and functionally relate a building
into the open doors (Figure 3.59). Lo its site. Particularly effective in this regard are
166 Buildings

UhlDE51RMLE ~ TRAJ--BITIO}.J 6P~ At BJIL.Pl~ EJ.-lTR.AJ--CE.

FIGURE 3.59

walls th<1t extend o ut in to the s ite from the building. use of either freestanding or retaining walls is to re-
Extended building walls can act like arms that reach peat the material in the building fa<;ade in the walls
out and hold onto the site, as suggested previously located throughout the site as shown in Figure 3.62.
for building layout. This technique also diminishes This establishes visual "recall" and visually links the
the distinction between where the building ends and building to the other walls in the immediate en vi-
the site begins. The two " m elt together." Another ronment.

FIGURE 3.60

....
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.... .. . ....
...
. . . . ...
............
....
. ... ..

_......___
...... ... .. ....
..... ...
... ... ....
.... ..
... ·····
......
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...... :: :: : :: :: :: :
. ... ...
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. . . . . . . . . ... .... ... .... ..
 167

1
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CATED 7CO CLO'.::£ 10 7HE: SJSE A-NAY ~ EUILDIWG ECG-E)
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FrGURE 3.61

FIGURE 3.62
 Buildings
168

..J

~ " " ! ' ! l ! " ' ! I ! ~ ~ ....

~ ~~~~~~~
!'!"!':'!..
- ....
,-...c:~::...-:z
--,::::---~

FIGURE 3.63

Pavement. Pa\·ement is still another design element tween inside and outside. Figure 3.63 illustrates the
that can be employed to unify a building and its site. application of some of these concepts.
As discussed more extensively in the next chapter,
lines and patterns in an area of pavement next to a
building should relate directly to the form and lines Summary
inherent in the building itself. Pavement patterns As one of three major elements in the landscape,
can be made to correlate with building corners, buildings and their associated land area are critical
doors, window edges, and window mullions in or- in the organization and character of the outdoor en-
der to enhance the visual relation between a build- vironment. In clusters, buildings are able to create
ing and hard surfaces, as illustrated in Figure 4.19. outdoor spaces that vary from a small courtyard to
Or the pavement material can be the same as that on an urban plaza of some grandeur. The exact charac-
the building fa~ade as a method for unification. ter of an outdoor space established primarily by
Brick, stone, and concrete are materials successfully buildings depends on the plan arrangement of the
repeated between building wall and adjacent pave- buildings in addition to their size and fenestration.
ment. Another similar concept is to repeat the ma- Within the framework of defining outdoor spaces,
terial used on the floor inside the building as a pave- effort should be made to visually and functionally
ment material outside the building. This works es- coordinate a building with its site by proper treat-
pecially well when the same material extends out- ment of landform, repetition of materials, plan ar-
side a building at the same elevation with only a rangement of the buildings, and transition spaces at
glass window or door demarking the boundary be- building entrances.
 4
Pavement

The ovcr.:ill framework of most outdoor spaces,

whether large or small, formal or informal, urban or
Functional and Compositional Uses rural, is crea ted by landform, plant materials, and
Ac:commod,1tc lntcnSl' u~c build ings, as already discussed. These major design
Provide Din,.:tion elements, both individually and collectively, create
Suggest Rate and Rhythm of tvlovement outdoor spaces by affecting the ground plane, verti-
Create Repose cal plane, and overhead plane. Within this spatial
Indicate Use~ o n tlw Crnund Pl,rnc
framework, the use and organiza tion of elements on
Influence Scale
Provide Unity
the ground plane itself becomes an important aspect
Serve as a Setting
in completing the spatial definition and feeling, as
Establish Spatial Char,,cter well as fulfilling other desired utilitarian and aes-
Pro\'ide Visual Inte rest thetic uses.
Pavement, water, and vegetative surfaces such as
Design Guidelines for Pavement
lawn, ground cover, annuals, or low shrubs are all
Basic Pavement Ma teria ls different elements that may be integrated into the
Loose Pavement: Gr,1wl and Jts Vuriations ground plane to achieve various design objectives.
Unit P.ivers
Of these, pavement stands out as the one " hard"
• Slt>II('
structural element. This chapter discusses the com-
• Brick
• /11lrrh,ckii1g !•rick
positional and functional uses of pavement in the
• Tilt· landscape and the different types of pavement that
Adhesive Pavement can be used along with the aesthetic and functional
• Portla11rl ce111l'11I co11crclc chdracteristics of each.
• 1Jilw11iiw11~ n•11a<'le (a,p/111/1} Pavement is any hard natural or artificial surface
Summary
material consciously placed on the ground plane of
an outdoor space to establish a durable surface while
also satisfying design objectives. Examples of pave-
ment include gravel, brick, tile, stone, concrete, as-
phalt and, in some cases, wood decking.
Pavement has several characteristics that set it
apart from other ground surface materials. First, as
has been pointed out, pavement is a hard, compar-
atively nonpliable surface material. As such, it is rel-
atively fixed and nonchanging. Plant material and
water, on the other hand, are quite variable over
time . Because of pavement's rather permanent qua!-
 Pavement
170

ity, it is a good structural material to support intense than from a surface of vegetation, causing disturbing
uses on the ground plane and establish fixed ground glare. As one illustration, concrete reflects about 55
areas that remain the same over time. A classic ex- percent of the sunlight that falls on it, while average
ample of the durability of pavement is the Appian vegetation reflects 25 percent. 7
Way, constructed by the Romans from Rome south Another negative quality of some pavement types
to Brindisi. This road, begun in 312 B.C., still can be is that they are impermeable to p ercolation of water.
seen and used in some sections. Besides its perma- Consequently, they create more surface runoff than
nence, pavement is able to define exact edges of would occur from a lawn, grassland, o r woodland .
shapes and forms on the ground plane while la·w n Used in great quantities such as in urban areas, this
and ground cover edges must be constantly trimmed quality of impervious pavement can cause flooding
or contained with another material to achieve similar and erosion downstream owing to the great volume
results. of runoff.
Another general cha racteristic of pavement is that Finally, pavement can give an impersonal, barren
it is a relatively expensive ground surface material, quality to the outdoor environment if overused or
particularly in comparison with vegetative ground poorly detailed. Many urban areas suffer from ever
surfaces. For example, brick on a sand base costs present, inhuman expanses of hard paving.
about $5.44 per sq ft (930 sq cm) installed (exact
cost, of course, varies with geographic location), 1
4-in (10 cm) thick Portland cement concrete cost:_; Functional and Compositional Uses
about $2.81 per sq ft for an area 1, 000 sq ft or less,: As with the other physical landscape architectural
and 2 1/2-in (6.5 cm) thick stone in a random ashlar design elements, pavement has a number of poten-
pattern on a sand bed costs about $8.50 per sq ft. 3 tial functional and compositional u ses in the land-
On the other hand, a sodded lawn area costs about scape. Some of these functions are singular while
S0.21 per sq ft in northern areas of the United States most occur simultaneously with one another. Many
and seeded lawn costs about $0.04 per sq ft ins talled of these u ses can be reinforced through the sensitive
for an area 1,000 sq ft (90 sq m) or less. 4 and coordinated use of the other design elements.
While initially more costly than vegetative sur-
faces for material a nd installation, pavement often Accommodate Intense Use. Probably the most ob-
holds an advantage over a longer period of time in vious functional use of pavement is its ability to ac-
terms of cost. Pavement typically is less expensive to commodate constant, intense use on the ground
maintain than either lawn or ground cover. Al- plane without immediate deterioration. Paved sur-
though not totally maintenance free, pavement does faces, compared with lawn or ground cover areas,
not require mowing, watering, or fertilization . Na- can withstand considerable wear and tear w ithout
tionally, Americans spend about $12 billion a year to loss of character or erosion of subsurface soil layers.
maintain about 20 million acres (about 8 million Similarly, pavement can accommodate wheeled ve-
hectares) of lawn. 5 hicles more easily than other ground surface mate-
Pavement is not without its disadvantages despite rials. On foot, a person can go almost anywhere, yet
its wide potential applications in outdoor spaces. in a wheeled vehicle, a person is generally restricted
Pavement tends to be much hotter than vegetative to pavement or stable earth surfaces. Furthermore,
ground surfaces exposect to the sun. Near the pavement can perform throughout the year in all
ground surface itself, it may be as much as 5 to 6 weather conditions . Of course, one of the big dis-
degrees F. hotter over pavement than over lawn or advantages of law ns is that they cannot be submit-
ground cover. 6 To compound this problem, more ted to concentrated use nor can they be used in wet
sunlight is u sually reflected from pavement surface weather when they are easily converted into a
muddy quagmire. In dry weather pavement pre-
vents wind erosion and dust that result from barren
1
Kathleen W. Kerr, ed., Co::/ Data for Lamfscapi! Co11$trurticlll. earth surfaces. In addition, pavement that is ade-
1982, 3rd annual ed . (Minneapolis: Kerr Associates, 1982), p. 168. qua tely engineered may be subjected to considerable
%id., p. 170.
3
Ibid., p. 172.
%id., p. 86.
'Ted Williams, "The Joe-Pye Weed is Always Taller in the ;Wi11dow Desf.1!11 Strategies to Co11scr1•c E11ergy, National Bureau
Other Person's Yard," A11d111>011 83(4): 108 Ouly 1981). of Stand,1rds Building Science Series 104 (Washington, D.C.: U.S.
6
Charles McC!enon, ed., Ln11dscape Pla11ni11g for Enasy Conser· Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, 1977),
t•nt/011 (Reston Virginia: Environmental Design Press, 197i), p. 50. pp. 1-1 3.
functinn,11 und Comp()sition,11 Uses 171

FIGURE 4.1

structural pressure such as that produced by the configurations of pavement used to give direction
weight of a truck. Pavement, if properly con- are a road in the countryside, a walk leading up to
structed, can do all of this without undue mainte- the front door of a house or public building (Figure
nance. 4.1), paths in a park, and walks leading across large
open spaces on college campuses. All these exam-
Provide Direction. A second function of pavement is ples tell a person where to walk or drive.
to give direction and indicate movement when used The use of pavement to suggest direction of
as a thin strip or in a linear manner on the ground movement works well when the ribbon of pavement
plane. Pavement can suggest movement in several follows a logical path of movement but becomes a
ways. First, pavement can indicate where and how problem when the route of movement is too circu-
to move from one point to another by leading the itous, making it easier to take "short cuts." This
eye and keeping the pedestrian or vehicle "on problem can be prevented in park or campus set-
track." This works especially well when the ribbon tings if "desire lines" can be anticipated and plotted
of pavement is placed on a vegetative background on plan, as in Figure 4.2. The walks, then, should
such as a lawn or countryside. Examples of linear generally reflect these "desire lines" to eliminate the
172

. -. . ~ .

WNJ<,5 ARE DES~D A~D LO-

CA"TED 7"0 Rt=.A...'ECT DES\i<E
Ll~E5.

FIGURE 4.2

rIGURE <l.3
Function.ii and Compos itional Uses 173

FIGURE 4.4

need for cutting across the grass. If numerous desire noting a casual, pastoral feeling; rectilinear and
lines are found within a particular space, as in Fig- rigid, indicating a formal, controlled quality of walk-
ure 4.3, it might be advantageous to provide a large ing; or angular and irregular, suggesting an erratic,
plazalike expanse of pnvement to allow more free- nervous means of circulation, as indicated in Figure
dom of movement and produce a unified layout. 4.5. A direct path from one point to another sug-
Too many paths of pnvement dissecting an open gests a formal, strong relation between the two
lawn area can break it up into numerous poorly re- points, while a meandering link indicates an inci-
lated spaces. dental relation. Each of these characteristics has its
The concept of directing movement with pave- appropriate place of application. Therefore the d e-
ment also applies in hard-surfaced urban settings, signer should carefully select the desired feeling of
where it is sometimes desirable to pilot the pedes- movement before settling on a particular layout.
trian through a sequence of spaces. The visual and
physical connectio ns among adjoining open spaces Suggest Rate and Rhythm of Movement. Besides
in urban environments are frequently ill-defined and suggesting direction, a linear layout of pavement can
unknown to the first-time visitor. In this situation, a influence the rate and rhythm of movement, as in-
thread of pavement that is distinctly different from dicated in Figure 4.6. The wider a ribbon of pave-
its surroundings can physically link the various open ment is, the more casual the rate of walking can be.
spaces together and subtly direct a pedestrian On a relatively wide path, a person can get out of
through them by means of its commonality, as illus- the way of others and stop to observe a particular
trated in Figure 4.4. When leaving this particular point. Or the person can slowly meander from side
pavement and crossing onto a different material, the to side of the walk, taking in different scenes along
pedestrian experiences a new direction of move- the way. As the width of pavement narrows, one is
ment. forced to continue to move ahead with little oppor-
The layout of linear segments of pavement not tunity to stop without getting entirely off the pave-
only affects the practical aspects of circulation but ment. These characteristics can be further reinforced
the more subtle character of movement as well. For if the wider area of pavement is also somewhat
example, the path may be smooth and flowing, con- rough, making rapid movement difficult and the
174 Pavement

CASUAL 1---!ERVOUS

FIGURE 4.5

narrow area of pavement made smooth to accom- variation, or by the width of pavement. For exam-
modate easy, fast movement. ple, equal sp acing of stone blocks along a path can
The rhythm of mo\·ing along a linear path can establish a regular cadence by which a pedestrian
also be influenced by the design and layout of pave- can measure time and progression through space, as
ment. Where a pedestrian places a foo t and how far indicated in the left portion of Figure 4.7. For a dif-
apart individual steps are taken are two aspects of ferent effect, the spacing might be closer between
the rhythm of walking. Both these factors can be af- some s tones and farther apart between others so
fected by the spacing between blocks of pavement that the pedestrian's rhythm is short and quick at
or distance between expansion joints, by material one point and long and s lower at another, as in Fig-

FIGURE 4.6
WIDE : SLON, C.65LJAL tv10ll=MEI---TT".
t-4ARRDH: AAPID,.Plf<,.B::T
t-/0/EMENT.------
Function,11 ,,nd Compositional Uses 175

.
.
··o·· ··o··
. .
.

···o··
.
.-o·.·
·.
·.
. . .
.
..
.
.
~·---·-· ~ .:.~ ..
. ·-o:;:,_~~~;_-~;-- ·. .
. ..
·_..·._:_.o_-·_··..
. .L__l
:I I:..:..
·--- .:I r-
--1--,.... ·-:o
.
. . ·.--~-
..
..

.
.
.

.
.
. ·.
. .
.. ~·:-·~~~:--'-·'":=""'·,··
;;·-. . ·I
_. _·..-.I
I-'·
1.·...
.··o:.--
.·.1 r·
.
. J
·. -·o···
. .··._.
·.-o::- I :· -; :
.--
·-. : ·· . . .

. .o .. ··o··.. ·o··· ··.-1

.. . ---- .
•• 7·,-::.·=-=:.
.. . .. . .
I·:·. ·. · ·
.. .. . . :
.· ..-1 j:"
SIZE SP,ACI~
D .. ·""==-.
. . -~-:~~1 . . .
1'¥-TERIAL
. ·"J
WIOTH
1:.
Rrh'THM OF \v10VEMs--.lT CA\--J eE. 1\--JFLUEl-CEP BY 71-\E A'eOJE VAf<..\-
,ABLE.5.
FIGURE 4.7

ure 4.7. Likewise, a strip of pavement that alternates Create Reeose. A use of pavement opposite to giv-
between wide and narrow as it progresses between ing direction is to create a sense of repose and rest.
two points establishes a rhythm of tension and relief Pavement can suggest a stationary experience , \·hen
suggesting rapid and slow movement. And alternat- it occurs in relatively large, nondirectional forms or
ing the pavement materials in a repeating pattern patterns, as illustrated in Figure 4.8. Nondirectional,
also creates a sensation of rhythm as one moves static forms of pavement or pavement patterns are
along a walk. appropriate for stopping and resting areas along a

FIGURE 4.8
 Pavement
176

....

::::::::::::;;::·:··:················:····:: ::·::::::::::::::::::::;::::
. ::::::::;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::·:

J'- •............................................... ~
"-·--~~~·
............... . .
: : : : : : : :: ~ : : : :: :: . :: : : :: . . . .
..
. ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
,,.....,,-,,,-,,,-,,,-,,,-::,-,:,-,,,-::; :
....

PA\/EM8-.IT PATTERhl IS STATIC

N--1D ~ P l F<-E:C.1\0NAL .

FIGURE -l.9

path or for central meeting spaces in the landscape. cases, a static pavement pattern is also necessary to
In creating a sense of repose with pavement, care- accent the stationary quality of the space. These
ful consideration must be given to the choice of the same thoughts apply at an intersection of walks.
pavement material as well as to the pattern in which Various possibilities and results are illustrated in
it is laid out so that it clearly says "stop" when · Figure 4.10.
placed in the context of adjoining paths of move-
ment, as suggested in Figure 4.9. In some situations, Indicate Uses on the Ground Plane. Pavement, and
a simple change of material in the nondirectional · ib changes from one space to another, can be used
space is enough to reinforce its purpose. In other in outdoor spaces to signify varying uses and func-

FIGURE 4.10
. :::::: . .: . . : . . .
. :::::: .- .. . .
,..
. . .. . .
.
..
. .
'

- ..... ...............
. :::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::
..
...........................
········ ................... :::::: :::::::
.. ...........
. . . . . . . .. . ...
;::::::::::::::::::::
................... ..
:: ~ : :: : : : : :: : : :: : ::: :: :: ::: .............
............. .·····················
...................
·····················
·······::::::::~::::::
::::::::::·:::: .....
:::::::::::::: r •
:·:::::::::::· ..
. .
.
.. . .. ,,.
.
. ..
.
NOv'EJv{Ef-..IT ~ I-./\CNEM8-fr ALa.B 1--b PR.I~ MOIE-
N-S A'x\5. E:.-W AXIS. Meµr.
PA\/EMEJ..rr PATTE=~ Ll5E=O "TO s..B5EST ?Rltv\AR-1' Pll<-ECTIOI--J THRCU3H A~
/1---ITt="RSE.Cr IOf-.l.
Functional and Cornpo~itional Uses 177

o...rn:xx::R. EATH---16 / ~PE: -

TERIA -----'----------------:-:,--------'----t-

~E/~lil~
'5PKE

AARNAL MEA----------
CI RCLl!-AilON / ~ i--.rf-·--------r~---t-~

0-.TTS\bl:= 51 rrn--\G AJ<.EA - - - - - - - - - -

Plf FE:RB-tT PAVE.MEJ-li MA71=.RIAL5 Al<E U5ED 1"0 Rl=l~FOf<CE 7'HE
PAP=rlCULAf<._ FU~CTIOr-J5 CX:::: \t-lD\\/IDUAL oun:x:::of<. SPtc\:='S.
FIGURE ,1.11

tions on the ground plane. 8 It has already been a walk such as an automobile crossing can be indi-
stated that changes in pavement can identify differ- cated by a variance in the pavement material. The
ences between movement, rest, sitting, gathering, pedestrian should notice this deviation and be
focal arec1, and so forth. By c1ltering color, texture, or warned of a different use of the walk at this point.
the pavement material itself, as in Figure 4.11, a sep- Likewise, the pedestrian crossing in a street can be
aration of uses and activities can be implied from denoted by a change in the pavement of the cross-
one space to another. One rule of thumb suggests walk itself. Before the days of painted street lines, a
that pavement be altered from one area to another change in pavement material was ·a common method
in a design only if the use also varies. If use or activ- for signifying a pedestrian crosswalk. An example of
ity is to remain the same, then the pavement should 'this, shown in Figure 4.13, is found in such New
also remain constant. England villages as Nantucket, where large, smooth
One application of this potential function is to use slabs of granite were used to identify crosswalks.
a change in pavement to indicate a hazard for pe- This still has its applications and is more attractive
destrians. As in Figure 4.12, a dangerous area along than the ever present painted crosswalk. A common
method for pointing out the dissimilarity between
pedestrian and vehicular circulation is to use a rela-
8
Vincent J. Bellafiore, "Pavement in the Landscape: The De- tively smooth pavement for the pedestrian surface
sign and Construction of Surfaces for Pedestrian Spaces," in and a rougher material for the vehicular surface. The
H1111rlbook of L1111rlsc,q><! Arcliitect11re Co11structiorr, Jot D. C.1rpenter,
ed. (McLean: The Landscape Architectural foundation, 1976), smoother surface is easier for the pedestrian to walk
p. 596. on while the coarser pavement is readily observed in
178 Pan:>ment

\---l..6ZARD-- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - --t-

CH6-W3t:: OJ= PAYEMEµT If-.! STREE:T Al--lD

5/PEWALK 15 USED m 11--lDICATE. A HAZARD.
FIGURE 4 .1 2

contrast to it. In addition, the rugged surface slows

FIGURE 4.13
vehicles down, a desirable objective in pedestrian
areas.

Influence Scale . Another functional and composi-

tional use of pavement in exterior spaces is to influ-
ence scale. 9 The texture of pavement material, the
size of individual paving blocks or modules (as in
flagstone and brick), and the size and spacing of
paving patterns are all factors that affect the per-
ceived scale of a paved area. La rger, more expansive
patterns give a space a sense of being a mple in scale,
while smaller, tighter patterns are likely to make a
space feel diminished and intima te, as in Figure
4.14. Pavement patterns involving brick or s tone
bands, for instance, can be applied to large areas of
concrete or asphalt to reduce the apparent scale of
these areas and provide visual relief from these po-
tentially drab materials, as illustrated in Figure 4.15.
The patterns introduced into the prima ry pavement
material will actually subdivide the total space into
smaller, more easily perceived su bspaces. When us-
ing a pattern of contrasting material on the ground
plane, the difference of color and texture should
generally be quiet and subtle in order to contribute
to the unity of the pavement. Th e more striking the
pattern becom es, the more a ttention it d emands,
competing w ith other ele ments in the overall design.

9
lbid., p . 594.
 179

. .
. . ...
. .. . .. . . .. . · .. .

-. . . . . .. . .. . . . . .
. . . . . ..

PA'\/EkiENT PATTERN Ci<.EATE5 PAYE.MEITT PA"TTE:R}-.\ CREAif::5

A ~ OF LAFBE. OCALE. A S ~ Of SNALL s:.ALE:.
P A ~ PATTER}--..! USED TO l~F=LUt=ls--t~ ~ a=. a..rrco:::R
&Aet=-.

FIGURE 4.1 4
- - - - -- - - - · · --· ---·- ~-- ~~~~
FIGURE 4.15

. . : . . . . ·. . . . _. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .

~-

.
.. .
. . . . . . . . .. . ·. . .

L..AR2,E: EXPAt--EE. OF- PAVE= - PATTE:Rt--4 Ot= BR-.le:K./stONE.

MEm WtTHOJT A 5E~E OP PRO/IDE=5 A ~t=:. OF ~ .
s::N-E.
 Pavement
180

·.Q·.·
.
..
..
.
.

STI<Ot---G- PAYr=:ME=+·-iT PATTER!-\

Uf-H FIE? EU:::ME:t--rrS WITH COM-
M0--1 Bbe~f<O.J~O.
PA\JEME:f--.rr CAJ---1 et WSED TO UWl~ M-ID Co:)!<DlHATE: 8 - E M ~ IN
'THE. ~ P E = .
FIGURE 4.16

Provide Unity. Already touched upon is the use of Serve as a Setting. Pavement may be used in the
pavement to provide unity in a design. It can do this landscape to act as a neutral setting to other more
by acting as a common material to which all other visually prominent elements. Used in this manner,
elements and spaces of the design relate. 10 The en- pavement may be thought of as a blank tabletop or
tire composition can be linked by the common pave- an empty sheet of paper on which notable elements
ment even though other elements vary greatly in acting as focal points are placed. Pavement can func-
scale and character, as suggested in Figure 4.16. tion as a neutral setting to buildings, sculpture, pot-
Pavement can best function as a unifier when it pos- ted plants, displays, benches, and so forth. Pave-
sesses a distinct or unique pattern, making it easily ment that is to function as a background should be
recognized and remembered. This use of pavement visually quiet; it should not contain bold patterns,
is successfully applied in urban environments to vi- . coarse texture, or any other attention-holding quality
sually unify a complex of buildings and related out- that would compete with the primary elements to be
door spaces. One example of this application is the seen.
Embarcadero Center in San Francisco. Here, a cir-
cular pattern of small tile pavers shown in Figure
Establish Sr.atial Character. One use of pavement
4.17 is everywhere in the center including indoors
mentioned previously is to establish and reinforce
and outdoors. People easily recognize that they are
spatial character. The paving material used in a de-
at Embarcadero Center by the paving material and
sign along with its surface and edge details can have
know immediately th.at they have left the center
a significant impact on the feeling of the outdoor
when another pavement appears. Similar uses of
spaces in which it is used. Different pavement ma-
strong pavement patterns are found in other urban
terials and patterns can create and reinforce such di-
centers.
verse spatial feelings as refined, rugged, quiet, ag-
gressive, urban, or rural. In terms of specific
materials, brick has the ability to give a warm, invit-
IOJbid., p. 592. ing feeling to a space, angled flagstone provides an
Design Guid elines for Pavement 181

irregular, informal atmosphere, and concrete can Design Guidelines for Pavement
give a cold, impersonal sensation. The material and
As with landform and plant materials, a number of
pattern of pavement i_n a design should be partially
design guidelines should be considered when using
chosen for the feeling desired. It would be incorrect
pavement in the landscape. They should be \,·eighed
to use asphalt in a space meant to be .varm and
with the overall objectives of a design and utilized
friend!\·.
accordingly.
As with any other design element, the number of
Provide Visual Interest. One last use of pavement in materials used in a given area of a design should be
the landscape that can easily be incorporated with simplified to help insure unity. Too much variation
other functions is to serve as an element of visual in a pavement material and/or pattern can easil:, cre-
interest. As people walk through a space, their at- ate visual chaos and disorder. One pavement mate-
tention naturally gravitates downward toward the rial should dominate in a design, as in Figure 4.18,
ground plane. People tend to pay a great deal of at- with other materials added for visual contrast and
tention to what is underfoot and immediately in variety as well as suggesting other uses on the
front of them. Thus the visual quality of pavement ground plane. The one dominant material can be
is an important factor in determining the intrigue used throughout different locations of a design in
and fascination with a design. In some instances, order to establish unity and recall.
pavement material and pattern may be selected The selection of pavement material and the de-
solely for eye appeal. A distinct paving pattern can sign of the pavement pattern should be undertaken
not only provide visual stimulus but can also create simultaneously with the selection and organization
a strong sense of place as it does in the Piazza San of the other elements of a design to help insure that
Marco in Venice and the Piazza del Duomo in Milan. the pavement is visually and functionally integrated
Furthermore, a striking pattern may be a special into the entire scheme. It is not a desirable proce-
point of appeal for upper story windows that look dure to select and design the pavement as an after-
down on the floor of a nearby outdoor space. thought late in the development of a design solu-
182 Pavement

..... . ...... . . .. .... .

::: ::::::::::: :::: :::
. . ::; :::;::::::: :::: :::
. . :~: ::::::::::: :::: :::
::: ;:::::::::: ::::
.............. :::
.......
~!~ :::::::::::
.::. ::: n~
;~nit!!!! :~!:::!~ :::
j~~ ~~!!~~!~~!~ iii~ ii;
::: ::::::::::: :::: :::
... :::::::::::
::: :::: :::
.................

O~E:. PAYEMEJ-JT ~TER\AL SHOULD COMl~iE- 11--J A OE5\6f--4.

FIGURE -t18

tion. While selecting a paving pattern, one should The pavement pattern should be studied in eye-
study it in both plan and eye-level perspective. In level perspective in addition to the plan itself be-
plan, attention should be given to creating a visually cause this is how most p eople w ill actually perceive
attractive pattern and to coordinating it with other it. From eye level, the p attern often appears quite
elements of the design including adjoining pave- different than it does in plan. Lines parallel to the
ment materials, buildings, planters, lighting, drop line of sight converge, while lines perpendicular to
inlets, tree wells, and benches, as shown in Figures the line of sight "pile u p" on one another as they
4.19 and 4.20. If treated correctly, the pavement become farther from the viewer, as in Figure 4.22.
should appear to relate strongly to all these design Moreover, th e observed pattern may change as one
elements in a thoughtful, planned manner. When moves through a space gaining varying vantage
adjoining areas of pavement change pattern w ithout points. Unfortunately, most designers rely too heav-
a third transitional material, the patterns and lines ily on the plan alone, failing to u se a perspective
of the two should match and align with each other. study. Without the study, the d esigner may on oc-
This is especially true when dealing with the scoring casion be surprised that the pattern does not appear
lines and expansion joints of concrete or the lines as intended after it has been constructed.
and mortar joints found in stone and tile pavement. Th e pavement selected for a particular space
The lines and pattern of one material should carry should also be suitable for the type of intended use,
on into those of adjoining pavements, as in Figure anticipated intensity of use, and desired spatial char-
4.21. Similarly, the edges and lines of a building acter. Cost usually h as some bearing on what pave-
should be coordinated w ith the pavement next to ment is selected. From a practical standpoint, no
the building so that it visually connects to the pave- pavement material lends itself equally well to all
ment, as in Figure 4.19. possible functions and ac tivities. For example, it is
 183

KlOSK --------=$==:;~~~~~;
CATCH e.A.511-1 - -- - - - 4 - H ---'--+4--1----1--1--1--'---.

PAYEMB---fr PATTERN I.S o::ct<Pl~!ED Wll"H ei-JILDl~6 Nb

8TE. ELEMEl---JTS.

r:JGURE 4 .19

FIGURE 4.20
 Pavement
lb'-.1:

..... ,........................... .
·!i=!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiif:ii!i!~
· · · ·· · · · · ·l:·U\:::U(
:IJ\lrI:]ll\tl · · · · ·l~·ooc
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: DD[
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

rn1111111111t1!1immmmm11

il l l!~l l l l i\ i\ l~~lil\i j\ D D [
l~! !l!l !l il l l l!l ~lml !~! D D[

FIGURE 4.21

easier to walk on s mooth surfaces such as concrete pavement symbolizes to the user that the circum-
or asphalt than rough mat.e rials s uch as gravel or ir- stances of the situation have also varied.
regular fieldstone. Likewise, pavement surfaces can- When converting pavement material or pattern
not be loose or have any bumps or indentations if for specific reasons, several other factors need to be
they are to accommodate wheeled vehicles such as considered. First, some design theorists recommend
bicycles or baby strollers. And some pavement ma- that pavement not vary in the same plane, as indi-
terials adapt better than others to different shapes of cated in Figure 4.23. In other words, if pavement is
paved areas. For instance, concrete is easier to use to be different in two adjoining spaces, there should
in free-form shapes than brick or tile. also be a level change to separate and demark the
As indicated in the previous sections of this chap- two pavement types. The level change functions as
ter, different pavements have different visual char- a transition and avoids the potential problem of hav-
acteris tics. Some are more formal and appropriate in ing the two pavements directly abut each other. If a
public spaces while others are better suited to pri- level change is not feasible for separating two pave-
vate, residential situations. The particular pavement ments that are next to each other, then another ap-
for any space should be selected based on a number proach can be taken . This is to introduce a third,
of considerations. visually neutral material in between the first two ad-
Another guideline for using pavement in the joining materials. The third material visually sepa-
landscape is that it should not be changed from one rates the two materials by a short· distance and pre-
area of a d esign to another without a specific pur- vents incompatible patterns and lines from touching
pose. As s tated earlier, an alteration of pavement each other. This technique is particularly necessary
material between areas usually signifies a shift in use if the first two pavement materials are distinctly dif-
or, in some cases, a change in ownership and con- ferent or visually clashing when placed directly next
trol. Regardless of the exact purpose, a change in to each other, as in Figure 4.24.
 185

·. . . .. :

FIGURE 4.22
186 Pavement

One last design guideline for using pavement in

---- BR\cK-~.,__- the outdoor environment is that smooth-textured
pavement should generally predominate within a
space because it is quieter and visually less aggres-
sive. This is usually desirable so the pavement does
not detract from other elements of a design. Rough-
textured pavements can be used in smaller quanti-
~~~~~~ ties for accent and variety.

LR-lPSSIRABLE.: Dlf=FE:RE:ITT
PAYE=.Ml=f-.4T lv'IATEfZlAL5 AO- Basic Pavement Materials
-JOI~ Et>CH on-lEIZ 0~ 11--4E::. There are numerous pavement materials available
SA.ME Ll::.VEL. for use in the landscape. Generally they fall into
three major groups: (1) loose pavement such as
gravel, (2) unit pavers such as brick, tile, or stone,
and (3) adhesive pavement held together by a bind-
ing agent as in Portland cement concrete or asphalt.
Each of these categories and specific types of pave-
ment have their own unique characteristics and po-
tential uses in landscape architectural design, as will
be discussed in the following pages. As with other
design elements, it is useful to have a good grasp of
these qualities before attempting to design with
pavement.
bEE>IR.ABLf=.: PIFFEREI--IT PAVE·
~ ~TER\AL.5 ARE -::EP-
MATED ~l A LEVEL Cr-W-GE. Loose Pavement: Gravel and Its Variations. Gravel,
FIGURE -f.23 one of the least expensive pavement materials, is
· available in a range of shapes, sizes; and colors.

FIGURE 4.24

~ . . ..
13.lsic Pavement Mat1:ri.:ils 187

Gravel can be either whole or crushed. Whole gravel walk in a courtyard n ext to an office building. In
obtained from direct excavation is usually smooth Great Britain, it is common to find gravel in de-
and rounded . Cnished gravel, as the name implies, pressed walks contained simply by earthen and sod
is formed by crushing larger stone and is rather an- sides. By itself, gravel is a poor material to define the
gular and sharp-sided. Gravel may vary in size from outline of a form on the ground plane because it is
about ¼ in (.6cm) across ("pea gravel") to coarser so easily disturbed with heavy use. This character-
material about 2 in (5cm) across. In color gravel var- istic also results in a maintenance problem because
ies from almost pure white to black, \\'ith many there is frequently a recurring need to rake or sweep
tones of brown and gray in between. gravel back into its proper place. Figure 4.27 shows
As a pavement, gravel has several advantages. the maintenance problem of gravel near the Mall in
One is that it allows surface runoff to percolate Washington, D.C. Moreover, it is difficult to rake
through to the underlying soil. From an ecological leaves or remove snow from a gravel surface because
standpoint, this is good because it helps to replenish the individual stones are easily picked up.
ground water and to supply plant material ,\'ith Another disadvantage of fine or small aggregate-
needed moisture. Furthermore, the less runoff that sized gravel such as pea gravel is that it is an inap-
occurs from a paved area, the less the chance that propriate pavement material to use on slopes be-
erosion and flooding will occur downstream. Gravel cause it may wash away with surface runoff during
also requires less expense in terms of drainage facil- a storm. Here again, containment by means of s teps
ities like drop inlets and pipes because there is not or terracing is necessary. Finally, gravel has the po-
as much runoff as with concrete and asphalt sur- tential of being a difficult surface to walk on, espe-
faces. All in all, gravel is economically and ecologi- cially for women in high heels or people with phys-
cally expedient. ical disabilities that affect walking. This is especially
Gravel does have drawbacks as a pa\·ement ma- tnie when the gravel surface has excessive depth
terial. By its very nature, gravel is loose and there- and/or is not adequately compacted. Both these con-
fore needs to be contained by other elements. Metal ditions result in loose and unstable gravel, making
edging, wood, or the side of another p a\'ement such the walking experience very similar to that of walk-
as concrete can be used to hold gravel in its intended ing on soft sand; a person must exert a great deal of
locations, as suggested in Figure 4.25. Figure 4.26 physical effort and be constantly on the offensive to
shows the use of metal edging to contain a gravel keep balance.

FIGURE 4.25

cot---CF?-.E.TE PAV{:;MENT
fOf<.. cct---.rTAINME.NT------- - -- ----,
G/<AVEL

~PORCEDAA
~ E FQ<. cot--JTAIN-
Me!r -------------"11+++;1. . ,. .
CD!v1P.ACTED EARTH
DETAIL '5ECTION
 Pav\!mcn\
188

FIGURE -U6

FIGURE -! .27

Despite these inconveniences, gravel does have in the adjoining Mall between the Capitol Building
several potential applications and functions in the and the Washington Monument.
outdoor environment. Its loose, textured quality al- Despite gravel's potential instability, it can still be
lows it to be appropriately used in informal and ru- used as a walking surface if it is well contained, has
ral settings to portray a naturalistic character. Simi- a stable base, and is of a fine granular size. Pea
larily, gravel can be used to provide textural interest gravel p roperly compacted and placed on a firm base
and contrast on the grand plane as in Figure 4.28. provides a fine-textured yet safe walking surface.
Yet gravel can also be used more formally if it is v,ell Large, expansive areas of pea gravel for walking are
contained with exact edges. At o ne point in time used in the formal settings along the Mall in Wash-
gravel was used in the sculpture garden at the ington, D .C., at H ampton Court in England, and at
Hirshhorn Museum in Washington, D.C., as well as Versailles in France.
B,1sic Pnvcmt?nt tvtatcri,1ls 189

FIGURE 4.28

One variation of gravel that eliminates its nega- course different from brick or stone, which must be
tive aspects as a walking surface is Epoxy Gravel painstakingly cut to fit curves or odd shapes.
(manufactured under the trade name of Prairie Finally, gravel can be used as a surface material
Film;;:). Epoxy gravel consists of individual pebbles in areas where it is difficult to grow lawn or ground
bound together into a fixed mass by epoxy glue. cover because of shade or lack of moisture. A com-
However, open air space exists throughout the mon application of this is beneath an overhang of a
mass, allowing water to percolate through. At first building. Another adoption is in the desert South-
glance this pavement type looks like gravel but with west, where decomposed granite is a popular
a shiny coating. Epoxy gravel is used mostly as a ground surface material often used in place of lawn
stable, fixed walking surface in regions of warmer and ground cover. Decomposed granite is very com-
climate where frost does not disturb or crack the patible with other materials found on the desert
pavement. floor and, of course, it does not require watering. In
Another use of gravel in the landscape is as a other more temperate climates, however, it is gen-
pavement material in free-form or odd-shaped . erally not advisable to substitute gravel for a mulch
ground forms. Like concrete and asphalt, gravel is a or ground cover around the base of plants. Whereas
fluid pavement medium that can adapt to any shape this may be a maintenance-reducing technique, it
or form in which it is placed. In this way it is of also creates a harsh environment for most plants ex-
190 Pavement

cept those native to the desert. Gravel can greatly a variety of sizes, depending on its function
intensify the heat at the base of a plant and cause and intended appearance. One popular size of
root damage. granite used as a pavement material is referred
to as a "granite set." Each granite set is a block
Unit Pavers. Sto11e. Stone, brick, and tile are exam- that measures about 3 in (7.5 cm) on a side and
ples of unit pavers. Of these, stone is the one type is typically massed together with other blocks
that is a natural as opposed to manufactured mate- in one of several patterns to cover a ground
rial. While it must often be quarried or cut, the stone area.
itself is formed by the forces of nature. Stone is a
The three geological types of stone may be further
very diverse material; it has a number of geological
classified by where they are found and how they are
origins and is available in many sizes, shapes, and
cut. Under this system of classification, the five gen-
earth tone colors. It is also one of the more expen-
eral types are fieldstone, riverstone, cobblestone,
sive pavement materials. The material itself is costly
flagstone, and cut stone. These types are illustrated
and the installation of stone is labor-intensive. The
in Figure 4.29.
various ways by which stone may be categorized
and described are outlined in the following para- Fieldsto11e. Fieldstone is stone of any size and
graphs along with a description of their possible shape found at or near the earth's surface in
uses in the design of exterior spaces. individual pieces. It has been generated from
Three basic geological origins of stone are sedi- the breakup of bedrock or other larger stones
mentary, metamorphic, and igneous. in the region. Fieldstone is not quarried and
therefore tends to be very irregular in shape
Sedi111c11tary Sto11c. Sedimentary stones are formed and size. It is typically used as found, with no
from material deposited at the bottom of large cutting or finishing. Fieldstone is a difficult ma-
water bodies over a long period of time and are terial to use for pavement because individual
composed of small granular particles that have pieces are hard to fit together while the surface
solidified together from outside pressure. (Sed- itself is often rough and oddly sloped. Field-
imentary stones include sandstone and lime- stone is most appropriately used in informal
stone.) Sedimentary stones are porous and soft and infrequently used spaces where an imper-
by comparison with other types of stone and fect naturalistic quality is desired. Unless care-
consequently easily cut. As a pavement, they fully selected and fit together, fieldstone is gen-
can be worn down with intense use and may erally not a proper pavement material for
stain or weather. Limestone is especially s us-
public spaces.
ceptible to chemical weathering. However,
both sandstones and limestones make suitable Riversfone. Riverstone is stone that has been worn
pavements for pedestrian areas. and generally rounded by the a,tion of running
or falling water. Riverstone is readily found in
Metamorphic Sto11e. Metamorphic stone is rock of many rivers of the western United States, par-
any origin that has been transformed by in- ticularly those that receive runoff from glaciers
tense pressure. Consequently, metamorphic or large quantities of snow. The riverstone,
stone is extremely hard and durable. It is also most useful as a pavement surface is usually
quite h eavy and expensive. Marble is a well- only 1 ½ to 3 in (3.8 cm to 7.5 cm) in size; it is
known metamorphic stone used only in limited massed together as an aggregate bonded by
amounts as a pavement because of its expense mortar or sand. Despite the smoothness of in-
and difficulty to cut. dividual stones, an aggregation of riverstones
Ig11eoiis Stone. Igneous stone is rock formed by the is usually rough and texturally appealing. Riv-
cooling of hot molten material. It is similar to erstone may be used to signify nonwalking sur-
metamorphic stone in its strength and durabil- faces, provide textural contrast to concrete or
ity. A well-known igneous stone is granite, a flagstone, or furnish a strong tactile appeal, as
popular pavement material because of its shown in Figure 4.30. Riverstone pavement is
strength and endurance. Although heavy and also commonly used in the bottom or along the
difficult to cut, granite does make a good pave- sides and edges of pools for its texture and nat-
ment material for areas subject to intense use ural association with water. Figure 4.31 shows
and wear or in locations exposed to unusual this use of rivers tone in the base of the foun-
weathering. Granite can be cut and obtained in tain in Point Park in Pittsburgh.
 191

f It=LD5TOt--4E
--~·-·
. . · .
. .

FLkSST"OI----IE

CLIT5TO~ . .·
·o
. . .
.
. .
. .
.

FIGURE 4.29
 Pavement
192

FIGURE 4.30 FIGURE 4.31

Cobblestone. A type of stone very similar to river- drain, especially on flatter slopes, because of its
stone is cobblestone. Cobblestone is also irregularity. Therefore cobblestone is best used
rounded from wearing by moving water but for the same functions as riverstone but where
generally flatter in its overall proportions. And a coarser appearance is desired.
it is typically 3 in (7.5 cm) across or wider. 11
The name cobblestone is sometimes misused in Flagstone. Flagstone is any stone that is layered,
association with Belgian block. Belgian block is allowing it to be split into relatively thin (3/4 in
granite cut into rectangular bricklike blocks, to 2 in) (1.8 cm to 5 cm) slabs or "flags." Flag-
whereas cobblestone is rounded and used as it stone is usually quarried and therefore should
is found. Historically, cobblestone has been not be confused with fieldstone. Examples of
used extensively as a street pavement. Figure flagstone include slate and bluestone. Once
4.13 shows cobblestone as a street pavement stratified, it can be cut into any shape desired
in Nantucket, Massachusetts. Cobblestone is from several inches to several feet across. As
rather difficult to walk on because of its size illustrated in Figure 4.32, flagstone may be cut
and texture. It is also a difficult surface to into rectangles, squares, triangles, or irregular
shapes (these irregular shapes are confused
with fieldstone) and used accordingly in var-
11
lbid ., p. 622 . ious patterns.
~,sic PaH'mcnt i\latcrials 193

·... ·.

.. : .

. .. .

FIGURE 4.32

Flagstone is ri smoother, more refined mate- joints to subsurface soil layers. Flagstone laid
rial than fieldstone and may be used in a num- on a flexible base can readily be removed to al-
ber of situations based on its shape and color. low for excavation for pipes and wires. After
Flagstone cut in rectangular shapes is appropri- installation of the utility, the stone pavement
ately used in formal or urban settings where can be replaced with little indication of distur-
straight lines are prevalent, ·while irregularly bance.
shaped or angled flagstone is easily applied in
informal or n aturalistic circumstances. No mat- Cut Stone. As the name suggests, cut stone is
ter what its shape, flagstone may be placed on stone that has been chiseled or sawn to a de-
either a flexible base such as sand or crushed sired size and shape. There are two kinds of
limestone or on a solid base such as concrete, cu t stone: (1) stone cut into blocks and (2) stone
as shown in Figure 4.33. The construction cut in to thin slabs called "pavers." The two
method for a given situation depends on cost common pavement materials made from cut
and intended use. A flexible base is the less ex- stone blocks are the previously mentioned
pensive and is appropriate for pedestrian u se granite sets and Belgian block, illustrated in
or light use in nonpublic areas. A flexible base Figure 4.34. Granite sets are approximntely 3 in
also has the advantage of permitting some sur- (7.5cm) on a sid e and, like flags ton e, may be
face runoff to percolate down through the placed on either a flexible or a solid base to
 195

. .
. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .

- -·~ _JCSJ··
. {~C JJ~IIIIIIl-
. -'[ :· : ·J '· \ ! • i,

--_ --c~C:.-,.iJ-:
. • • .. 1,.
L
: ..

. .. . . . .. .
.
. ' .. . .. .
..
~fTE. eETS

FIGURE 4.34

FIGURE 4.35

. .. . . . . . .. ..
.
. . . . . ..... . . ' .....
.
. ' '
,________......._
, .......-,---+----e----f .
. .

.. ...
.
•, .. .
..
-
' -- ..
I----'---+----'-___.__ . .

. . .
. . . . . . ... ·. ·...... . . . . . . . : . . . .. ~

. .
. . . .. · ... ·.. .... . . . . . . . . .. ·.. ·. . . . . .

.... .
' . ' ·: . ·- ..
'

.
.
- ~ :.
: .
.. .: : . . . ..· ...~' ~ ._.__-----.(
. . . . . .· : . . . .
. .
.. , .
.
. - .. , . ; ..
R:::eS1~i.i~ PA\/Elv1El---fT PATT~s ·w,T·H CUT sra-JE .'
 Pavement

FIGURE 4.36

mnnufoctured. It is produced from molded or ex- Brick too possesses a number of design character-
truded clay thnt is then fired in a kiln. The higher istics, but it is not as diversified a material as ston e.
the temperature at w hich brick is fired, the harder One of the distinguishing qualities of brick is its
the brick that results. Consequently, brick that is to warm, friendly color. Although clay red is the most
be used as nn exterio r pavement must be fired to common color, brick is also available in a range of
e:-. ln.:m e ly high ll'mpl·ralures. Sort brit:k is nol at:- nllwr 1.·nrlh Lo nes. llrick, by itself o r in combination
ceptable because it breaks apart from wear and frost with other materials, effectively gives an exterior
action. space an inviting, attractive quality based on its

FIGURE 4.37

u 1--lDESIR..Ae>LE :
\--1Ut,./\ E ~ If-.\- Dl3SIRAE>LE : FEW 11-\PIVIDJAL
OIVIDJ,A,L BRICK5 MUST e:E: arr ~CKS MLE>T EE CUT 1V CON-
TO CON'Fa<M TO t=OSE. OP R)FM 10 f<.EGflLl~EAR. ~PE:.
FRl=E - FORM et-lAPE=..
Basic Pavement Mntcri.ils 197

FIGURE 4.38

color. This characteristic of brick is especially attrac- One other potential drawback of brick pavement
tive when brick is integrated ,vith cold, drab mate- is that it does n ot work well in regions of significant
rials such as concrete. snowfall, especially if the joints between individual
Another characteristic of brick is that it is modu- bricks are wide or uneven. Snow is apt to become
lar; that is, it is manufactured in a common fixed compacted into the joints or texture of the brick it-
shape and size that is then repeated throughout a self, making it difficult to keep the surface clean.
design. As illustrated in Figure 4.36, the sta ndard And snow plowing can destroy · a brick pavement
brick is rectangular and measures 2V.i in x 33/-1 in x 8 cons tructed o n a flexible base.
in (about 5.7cm x 9.5cm x 20cm). The modular qual- Despite some of the restrictions for working with
ity of brick limits its flexibility somewhat because brick, it may be used in a number of patterns . Like
one is restrained to the standard shape and size. stone, brick has exciting possibilities for the creation
Any size or form that deviates from this standard of visually attractive two-dimensional patterns.
requires a specially molded brick or one that is cut Some of the more common brick patterns are illus-
to fit the odd shape. For this reason, brick is most trated in Figure 4.39. Of these, probably the most
conveniently used for rectilinear forms and patterns widely used pattern is the running bond because of
on the ground plane. As indicated in Figure 4.37, its ease of layout and installation. It is also a very
brick does not usually adapt easily to curvilinear or directional pattern because of the long lines estab-
free-form shapes because they require a great deal of lished by the rows of bricks. One suggestion for us-
cutting and shaping along the edges of the forms. ing running bond is to align the rows of brick per-
However, brick can be used in radiating or circular pendicular to the primary line of sight across an area
patterns where the radius is generous enough to al- of pavement, rather than parallel to the line of sight,
low individual bricks to be used without cutting, as as in Figure 4.40. The reason for this suggestion is
in Figure 4.38. that any imperfections in laying the bricks in rows
198

. . 1----1- --+--- ---+---_,_..__.

• .. - -- _ _ ,.....__...---4- _ _ __

t------<f - - - - t - - - + -• - - ~ -- - - I -

. . ~ - -+--1-----+--+---+-t
1---+- - t - - - t---- ~ --- - ·-- ~-
1---+---!- ---· -·-i--·-- - ~ . 1-- • •

- ---- -- --- ·--- - -- .

ST,4CK ea-..JD

e.ASKIT WF:fa..VE
YARIAi lOl---1
'ER.ICK PATTE/<J---l.5.
FIGURE 4.39

FIGURE 4.40

. . . . .....
. .
UL:JDE51R:Al::iLE : P!<IN1.ARY VIEW· DESIRAt:>LE..: PR!MARY VIBN Cf=
OF Bl<-\CK PATTE:R.r-\ 5l-t:ULD BRICK. PAlTERJ-.-l 5HCXJLO cx:r:,,uR
HOT CCCUFZ PAR.ALLl:::L TO PERPB-IDICULAK TO ERICK
BIZICK ca.JR.SES. co.JR5E5.
Basic Pavement Materials 199

eR1CK 9..lf<.rA.CE - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - , .

~CK HE-ADER FOR.. cc+-\-

1.Al"1f-11Eµ-f"-----_..,..,,~~oE38
COMP.AC.TED 56,µP CR.

FIGURE 4.-11

are much easier seen when looking down the rows tured like a brick. It is called interlocking brick be-
than when looking across them. cause the shape of each module permits it to be in-
As already alluded to, brick pavement has abun- terlocked or connected to adjoining units much like
dant functions and applications in the exterior envi- pieces of a puzzle. Interlocking brick is available in
ronment. It may be used from small, intimate gar- se\·eral different shapes including one that is rectan-
dens to large urban plazas such as that adjacent to gular in much the same proportions as a standard
Boston City Hall. Brick pavement is particularly brick and others that are more square and octagonal.
helpful in furnishing a personal feeling in space re- Some of these shapes are illustrated in Figure 4.42.
gardless of scale because of its color and size. Brick This pavement material may also be obtained in a
may aid in modifying the monumental scale of a variety of colors: tan, pink, red, gray, and light blue.
plaza because people can relate directly to · the size Interlocking brick can be used in the landscape for
of each individual brick. Likewise, brick pavement similar functions and situations as both stone and
may visually connect a brick building or wall to its · brick. Whether a designer selects stone, brick, or in-
surrounding site or it may simply be utilized for its terlocking brick for a given area of pavement will de-
visual qualities. Brick pavement is able to connote a pend on the desired color, texture, and pattern in
historical flavor because of its extensive use in such addition to intended function and available budget.
locations as Philadelphia and Williamsburg. One advantage of interlocking brick over stone and
With all these uses, brick pavement may be con- normal brick is that it is generally a more durable
structed in a similar fashion as stone pavement. panment for vehicular traffic. The interlocking brick
Brick may be placed on either a flexible base (sand, is an extremely dense material and therefore is able
crushed limestone, or fine gravel) or a solid base to support a great deal of weight, even though it is
(concrete). The advantages and disadvantages of usually laid on a flexible base. The material's density
brick on sand versus concrete are the same as those also inhibits the infiltration of both water and salt.
for stone. However, when brick is located on a sand
base, a stable edge is needed to contain the brick Tile. A fourth type of unit paver is ceramic tile,
and sand in a manner like gravel, as illustrated in which is best described as a thin version of brick and
Figure 4.41. Otherwise, the edge of a brick pave- is sometimes simply referred to as a "thin paver."
ment on a sand base easily breaks apart and requires Tile's thickness may range from about ½ to % in
constant maintenance. (1.2cm to 1.6cm). It is manufactured as an extruded
or hand-molded clay unit fired at temperatures in
lllterlocki11g brick. Another type of unit paver very excess of 2,000 degrees F. Compared with brick, tile
similar to brick is interlocking brick. Some refer to is denser and stronger and therefore more resilient
this material as a stone, but it is actually manufac- to wear as ,veil as to freeze/thaw and thermal shock.
 Pavement
200

EXl\MPLE:5 Of lf--.l"TERLo::Kl}-40 BRld<-.

FIGURE 4.42

FIGURE 4.43

.. .. ~

..
-.,__~..__-L....,--'-..--'---1

.........

TILE PATfERN5.

Tile is also easier to handle and install because of its vantage of some types of tile is that they can be slip-
relatively light weight. Unlike brick, tile must always pery to walk on when wet. Tile may be used as a
be placed on a hard base like concrete for its struc- pavement in many situations but is particularly suit-
tural support. Thus tile may be thought of as a ve- able to outdoor spaces where a smooth, refined, al-
neer pavement. Tile comes in a variety of sizes in- most polished look is desired. Tile is also a good
cluding rectangular, square, and hexagonal, as pavement to use to visually relate indoors and out-
illustrated in Figure 4.43. Some rectangular tile has doors. On the ground plane in adjoining indoor and
the same proportions as brick and so looks just like outdoor spaces, tile can join the two spaces visually
brick when installed as a pavement surface. Tile is together (Figure 3.63).
also available in a variety of earth tones and finishes.
Unlike brick, tile is available in a variety of glaze fin- Adhesive Pavement. Portland cement concrete. Port-
ishes that provide the designer with an additional land cement concrete, commonly referred to simply
palette of surface treatments to work with. A disad- as "concrete," is one of several different adhesive
Basic Pavement Materials 201

FIGURE 4.44

pavements used in the outdoor environment. Ad- As a cast-in-place material and before it hardens,
hesive pavements are so named because they consist Portland cement is a plastic medium that can flow
uf smilll aggrcgatt:s held together in i'l pa,·cmcnt and ad.ipt to any configuration . Concrete molds it-
mass by an adhesive or binding material. Techni- self to the exact shape of the form in which it is
cally, Portland cement concrete is a mixture of Port- placed to create, in effect, a mirror image of the con-
land cement, sand (aggregates), and water. (Note taining form. Consequently, concrete can be much
that cement is an ingredient of concrete, not a pave- more easily used for free-form pavement shapes
ment in its own right). A chemical reaction called than either stone or brick, as suggested in Figure
hydration occurs between the cement and the water 4.44. Recall that cut stone and brick consist of non-
to create the binding agent that holds the aggregates conforming modules of a fixed size and shape. The
together. This combination hardens within a few initial plastic state of concrete permits patterns to be
hours and continues to strengthen over a span of imprinted into its surface. Besides this characteristic,
many years if it is mixeci ::ind treated properly. This concrete is a durable surface material; it can with-
hardening process is referred to as "curing." stand constant, heavy use ,vithout harm. Further-
There are two general ways Portland cement con- more, concrete is less expensive than either stone or
crete is used as a pavement in the landscape. The brick. This results from the low cost of the raw ma-
first is cast-in-place and the second is precast. Cast- terial and its efficiency in covering large areas
in-place concrete is as the name suggests; the con- quickly. Its strength and comparatively low cost ac-
crete is placed in its wet, plastic state into the form count for its wide use as a pavement. One last ad-
or area that it is to occupy on the site itself. As pre- vantage of concrete is that it does not require much
cast pavement, the concrete is placed into a given set maintenance. Any needed upkeep or repair usually
of molds to create pavement blocks of various stan- stems from poor construction or the action of salt.
dard sizes and shapes much like cut stone. Precast One distinct characteristic and design factor of
concrete pavement is typically prepared away from Portland cement concrete is the presence of expan-
the job site. sion joints and scoring lines. As shown in Figure
202 Pavement

6<PAL---l5\ot-l J:::>H,.tT FILLED

WrrH ASFHALT fv1AlER.1AL;-----------,
S:.Of<.l~ Ut---.iE

CETAIL- 58:::TIQ--.l OF CQ-JCIZETE PAYEMgN'f 5HO-Nll-..ts ~p~-

SION ""°/~ .Al---lt:J ~ht8 LI !---\ES. FIGURE 4.45

4.45, an expansion joint (also called an "isolation sible cracks. The absence of scoring lines permits a
joint") is a vertical division in the concrete extending concrete pavement to crack indiscriminately in a
the depth of the slab. In essence, an expansion joint haphazard pattern. Some experts suggest scoring
is a space separating adjoining slabs of concrete, al- lines be placed a maximum of 20 ft (6m) 13 from one
lowing them room to expand and contract without another in any direction. Therefore there are apt to
structural damage. This space is usually filled with be more scoring lines than expansion joints within
an asphalt-treated or rubberized material. Redwood any given area of concrete paving.
or cedar dividers used as an integral part of the Both expansion joints and scoring lines are an
pavement pattern also function as expansion joints. important and integral design factor of Portland ce-
Expansion joints are an absolute necessity for an ex- ment concrete pavement. Besides the structural func-
tensive area of pavement; a concrete pavement lack- tions just described, they provide visual rhythm,
ing them is subject to heaving and cracking. Gener- texture, scale, and intrigue for an area of concrete
ally, expansion joints should be placed a maximum pavement, as suggested in Figure 4.46. Furthermore,
of 30 ft (9m) apart on roads, walks, and other large they are a key factor in relating concrete pavement
paved areas. 12 Scoring lines (sometimes called "con- to adjoining pavements and/or structures, as indi-
trol joints") are also cuts in the surface of concrete cated earlier in this chapter. Their plan arrangement
pavement. As indicated in Figure 4.45, scoring lines is easily dealt with for rectilinear forms, as in Figure
extend only 1/s to :Yt6 in (.3cm to .Scm) deep into the 4.47, but becomes more difficult for curvilinear
surface and do not divide the concrete slab into forms where their location needs to be coordinated
physically separate pieces. From a construction with center points and radii associated with the
standpoint, the purpose of scoring lines is to provide outer edge of the paved area. When designing the
a line of weakness to "control" the location of pos- configuration of expansion joints and scoring lines
with curved paved areas, one of the most important
1
~Harlow C. Landphair and Fred Klatt, Jr., La11dscape Architcc-
l11rc Co11strnctio11 (New York: Elsevier North Holland, 1979),
p. 208.
Bc1sic P.ivcment Mntcrinls 203

FIGURE 4.46

objectives is to avoid cr<?;:,Hng acute angles between uncomfortable to walk across concrete pavement be-
the expansion joints themselves or with the edges of cause of its brightness and reflected heat. Another
the concrete pavement. As much as possible, expan- disadvantage of concrete pavement is that it does
sion joints should intersect the edge of pavement at not allow water to percolate through it. As a result
a right angle. Some desirable and undesirable lay- it has greater runoff, requiring more drop inlets,
outs of expansion joints in curved pavement areas pipe, and the like than an equal area of pervious
are shown in Figure 4.48. gravel, stone, or brick. Another problem of concrete
Portland cement concrete pavement has some mentioned previously is its potential deterioration
drawbacks. For one, concrete has a high albedo; that from salt used to melt ice and snow during winter.
is, it is very reflective when exposed to direct, in- Pockmarks and chipping occur on concrete pave-
tense sunlight. Particularly during summer or in ment that has not been cured properly and has been
sunny regions such as Florida and Arizona, it can be covered with salt in winter. Of course, the most sig-
 Pavement
204

-I-
I
I
,
•
Ut4DE:51RABLE.: EXPAl--610~
J:?11---115 KAVE 'NEAK Yl5U6-.L RE-
1.MOI--OHIP WITH BJSE5 OF
OTI-IER B...Sv\E:1--TTS 11---! ""TT-IE: t:E-
5101---L
FIGURE 4.47

nificant disadvantage of concrete paving is its unin- A third way for improving the aesthetics of con-
viting, drab color. The dull gray of concrete has very crete is to imprint patterns into the surface while it
little visual appeal by itself. is s till wet. Different patterns of stamps are available
Despite this uninspiring color, there are a number for crea ting imitations of brick, stone, and tile. One
:,f methods by which the visual appearance of Port- widely used type of imprinted concrete is available
land cement concrete can be enhanced . One means under the trade name of Bomanite®. When the right
is to integrate it with other materials such as s tone color is added to the concrete mix as well, the re-
:,r brick that not only provide relief from the monot- sulting concrete pattern is often difficult to distin-
ony of the concrete but also furnish contrasting col- guish from the material it is imitating. The advan-
ors and textures (Figure 4.49). These additional ma- tage of imprinted concrete other than visual
:erials can be arranged in intriguing patterns to improvement is that the imitation pavement material
:omplem ent the concrete. A second means for im- is usually cheaper than the " real" material. The dis-
proving the visual quality of concrete is a pplying a advantage is that the imprinted concrete is a fake.
'noom fi nish before the surface has completely hard- Finally, color may be added to concrete mix to im-
med. A broom finish gives the surface a rough, prove its appearance. This approach, nevertheless,
sanclpaperlike appearance that is visually more ap- is not entirely satisfactory because it is difficult to
pealing and more slip-resistant when wet. control the exact amount of pigment in a concrete
Bas ic Pavement Ma tcri,1ls 205

'(ES!---,

FIGURE ,US

mix and to make it consistent from one batch to <1n- desired . Exposed aggregate concrete is more expen-
other. Besides, color in concrete lrns <1 tendency to sive th.in normal concrete but nevertheless is well
fade over time. used in intimate garden s paces, pedestrian areas
One other variation of concrete used to create a where a strong tactile effect is required on the
visually attractive pavement surface with most of the ground plane, or in pavements where a gravellike
attributes of concrete is e--;--0sed aggregate concrete. texture is required without the disadvantages of
This is a special type of concrete in which surface gravel, as suggested in Figure 4.51. Exposed aggre-
aggregates of the mix are exposed to give a textured, gate concrete can even be used in formal outdoor
gravellike appearance, as illustrated in Figure 4.50. spaces if it is well detailed. This type of concrete is
The aggregates that are exposed may be added di- not a good pavement to use where snow removal by
rectly to the concrete mix or spread over and embed- plowing is required because this usually damages
ded in the surface after it has been floated for the the aggregate surface.
first time. In both cases, mortar covering the aggre- As indicated previously, a second general type of
gates is washed and/or brushed away to reveal the concrete pavement is precast concrete. In this form,
surface aggregates before the concrete has com- concrete can be molded into units or modules of
pletely hardened. Different sizes and colors of ag- many different sizes and shapes. Common precast
gregates are available depending on the visual effect concrete pavement units are square or rectangular.
206

BRK:.K ~PS - - - - - - -- --+

CON:::RETE. P~EL- -----*"~

c ~ - -- - - -- - -_._.

FIGURE 4.49
Basic Pavement Mc1teriills 207

eJRFt:c.E. .AB3~TE5
ME r1 E,><.POSE011 ey
W.ASHll----0 AWAY CO\/ER-
1~ C E M E t - - r r - - - - - - - - - - ~

4'' ~ 5LAe,
EX'P~\Ot-4 J'.:>lt----IT --~~~~~~.

FIGURE 4.50

Others are octangular, round, or triangular. Precast crete is appropriately used where hard, stable pave-
concrete pavers can be used very much like stone or ment is needed but without the appearance of a
brick to establish a pavement surface. Another use solid mass of pavement. Overflow parking areas, in-
for precast concrete units, illustrated in Figure 4.52, frequently used service roads or transitional areas
is to space them in lawn areas so that the turf forms between concrete and lawn are possible uses. From
a joint between adjoining paver unit·s. This method an environmental standpoint, one advantage of
can establish a strong visual effect resulting from the grassy grids is that they permit surface water to per-
pattern of light concrete contrasted against the dark colate through them much like through gravel. This
green of the grass. This use of precast concrete units . reduces the amount of runoff from the pavement
is good for areas where only light pedestrian use oc- · area and diminishes the need and cost for catch bas-
curs or as a transition between areas of solid lawn ins and a subsurface storm water system.
and solid pavement.
One unique type of precast concrete paving unit Bit11mi11011s co11crete (asphalt) . The second type of
is designed to integrate grass or ground cover with adhesive pavement used extensively in the outdoor
pavement in a grid. Referred to by various names environment is bituminous concrete, or simply "as-
such as "grassy grids" or "grass pavers," the indi- phalt." Asphalt consists of small aggregates (about
vidual precast concrete units are formed to have a V-1 in or smaller) bound together in a mass by a pe-
grid pattern of holes built into them that extend en- troleum-based bituminous adhesive. Structurally as-
tirely through the depth of the unit, as in Figure phalt differs from concrete because it is a flexible
4.53. When placed on the ground as a pavement pavement material. Asphalt actually moves and
surface, the holes or voids are filled with earth and flexes when pressure is placed on it.
planted with grass or ground cover. As a result, the One trait asphalt has in common with Portland
pavement has a grid pattern of square blocks of con- cement concrete is its plastic quality. Asphalt too can
crete (though other patterns are also available) with conform to any shape on the ground, making it suit-
grass or ground cover in between when seen from able for free-form configurations as well as more
the surface (Figure 4.54). This type of precast con- rigid ones.
208

'
~ --~ EXFOSEP
""""'"'·""""""'··-..,.:~ .--· .Ae:G~TE.
. \;_ --.. COI-CRE:11= ~
\- · . Pl<Ovlc=E A
o::Ar<.51=.
6'<A'll=L-LI\ZE
TEXTUR..E. at---! THE
Gf<OJND P~E
IN l~ltv"ATE.
~ -5P.CC\=5.
FIGURE 4.51

FIGURE 4,.52
Summ,1ry 209

~TE.R. PE~OLAl"ES
-n--H<O..BH PAVBI\ENi------- - -- - - - - - .

C.0--CRt=TE 11 6RAS5Y
<'.SR.10 11 - - - - - - - - - - = ~

GRAVEL ~ S - - - ~.......,

FIGURE 4.53

An advantage of asphalt over Portland cement makes it suitable for flowing pedestrian walks on
concrete in free-form is that it does not require form- campuses or in parks, as long as the pavement is
ing or expansion joints. ).foreover, asphalt does not kept a minimum of 8 ft wide. Pavement less wide
need attentive workmanship for finishing or curing than this cannot be laid by machine but must be
and is an easier pavement material to work with in done by hand at greater expense. Asphalt can be at-
construction than concrete. tractively utilized in o ther situations by combining it
Asphalt does, howewr, require more mainte- with other pavement materials or imprinting pat-
nance than Portland cement concrete. Periodically, terns into its surface before it has hardened. As with
its surface should be covered \-\'ith a bituminous Portland cement concrete, large metal stamps can be
coating to seal it and pre\'ent destructive wear. One used to create impressions in various sizes and
other drawback of asphalt is that it has a tendency shapes. Asphalt is not the best material to use in
to break apart somewhat along the edges of a pave- small, intimate spaces because of its impersonal
ment area. This can lead to unsightliness plus addi- quality and because it is more efficiently installed in
tional need for maintenance. large expanses. Still, asphalt should be considered
As an aesthetic pavement material, asphalt is not in the list of potential pavement materials for out-
a popular material in terms of its color and character. side use.
Most people do not find asphalt visually pleasing as
a pedestrian pavement. Yet the dark color of asphalt
has positive points in that it tends to blend in with
the base plane of dark lawns and ground cover. It is Summary
not a visually noticeable pavement on a dark back- Pavement fulfills both aesthetic and utilitarian func-
ground such as Portland cement concrete or light tions in the exterior environment. It may simply be
stone. And the dark color creates little reflection used to accommodate intense use on the ground
from the sun, though this quality also causes a sig- pbne and structurally support pedestrian and vehic-
nificant heat buildup. ular circulation. Beyond this, however, pavement
Asphalt has numerous possible uses in exterior may provide an exterior space with a desired feeling
spaces. As illustrated in Figure 4.5:'i, its plasticity and character owing to its color, texture, and pat-
210

ca.cRETE· ···· ··--- - · - - -~

cFA% .-·-- ···--- · · - -

FIGURE 4.54

FIGURE 4.55

J\SPliALT PRO/IDES A PARK-VALUED PA'\/EME:~T ~ T 15 -9.JITABl.-c

FOf<... FLOf-/lf--0 CURYILll-JEAR. 'HALl<S Al-ID FORlviS. N::rrE l..,.6C:.K q= EX-
I

P~S!Q-.1 vOlf---.fT5.
 5
Site Structures

Not all visual and functional objectives can be satis-

fied through the use of landform, plant materials,
Steps buildings, and pavement in the outdoor environ-
Rnm ps ment. Often the intent of the landscape architect is
best accomplished by utilization of other physical
Walls and Fences
design elements such as site structures. Site struc-
Define Space
Screen Views
tures can be defined as three-dimensional con-
Separate Functions structed elements in the landscape that fulfill specific
Modify Climate functions within the larger spatial context collec-
Sitting Elements tively established by landform, plant materials, and
Visual Elements buildings. Site structures are "hard," fixed, and rel-
Retaining Walls
atively permanent features in the outdoor environ-
ment. Examples of site structures include steps,
Design Guidelines ramps, walls, fences, and sitting elements. Gazebos,
Wall and Fe nce Ma terials overhead trellises or sun shelters, decks, and small
Stone buildings are also site structures, although they are
Brick not discussed in this chapter. As can be seen from
Portland Cement Concrete the list of examples, site structures are small-scaled
Wood '.'architectural" elements with diverse characteristics
Wrought Iron and uses.
Seating This chapter discusses the varied characteristics,
Rest or Wait functions, and design guidelines for steps, ramps,
Converse walls, fences, and sitting elements in the outdoor
Observe environment. However, the chapter does not outline
Study or Eat technical information required for the detailing or
Summary construction of these site structures. ·Other sources
should be consulted for this knowledge.

Steps
In the landscape, there frequently is a need to move
pedestrians and others from one elevation to an-
other on the ground plane in a safe and efficient
Steps 213

FIGURE 5.1

manner. Steps and ramps are the two elements used change between individual steps can be too much to
to accomplish this. Both provide a hard, perma nent negotiate for individuals w ith certain walking disa-
surface that allows people to move up and down an bilities. For these people, steps act a·s "barriers" pre-
incline in a planned, structured fashion . venting free, unimpeded movement through the en-
Steps have several distinct advantages and disad- vironment. Unfortunately, many areas of the exte-
,·antages in the landscape compared with ramps. rior environment are inaccessible to wheeled vehi-
One attribute of s teps is that they provide a series of cles or persons with walking disabilities because of
level surfaces where a person can find "sure footing" the presence of steps. The landscape architect
and maintain a sense of balance while negotiating a should be constantly reminded that wh en s teps are
level change. Steps help mair:itain a feeling of equi- included in a design, they create an obstruction un-
librium on a slo pe. Another advantage of steps is less an alternative means of access is provided for
that they require relatively small horizontal distances individuals who cannot use steps ..
to cover a vertical elevation change. While the exact Another disadvantage of steps for all users is that
horizontal distance varies with the step dimensions they can become dangerous when covered with
and the grade change, it will always be considerably snow or ice. This has long been known in regions of
less than that required by a ramp. Figure 5.18 illus- the country receiving heavy snowfall. Here, steps of
trates this difference. Thus steps are comparatively extensive length and/or width are often closed or
efficient in th eir space utilization, an essential char- barricaded to a narrow, usable area during winter.
acteristic in tight, confined sites. This is one reason Large expanses of outdoor public steps are not as
why steps are so much more widely used than appropriate in high snowfall regions as they are in
ramps. Furthermore, steps can be constructed with more moderate climates because of the potential
a variety of materials, allowing them to be visually hazard .
adaptable to almost any situation. Stone, brick, con- When designing with steps, several terms should
crete, wood, railroad ties, and even gravel if prop- be known and used: tread, riser, landing, and plat-
erly contained are all possible step materials. Steps form . These terms are graphically shown in Figure
also serve a number of other functions in the land- 5.1. The " tread" is the horizontal plane or surface of
scape besides accommodating a grade change. Some the step on which a person's foot is placed. The
of their other uses are discussed later in this chapter. tread is often referred to as the "step" by lay people.
The major disadvantage of steps is that they can- The "riser" is the vertical portion of a step, or the
not be negotiated by wheeled vehicles such as baby height. In any given set of. steps, there is always one
strollers, bicycles, and wheelchairs. Besides this, more riser than the number of treads if one dis-
steps are often difficult to use for the elderly or peo- counts the pavement surface at the top and bottom
ple who have walking handicaps. The elevation of the steps. A "landing" or "platform" is a compar-
214 Site Structures

11
MINIMUM TJ<56.D DEPTH ---------11

R\5ER... HEl6HT - - - -

1
FlC.CRE ~-2

HGLIU: 5.3

R\5E=R HEIGi-IT VARl~S

Lll-4Dt=SIRA~-E Al-tD DN---GEl<CX..J5: RlxR Hl:::16/-iT 5t-U1lD ~

YM.'i I~ A -5E:T OF STEPS.

:1tively lc1rge, level area between two series of steps. to another. An extremely poor riser-to-tread rela-
A landing serves as a resting area and visually tionship can be a hazard.
':>reaks up a long flight of steps. In developing dimensions for treads and risers in
The dimensions and the relationship between an outdoor setting, several thoughts should be kept
treads and risers in a set of steps are key factors in in mind. First, the scale of outdoor spaces is differ-
determining the comfort and safety of walking up ent from that of interior spaces because of actual
md down them. The tread/riser design determines physical dimensions and the larger size of the space-
where a person's foot is placed, plus both the hori- defining elements themselves. Outdoor spaces gen-
zontal and vertical distances needed in moving the erally are bigger than indoor spaces. Second, cli-
:oot to the next step. Although people perhaps do matic variation is a real limiting factor directly influ-
1.ot take note of a set of steps that poses no problem encing safety. Rain, snow, and ice all make walking
in walking up or do..,vn, everyone has at one time or outside more dangerous than walking inside. Con-
1nother discovered a set of steps that were awkward sequently, steps located outside should be wider but
:o negotiate. Poorly designed steps are apt to make less steep than those located inside to adapt ade-
a person skip, double-step, or jump from one tread quately to the difference in spatial scale and climate.
Steps 215

'5U~L16HT

''REVEAL'' OR IWDEl-.-lTA-
TIO--.l AT 'cOTTOt--1'\ OF
~SE~-.- - -- - -- -

=/411 -1 11 ~ _ _ __ __ _ __ __2f..------

FIGURE 5.4

A commonly applied guideline for the riser-tread The dimension of the risers in a set of steps
relationship is twice the riser plus the tread should s hou ld remain constant throughout a given flight. If
equal 26 in (66cm) (2R + T = 26 in (66cm). 1 This riser height varies, as in Figure 5.3, the pedestrian
guideline has evolved from those sets of steps ac- must pay constant attention to each foot placement,
tually found to be comfortable to \\'alk up and down which increases the chance of an accident. One ad-
for the strid e of an average person. With this guide- ditional factor relating to risers is the use of a
line, a 6-in (15cm) riser would be compatible ,,vith a s hadow line as an integral part of the riser. A
14-in (35.5cm) tread and a 5 ½-in (14cm) riser ·would s hadow line can be created on the bottom portion of
be best associated with a 15-in (38cm) tread. As can the riser if a small indentation is provided at this
be seen from these dimensions, the taller the riser, position, as shown in Figure 5.4. A shadow line is
the shallower the depth of the tread. Other formulas useful because it strengthens the form of the stairs
and concepts have also been developed based on ex- and makes them more obvious from a distance. Do
perience or design objectives. Regardless of which not make the indentation too high or deep so as to
approach is employed for arriving at riser and tread create an area where a foot can become jammed and
dimensions, a riser should be a minimum of 4 in caught by the space.
(10cm) and a maximum of 6 ½ in (16.5cm) in he ight, 2 Another consideration in the design of steps be-
as indicated in Figure 5.2. Below 4 in (10cm) a riser sides size of individual risers is the number of risers
becomes dangerous because it is too insignificant a that should be located in any give n set of steps. At
dimension to be easily perceived outdoors. When a minimum, a set of steps sh ould never have just
not readily seen, a riser can cause a person to trip one riser because such an elevation change in a
and fall. Risers below 4 in (10cm) would also require walking surface is also apt not to be noticed and
too many treads for any given elevation change. cause the pedestrian to trip and fall. This problem is
Above 6 112 in (16.5cm) tall, risers become difficult to compounded when the s teps are constructed of the
walk up for the elderly, small children, and others same material as the adjoining pavement. This
who have a short stride. makes the step blend in with its surroundings and
even more difficult to see. Changes in elevation
'Reader's Digest, Rc!ada's Digest Practical Guide to H,11m• L11111f- along a walking surface should be significant
scapi11g (Pleasantville, New York: The Reader's Digest Associ,,tion, enough to be easily recognized, allowing th e p edes-
1972), p. 201.
2The American Society of Landscape Architects' Foundation,
trian time to adjust pace and foot placement. De-
Barrier-Free Site: Drsig11 (W,,shington, D.C.: U.S. Dep~rtment of pending on circumstances, the minimum number of
Housing and Urban Development, 1975), p. 29. risers in a set of steps may vary between 2 and 3.
'216 Site Structures

~
----0-----
~
4·-0 11 t-,1\AX.---- - - - - t

4'-011 tv'\.Av'<'. - - - - - - - -

FIGURE 5.5

FIGURE 5.6
At the other end of the scale, the maximum num-
ber of risers used in a set of steps should be such
that the height between landings is not more than 4
ft (122cm) for unprotected steps and 6 ft (183cm) for
protected steps (Figure 5.5). 3 There are several rea-
sons for the logic of this guideline. First, a set of
steps that exceeds this suggested limit is dangerous
and tiresome to climb, particularly for those who
have difficulty in walking. Second, a lengthy, high
set of s teps tends to appear visually massive and
psychologically imposing when viewed from the
lower elevation. A person looking at such a set of
steps may well feel tired and defeated even before
taking the first step. In fact, some people may be
turned away by an overly high set of steps.
Platforms or landings can break the visual and
_:_·-~~~-:~~~'·.=
~ .-~. . ~ . psychological monotony of a group of steps, making
.~:~-~::.""-·-.; - the elevation change easier to traverse. A landing
). . .. ··- .. can provide a rest for both the eye and the legs. An
.. .. - - - .J - - .... .l:--- -- -.. - .'.. - _:__
example of landings that make a set of steps seem
·--- --- ·--·· gradual and easy to negotiate is shown in Figure 5.6.
-- - ·- -'· ---.. ·- ..
· - The location of a landing or landings within a flight
of steps can also influence the visual and walking
rhythm. The landing acts as a pause in the repeti-
tious beat of the individual steps and can have dif-
ferent rhythmic effects, depending on where it is

~ - --- .
Steps 217

~-t

RHYTHM OF "THE lY-..0 SETS

CF STT=P.S YARJES OWi~
-P f'OSIT!~ OF LAWDl!---10 - - - - - - -

FG61170}-...l OF LAt-lDlf-...G PROVIDES RELIEF 11--l A S'Ei OF 5TEP.S µ.JD

\~FLUt=!---tCES RHYTH~ .
FIGURE 5.7

placed in a set of steps, as in Figure 5.7. The place- gles to them. Similarly, the tread orientation and
ment of landings influences the sequence of views depth should not vary in any set of sieps unless they
c1s one progresses up a flight of steps, as pointed out are in an open plaza or variation is itself a recurring
in the discussion on uses of landform (Figure 1.76). characteristic of the steps. Inconsistent changes can
Although both riser and tread dimensions should easily catch the pedestrian by surprise and increase
be selected in conjunction with each other, the tread the possibility for accidents. In an open plaza, riser
depth should nevertheless be at least 11 in (28cm) height and tread depth can vary somewhat more
(Figure 5.2). 4 This dimension is required in order to easily because movement is less confined and more
accommodate the foot length of the average person. casual. The width of a flight of steps should depend
A tread fewer than 11 in (28cm) in depth is difficult on their context and anticipated volume of use. The
and hazardous to walk on because only part of the more people who are to use a given set of steps, the
foot can be placed on any one step. wider they should be. For two-way traffic, the sug-
Another consideration for the treads in a set of gested minimum width is 5 ft (152cm). 5
steps is their plan arrangement. Whenever possible · Still another design and safety aspect of steps is
for a confined path of movement, the treads should the use of cheekwalls and handrails. As illustrated
be located perpendicular to the primary direction of in Figure 5.9, "cheekwalls" are the walls located on
movement, as indicated in Figure 5.8. They should the sides of a set of steps to serve as a transition
not be situated at an angle or askew to the principal
movement because it is more awkward to walk up 4Ibid.
or down a flight of s teps sideways than at right an- 5
Ibid., p. 30.
 Site Structures
218

....·
1'101. ·. .

..

YE5 1·...

5TE.P5 IN A CO\--JFINW 5PACE 8-.CH- ~ A WALK 5t-b.JLD BE

PUCE:D AT R\61--IT At--Pl-E.5 TO lH~ FF--IMAR'{ DIR.ECT/~\ OF
MOIEMEhJT.
f-ICURE 5.S

between the steps themselves and the accompany- tain and control movement up and down the steps.
ing slope. Cheekwalls visually end the steps, act as Handrails may be located on top of or along the in-
retaining walls to hold back the slope from the steps, side of cheekwalls, depending on the height of the
and help contain pedestrians' feet on the steps. cheekwall and the appearance desired. Handrails
Cheekwalls may be designed in one of two general may also be placed independently of cheekwalls and
ways. The first is to keep the top of the cheekwall at allowed to stand by themselves. For convenience of
a constant elevation above the height of the upper- holding, handrails should be located 32 (81cm) to 36
most riser, as shown in the left side of Figure 5.10. in (91.5cm) above the nose of the treads in a set of
With this design, the difference in height between steps, as illustrated in Figure 5.11. 6 In addition, the
the steps and the top of the cheekwall is least near handrail should extend about 18 in · (46cm) horizon-
the top of the steps and most at the bottom. The tally beyond the nose of the top and bottom treads
second alternative is to allow the cheekwall to fall at in a set of steps to allow a person to hold the hand-
a gradient approximately equal to that of the steps, rail a short distance before and after actually going
as shown in the right side of Figure 5.10. With this through the motions of moving up or down the
second method, the height difference between the steps. Usually it is desirable to have at least one
top of the cheekwall and the steps remains about the handrail per set of steps for safety, especially in pub-
same at the top of the steps as at the bottom. lic areas. For wide expanses of steps, as in Figure
An element often associated with a cheekwall is a 5.12, handrails should be located at 20-to 30-ft (6 to
handrail. A handrail provides something to hold
onto and steady oneself while going up or down the
. steps . Handrails on large expanses of steps also con- ''Ibid., p. 31.
Steps 219

CHEEKWALL-----------~

. ...

PERSPECTIVE: CHE-EKWALL. PLN--.1: CHEE-KW.ALL.

FIGURE 5.9

FIGURE 5.10

ti

TOP a= CHEEKWAU.... Ri=ht¼ll--..lS 1OP Cr CHEE:KWA.LL ~OLLO'NS

AT CQ-6T.A!-IT HEl6HT G~DlE!--.lT OF srEf'S.
l'N::J ALiE.RNATIVE. WAY-5 FCf<.. DESl0~1f-..G CHEEKWALL5. ·

9m) intervals across the width of the steps. 7 Hand- scape, steps serve a number of other functions as
rails arc not as necessary for steps that have only a well. Steps can define the limits of an outdoor space
few risers or are located in private or infrequently by implication if not by actual physical enclosure. As
used outdoor spaces. indicated in Figure 5.13, a small elevational change
In addition to the practical aspects of accommo- reinforced by steps between two adjoining areas is
dating grade changes between two areas in the land- able to suggest the spatial separation between them.
Steps indicate where one space ends and another
begins. Somewhat associated with their potential
space-defining qualities is the ability of steps to act
 220

. - ... .
-·-- ...- ·,..,-- ·· -
- - - -
... . .. - .. .... .......... _.. ____ _ - . . ..
- -- -
. ... - ....
, . ..- -- - · - - - - . . - - - · · · · -·- - -- ·
.. .
·
..-~ . . .. --· . --· . . .. - ........
-· - - .,,_ ,_.,_ . . . . .. _ _ _ O O Oo0 L 0 0 0 _ 0 ........ - ., _ _
.
_ _ _ , _ __ _ _ _ _,
.

-,--·---·r ·--··-·· ········· ·.. 1 .. !· . . . . . .t

'I
.. .
I
.. . . . .' . . .l
; '•

F<AI L l t--JG. - - - - - - - - - + -
, --+---~1----1'----..:
! I : ~
I
'
I I
I I :

I __.._ \5' I I :
•• ..
•.'• .
;
•
.. 'I
••
I
. !•
• I .' I
.• •
:' •
' I
I
• I
•
.•
.•
I

.'
•
•
I
•
.
•

.
• I ;
I

FIGURE 5.11

FIGURE 5.12

RAIL\~6---------+-

1 1
'20 -30

stA~PARD PlMEN5lON FOR L(.)2ATl°'1 CF RA\LIN6 lt-4 A

/-'1lDE EXPA}-oE OF ~ .........,.
Steps 221

UPPER
!SPACE.

FIGURE 5.13

as gateways or doors between adjoining outdoor of a hard, abstract landform. Not only do these lines
rooms. While moving through the landscape, steps capture the eye and carry it around a space, but they
suggest to people that they are in the process of also can become dynamic elements because of their
leaving one space and entering another. In this changing appearance from varying sun and shadow.
sense, steps are transition elements that allow for a The pattern of steps in Lovejoy Plaza in Portland,
gradual but noticeable change from one space to the Oregon, and in Manhattan Square Park in Roches-
next. ter, New York, both designed by Lawrence Halprin,
From an aesthetic standpoint, steps can accom- are two examples where the lines established by
plish several uses in the outdoor environment. One steps have been used as a significant visual element
aesthetic function is that steps can act as a focal in the overall designs.
point or accent at the end of a walk, as illustrated in Still another potential function oi steps in the
Figure 5.14. They provide a point to walk toward or landscape is as casual sitting surfaces (Figure 5.16).
attract the eye. This quality of steps can be rein- This use of steps is most effective where the steps
forced through associated planting and use of walls. face onto a busy public walk or street or in urban
Another aesthetic quality of steps is that they create multipurpose spaces where area and benches are
strong horizontal lines in outdoor spaces. These limited. People enjoy watching other people and ac-
lines may be effective in establishing a sense of sta- tivity. So whenever properly sited, steps can act like
bility because of their horizontality or they may pro- stadium bleachers for an audience. There are numer-
vide visual fascination that results from the abstract ous examples of steps used for sitting and observa-
pattern of repeating lines. As in Figure 5.15, the pat- tion, but a classical one is on the front steps of New
tern of lines created by steps in an unconfined set- York City row houses. Here, steps are social gath-
ting such as an open plaza can emulate contour lines ering points. Another example of steps used in this
'122

5TEP'-5 ~~!<-YE~ A R:X:Al- FOINT AT THE E~P OF A ·WALk.

FIGURE 5.14

FIGURE 5.15

REC1N-Gl.JLAF<-- PAlTERN . A~ULAR PATTERJ-..l.

STEFS C6J--l E:E- USED lt-4 LARr:11=. PLAZA 5p,cce5 10 P'R.OVIDt== ,AT-
~IVi=. f,AJT E f<}...15 Or LIN t==5 Cf-} ~t= Gr<o...H--ID P~E .
R,,mps 223

FIGURE 5.16

manner, shown in Figure 5.17, is found in Robson permit freedom of movement through the environ-
Square in Vancouver, I3ritish Columbia. At lunch- ment for most potential users. Ramps are an integral
time people sit randomly in small conversation factor in "barrier-free" site design. Ramps allow the
groups throughout the area on the expansive steps pavement surface to flow through a series of spaces
of the complex. as a continuous, unbroken element. It should be
noted, however, that some people find ramps more
difficult to walk on because of the sloped surface.
Ramps For these people, steps may actually be easier to ne-
Ramps are the second major means for moving the gotia te.
pedestrian from one level to another on the ground The notable disadvantage of ramps is that they re-
plane. As alluded to earlier, the most important ad- quire a proportionally large horizontal area to take
\·antage of ramps compared with steps is that they up a given elevation change with the proper gra-

FIGURE 5.17
 224

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--- --

1 4 - - - - - - - -- 36'-011 _ _ _ _ _ _-it

~ p AT PREFERRED
~IEhfT Of= 6.33/o

~ P 5 f<.EQJIRE. e;JB:5"tAkJT\ALLY MO!<-E. HOR\z.oi-STAL OloTA}.JCt=.

TO tcc.oMMCT:)ci.1 E- A GJVE1-J S\ .t=..YATIOf....-l CHANCSE ~ STEPS CC>.

FIGURE 5. 18

FIGURE 5.19

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Ramps 225

t
CUR...5

RMF Cf<CSS-S=CTIOl-ij Sf,N-H:1-,RO DlME~S\045.

FIGURE 5.20

dient. (An example is given in the next paragraph.) the comparatively vast amount of area necessary for
In areas where space is limited, ramps must some- ramps. The need for landings also .contributes to the
times be contorted to awkward twists and turns to length of ramps. Landings provide resting areas and
achieve the required distance and gradient. Another visually counter long stretches of ramp as they do in
disadvantage of ramps is that they can become per- sets of steps. For long ramps, as in Figure 5.19, the
ilous when wet unless the ramp floor is constructed maximum length of ramp between landings should
from a textured, nonslip material. Visually, ramps not exceed 30 ft (9m), with landin~s themselves a
may look unsightly and misplaced because of their minimum of 5 ft (152cm) in length. The minimum
length. When not sensitively designed, ramps often width for a ramp should be the same as that for
look like a fterthoughts or add-ons (which they are in steps and based on whether there is to be one-wa:·
some cases) . or two-way traffic. The sides of a ramp should have
As with steps, there are several guidelines for the at leas t 6-in (15cm) curbs with a handrail to contain
design of ramps. First, the ramp gradient, or degree people on the ramp, as illustrated in Figure 5.20.
of the floor slope, should n ot exceed an absolute The railing height and placement should be the
maximum of 8.33 percent, or 12: 1. 8 Thus, as an ex- same as that for steps (32 to 36 in (81-91.Scm) above
ample, a ramp would need a horizontal distance of the floor surface). One further consideration relating
36 ft (12m) just to take up a 3-ft (lm) vertical eleva- to the placement of a ramp is that it should be as
tion change at the preferred 1: 12 maximum slope, much as possible located on primary, direct lines of
as in Figure 5.18. A flight of stairs on the other hand movement. Ramps should not require users to go
would require only between 5 (152cm) and 6 ft out of their way. Finally, the location and layout
(183cm) of horizontal distance to achieve the same of a ramp should be d ecided as early as possible in
vertical change in elevation . This again points o ut the development of a design because of the study
it requires for properly integrating it with other ele-

~Robert D. Loversidge, Jr., ed., Access for All; An /I/11strated

Ha11d/Jovk of Barrier-Free Design for Ohio, 2nd ed. (The Ohio Gov- 9The American Society of Landscape Architects' Foundation,
ernor's Committee on F.mployment of the Handicapped, Colum- Barrier-Fm: Site Design (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Department of
bus, Ohio, 1977, 1978), p. 59. Housing and Urban Development, 1975), p. 27.
226

FIGURE 5.21

FIGURE 5.22

/l
FIGURE 5.23

~ !
Walls and Fences 227

---DE:Fl~EP 5P.ACt::.--
( a_m:x:oR RO'.Jtvt)

---------------------0---~

Hl6H WALL5 -Et---CL05E sPK:E AhLP LON Wp.j__j__B IMPLY s=1ACE:.

-ro CRE,6,.TE. a..rrP::of<-. R.CCMS .
FIGURE 5.24

ments of the design. A ramp should appea r as a Define Sr.ice. Freestanding walls and fences are
well-coordinated element within the total design able to define and enclose space in the vertical
scheme. One innovative way for integrating steps plane, as suggested in Figure 5.24. The exact manner
i1nd ramps together was created in the design of in which they do this depends on their height, ma-
Robson Square in Vancouver, British Columbia. terial, and detailing. The more solid and taller the
Figures 5.21, 5.22, and 5.23 show the way the ramps walls and fences, the greater the sense of spatial en-
were coordinated with the steps and the resulting closure. As described previously for both landform
zig-zag pattern. and plant materials, walls and fences create a full
sense of spatial enclosure when a 1: 1 distance to
height ratio is established between the viewer and
Walls and Fences the height of the wall or fence. Consequently, the
Another form of site structures in the outdoor envi- strongest feeling of outdoor space is produced by
ronment are walls a nd fences. Both establish hard, walls and fences over 6 ft (183cm) tall. Low walls,
architectural vertical planes in the landscape with a like low shrubs, define space more by implication
number of utilitarian and visual functions. Walls are than actual physical enclosure.
generally defined as vertical planes constructed of Walls and fences create spaces that are slightly
stone, brick, or concrete and may be fu rther catego- different in character from spaces defined primarily
rized as either freestanding or retaining walls. Free- by landform and plant materials. Walls and fences
s tanding walls stand essentially by themselves with provide hard, well-defined vertical p lanes rather
a minimum of connections to other elements. Free- than soft, sometimes pliable boundaries such as
standing walls are self-supporting. Retaining walls, plant materials give. Thus the spaces themselves are
on the other hand, hold back a slope or volume of much more clearly articulated with precise, exact
earth from a lower elevation, as described in the edges. Similarly, walls and fences tend to be more
next section. Fences can be defined as freestanding permanent and less changing in creating space than
vertical planes constructed of either wood or metal. are plant materials . Spaces formed essentially by
Fences arc typically thinner and less massive tha;i walls ,md fences have less seasonal variation or al-
walls. Both walls and fences have a number of de- teration from year to year. They arc more stable.
sign possibilities and functions in the outdoor envi- Nevertheless, when walls and fences are carefully
ronment, some of which are defined below. juxtaposed with plant material, they can establish an
228 Sile Structures

H\GH
WALL

HIGH WALL PRO\/lCE:S PRIVACY It-..! LIMITED 5PKE ,i...LON \J.../ALL

~ PRCN\PE Pf<.NK-Y \/'-MILE: SITTIN3 WI FER.M i I Yl'BNS
WHEN 5rANtJ!~.
FIGURE 5.25

attractive contrast between the artificial qualities of views on the one hand or partially screen views in
the wall and the fence and the naturalistic character- varying degrees on the other. The design and layout
istics of the vegetation. of the wall or fence depends on the effect desired.
Tall (over 6 ft (183cm)), solid walls are most effec-
Screen Views. Walls and fences that define space tive in providing total screening as might be re-
also affect views into and out from an outdoor quired around a parking lot, along a roadway, or
space. Walls and fences may be used to totally block around unsightly industrial equipment. Tall vertical

FIGURE 5.26
Walls and Fences 229

S8vl!Tf<N--..15Pf\RENT WUJ.../_FB-CE:: Cf<.EAiES VlelJN- l~RE5T e,y

Al.LOW)N<:J PARTIAL VIEW OF ELEMEl-TTS BE.Hl~P rt:
FIGURE 5.27

planes are also appropriate for creating privacy as is wall or fence, as sho\,·n in Figures 5.28 and 5.29.
often necessary for the outdoor living area of single- These voids not only permit some views through the
family or multifamily residences (Figure 5.25). Peo- wall but may also actually be of interest unto them-
ple usually want to use their outdoor spaces without selves because of their size, proportion, and inter-
the feeling of being looked at. Walls and fences may «ction with light and sh«de. Openings and spaces
be more efficient in furnishing privacy in these cir- may also be used to make a wall or fence less mas-
cumstances than either landform or plant materials sive and heavy in appearance.
because walls and fences are narrower and take up
less space. Tall shrubs used to screen views may be SeP-«rate Functions. Another use of walls and fences
two feet or more in w idth, whereas a fence or wall closely related to creating space and screening views
needs to be only a few inches wide. Although a tall is to separate adjoinging uses from each other.
wall or fence is generally required for total privacy, Sometimes it is necessary to place dissimilar and
a lower wall or fence may be adequate in circum- even incompatible uses next to each other in the or-
stances where privacy is needed only for people sit- ganization of a design's functions. Walls and fences,
ting or lying down. Whatever the particular needs in as do the interior ""alls of a building, allow these
stopping views, a wall or fence should not be de- unlike uses to occur \,·ithout interfering w ith each
signed so that its top is at eye level, as in Figure other. For example, a \\"all can be used to separate a
5.26. This creates a disturbing feeling of almost but quiet sitting area from the noise and confusion of a
not quite being able to see. A person's reaction to parking lot next door. The wall around the sculpture
this is to move the eye level up or down to avoid the garden in the Museum of Modern Art in New York
half-and-half view. For privacy a wall or fence City allows people to enjoy the serenity of the gar-
should extend above eye level, not just stop at eye den with a minimum of interference from the sur-
level. rounding city environment. Low stone walls and
In some situations it may be desirable only to par- hedgerows separate pastures from other pastures,
tially screen a view, as suggested in Figure 5.27. This crops, roads, and uses throughout the English coun-
might be done if the view is not totally offensive or tryside.
if it is desired to tease the viewer with a small, in- In separating functions, walls and fences also
complete look at the overall scene. A person in- identify territoriality and provide security for the
trigued by a partial view will often move through a spaces they enclose. 10 Walls and fences can reinforce
space to a position where more if not all of the scene
can be fully viewed. A view can be partially
screened by a wall or fence that is made semitrans- 111
5ce nlso Oscar Newman, D,fcn;il•le Space (New York: M;ic-
parent by openings or spaces in the material of the mill;in, 1972).
 S ite S tructures
230

FIGURE 5.28

FIGURE 5.29

the location where one property ends and another codes should be reviewed. Many municipalities have
starts by establishing a permanent barrier on the strict restrictions on height and location of vertical
boundary. The familiar saying "good fences make barriers in the front yard area.
good neighbors" suggests that clear identification of In addition to simply acknowledging a boundary,
and division between properties · avoids territorial walls and fences can also provide security by keep-
disputes and clearly indicates to individual owners ing people and animals either in or out of a given
w here their domain begins and ends. Before a wall area of land. H istorically, medieval villages in Eu-
or fence is erected o n a property line in a residential rope often had a tall fortress Wi'lll around the com-
setting, especially in the front yard, local zoning munity for protection against intruders. The Great
\Valls and Fences 231

FIGURE 5.30

Wall of China is another classic example. Today A wall or fence is least effective as a sun screen
walls and fences are used for similar purposes to w hen placed on the south side of the area to be
protect property from vandalism and other un- shaded because the high sun angle at noon will cast
wanted activity. And in some cases, as around a a minimum amount of shadow to the north side of
swimming pool, walls and fences fulfill a need for the wall or fence.
safety. The wall in Figure 5.30 at the Hyatt Regency Besides screening low sun, walls and fences may
in Atlanta is intended to serve this function. From be used to block wind. When wind is blocked from
an aesthetic standpoint, the challenge to the de- an area, the "sensible temperature" (the temperature
signer is to make attractive and "uninstitutional" perceived by a person) goes up because of a de-
walls and fences erected for security. Security fences crease in windchill. The exact way a wall or fence
such as a chain link fence can look stark and harsh affects wind depends on its design. At first thought,
if not integrated with other elements such as plant a solid wall or fence would seem to be the best for
material. screening wind from an area. Yet research and field
observation have proven this not to be true. Ac-
tually, a solid wall or fence as shown in Figure 5.32
Modify Climate. Freestanding walls and fences may creates an eddy of downward and reverse-flowing
also be used in the landscape to minimize the nega- wind on the lee side. 11 So for maximum protection
tive effects of both sun and wind. High walls and against the wind, a ,vall or fence, like the vegetative
fences may be used to cast shade onto a building or w indscreen discussed in Chapter 2, should contain
outdoor space at those times of the day when the some openings in its plane to allow a portion of air
sun angle is low, such as early morning or late after- to flow throug h and uphold the wind flowing over
noon and evening . As suggested in Figure 5 .31, a the top. The most effective screen over the greatest
wall or fence is most efficient when located on the distance has been found to be a louvered fence with
west and northwest side of a building or outdoor the louvers tilted upward. 12 There are a number of
space in order to screen against the hot late after- possible variations on fence designs with different
noon sun in summer. A wall or fence on the west
and northwest side of a building, whether by itself
as in Figure 5.31 or integrated with plant material, " Charles McClenon, ed., La11dscapt' Pla1111i11g For E11ergi; Co11scr-
valio11 (Rcston, Virginia: Environmental Design Press, 1977),
can prevent heat buildup in the building's walls and p. 121.
consequently produce lower interior temperatures . 1
"lbid.
~32 Site S tructures

WALL/Pe\-..t:E. Ohl
'f-li::51
l~6 _ 6_ \t=E.
__ _eu
OP _ ILD-
_ _ _ __ _.,,..

FIGURE 5.31

resulting patterns of wind flow through and over

FIGURE 5.32

~
them. Each needs to be studied before selecting the
one best suited for any given situation. As to loca-
tion, the most effective position depends on the pur-
pose of the wall or fence. To provide protection
against the cold winter w ind in the temperate zone,
the best location is on the west and northwest sides
of the area to be screened (Figure 5 .33). This is the
same as the preferred position for sun protection. A
fence or wall located here will provide both summer
sun and winter wind protection. Along a seashore
U~OE51RABLE : '31-1D FB-t:E. the location of a wall or fence may vary depending
CR'i=ATES l"WReui.-E...t:e ~o on local conditions.
PIREC:73 Wl¾-4D D:?Y/NVJAR.D. In a similar but somewhat opposite sense, walls
-) and fences can be used to direct summer breezes
in to an outdoor space to take advantage of the cool-
ing effect of moving air during this season. Walls
and fences may be located actually to direct and fun-
nel summer breezes into an outdoor space from the
southwest direction in the temperate climate zone,
as shown in Figure 5.34. In the design of the fence
itself, slats or louvers may be oriented to direct the
t:-1 breeze toward a place w h ere people may be sittin g
If?
tf (? t b ¥x ~ f t I ~!1 t
It::._ or standing. However, do not use horizontal lou vers
pointed d ownward because the breeze w ill also be
DESIRABLE ; UPv-/ARD-TILTED d irected downward. The result w ill be that d ust,
LOJVERED Fc}-..CE: PIREC:T-5 leaves, and other particles on the ground will be
Wl~O UP AJ--..lO OVER SPICE. stirred up and carried through the air.
 233

~
N::RTH

WAL.L /~Et-CE ON }-40R.THWEST 6 l0E OP- Olfrt:Wi:z SP-6CE ~D

eLl/Lb/NCS CAJ---l HELP iO DlYEt<-T WINTER. Wl~D.

FIGURE 5.33

FIGURE 5.34

O..rrPCOFZ SPACE.. - - - - - - - - ------.

 Site Structures
234

( )

FIGURE 5.35

Sitting Elements. Low freestanding walls and some- elements. For instance, a freestanding wall can relate
times low fences can be used as seats while serving two isolated groups of plant material by acting as a
other functions as well. This use of walls has the common background that visually links the vegeta-
greatest application in heavily used urban spaces or tion masses together, as shown in Figure 5.35. Sim-
other outdoor spaces where it is not desirable to ilar to this design function is the use of walls to co-
clutter the environment with many benches required ordinate a building to its surrounding site. By
to accommodate large numbers of people. To serve carrying a building wall and material into the site, a
comfortably as a sitting surface, a wall should be wall can perform as an "arm" of the building reach-
about 18 in (46 cm) above the ground and 12 in (30.5 ing out to embrace the site. This helps to unify the
cm) wide. building and site into a total coordinated environ-
ment, as illustrated in Figure 3.62. Last of all, an-
Visual Elements. In addition to all these varied po- other use of freestanding walls and fences is as ele-
tential functions just described, freestanding walls ments of visual interest all by themselves. As one
and fences can also fulfill a number of visual uses in example, the plan layout of a wall or fence may
the landscape. They may act as neutral, nonchang- move in, out, and around a space, intriguing the eye
ing backdrops to other positive highlights in a space with altering direction and varying patterns of light
such as attractive plant material or a piece of sculp- and shadow, as it does in the right half of Figure
ture. Used for this purpose, the wall itself should 5.36. A serpentine wall has these qualities. The d e-
not demand too much attention or it is likely to com- tailing of materials used in the construction of the
pete with the element in the foreground. Another wall or fence is another means for establishing visual
aesthetic application of ·walls and fences in the out- appeal in a wall or fence. Again, patterns can be cre-
door environment similar to that of plant material is ated that work with varying materials or with the
to visually connect and unify otherwise unrelated interaction of light and shadow. An additional
Retaining Walls 235

; .. .

SIMPLE \I-ALL LA---(c:uT PF<O- \t-/,AJ.J_ tvt:::NES I 1-4

AHP OUT A -
YIOE5 LE=€> Y I ~ ..6J-ID 5PA- RO.Jl--lt:> -5.'°K..i=: iD PRD-./IDE.
17AL EXC ITE-hllEHT. \/ ISUAL ,4-lP ~A11AL 11---tTR.lOO~.
FIGURE 5.36

means for providing visual fascination is painted consult a civil engineer. Another suggestion is to
graphics. This may vary from graffiti to a well-con- slightly pitch the wall toward the slope as it in-
ceived mural. The use of "supergraphics" on walls creases in height to help reinforce its stability, as
in urban settings has evolved into an art form in its shown in Figure 5.37. This pitch is called a " batter."
own right through the use of bright, bold colors and For drainage a slight swale should be made in the
designs applied to large, massive walls. earth at the top of the wall to prevent surface drain-
age from washing over the wall and down its face.
"Weep holes" s hould be placed at given intervals in
Retaining Walls the wall to permit subsurface seepage to move
As identified earlier, the second general type of wall through the wall without causing damage.
used in the landscape is the retaining wall. The prin- While holding back earth, a retaining wall may
ciple function of a retaining wall is to hold back a also serve o the r uses as well. Like freestanding
portion of hig her ground from a lower one. A retain- walls, retaining walls are able to define space and
ing wall permits two elevation levels to be placed spatial edges, provide a background to other ele-
adjacent to each other with an abrupt vertical change ments, connect buildings to their surrounding sites,
between them. Thus a retaining wall saves space and act as attractive aesthetic elements by them-
compared w ith a gradual slope placed between two selves. Compared with slopes, retaining walls estab-
different levels. To hold earth adequately and safely, lish s harp, distinct edges and planes that tend to be
a retaining wall needs to be properly engineered and more prominent from a visual standpoint. Slopes
constructed. Whenever feasible, it should be built tend to be softer and less visually aggressive than
fewer than 4 ft ('122 cm) in height to prevent costly retaining walls. Another possible application of re-
reinforcing and construction techniques. If a retain- taining walls is for seating. Used for this purpose, a
ing wall is to exceed this height, it is advisable to retaining wall, like a freestanding wall, sh ould be 16
 Site Structures
236

SWALE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

CAP--------------------,
0f<.A\/'EL. R?f<. DRAl~E.--------__J1'-f.------:--:-::=:1G1nr-:
RE.TAlt--W·-10 WALL _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __..

WEEP I-PL1=. - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~

CETAJL SB:TIO~ op A f<.ETAINlf-.40 W.ALL.

FIGURE 5.37

(40.5cm) to 20 in (51cm) in height with a 12 in (30.5 cant when walls or fences must be located on a
cm) wide cap or top to provide enough seat space. sloped ground surface, as in Figure 5.39. In this sit-
uation, it is usually best to have the base step up or
down the slope in a series of horizontal segments.
Design Guidelines When the base is allowed to parallel the slope, the
A number of aesthetic considerations apply to most angled baseline that results t~nds to establish a vi-
walls and fences no matter what their specific type sually unstable support for the rest of the wall or
or material of construction. In the design of walls or fence. Another approach for dealing with slopes in
fences, three primary elements typically make up association with walls is to eliminate the base alto-
the constructed vertical plane: (1) base, (2) wall or gether and allow the ground to fall directly along the
fence surface, and (3) cap or top, as graphically de- wall surface.
picted in Figure 5.38. A similar kind of division into The wall or fence surface constitutes the major
three major areas can also be found on other struc- portion of the vertical plane. This surface can be
tural elements such as columns or building fa~ades. handled in an infinite number of different ways. The
The base provides a transition between the wall or exact detailing of any given wall or fence surface
fence and the ground and visually establishes a feel- should depend on aesthetic, spatial, functional,
ing of support for the vertical plane to rest on. The and budgetary objectives. However, some general
exact detailing of the base depends on how much thoughts should be kept in mind. The method of
attention or prominence is required to bring to the construction and the type of material used in the
base. Where no emphasis is desired, the wall or wall or fence surface directly affects the visual direc-
fence surface may extend to and into the ground tion and texture of the wall or fence. For example, if
with no base at all. When the objective is to reinforce the material in the surface forms strong horizontal
the base, it may be designed as a distinct element lines such as those created by rows of bricks or hor-
from the wall or fence surface. In this situation it izdntal louvers in a fence, as in the left side of Figure
may be made wider than the vertical plane above so 5.40, then the wall or fence will appear more elon-
that it is more easily seen and provides a visually gated and stretched out. This same kind of surface
sturdy resting place for the wall or fence surface. can also emphasize level landform, relate to strong
Generally, the base should establish a strong hori- horizontal lines in adjoining buildings, or contrast
zontal line for visual stability. This is most signifi- columnar plant material or other upright elements
1 csign Guidelines 237

E>f:eE.-------------~
WALL/ FE\---CE: SJRFACt:: ----.
CAP-----

El t?JATIO~ ss:::no\--4
71-\RE.E.. PR!~~ El EMa..rrs Cf= A W,ALL/~CE..
FIGURE 5.38

juxtaposed with them. In an opposite approach, tical, but their spacing establishes a rhythmic pattern
walls or fences that have distinct vertical lines in of repetition. The rhythmic pat~ern can help unify a
their surface will appear taller and more compact in space and elements in the foreground as well as es-
length, as in the right side of Figure 5.40. In the case tablish scale. Posts placed close together can create a
of fences whose posts are an integral visual element sense of small or intimate scale, while posts spaced
in the fence, the posts not only emphasize th_e ver- farther apart can provide a feeling of larger scale.

FIGURE 5.39

eASE. OF WALL/Fl::1--t:'E: PARAl-- ~ CF WALL/FE-}--CE.. srsFS

LELS 51-0PE A\---lD CR.l::=ATES ~ SLO~ N-tO Cl<EATE5A
A 'IIS.W-LY UNsrABl.J=. SJP- 1-/CRE \/15UALL'-( SfAEi..E. a.IP -
PO!Zr. fOf<:f.
238

~~
. '.

~
~
~ ~
. r:
~
~ ~

~ • e

~
;

Ill: II i' i!i nF i!i1 I :iii ' Ill Jjjt I)!! ill/ II /l l•,n
~

l ---
H::)IZJZ.a..lTAL -~TERIAL PAT- '-IER71C6-.L MA11?<-IAL PA1TE~
TERJ-....l MAl<-.ES WAU-/FB-CE. MAKES WAU..../FE\--ICE A'P-
APPEAR 5TRETCHEb Al--lb F ~ TA.LL AND COlvlPACT.
ELO!--GATED.

FIGURE 5.40

FIGURE 5.41

I
\
~
\ ·, ' I

'\

UJCESIRAE>~ : Ef-.\D 0f<.,A.ll-l .

OF \f.o:::>D . .15 .8<F05.ED AT
J"OP ,Al.J..0Nil-K3 WATEF<.. 10 .
~PIJ--...1.
1.Yall and Fence Materials 239

<\nd as with plant .material, the overall texture of a The different visual qualities of stone walls aside,
wall or fence surfafe influences scale. Surfaces that stone is generally used in walls in one of two ways:
have coarse textu~e such as large stone visually (1) uncut (or fieldstone) or (2) cut. In its uncut state,
:nove toward the vi,1ewer, while finer textures recede. fieldstone is used to give a wall a rough, irregular
The cap or top is the third major portion of a look. This pattern, sometimes referred to as a "rub-
fence or wall. Th cap serves two essential func- ble pattern," is most appropriately used in a natur-
:ions, one practical and one visual. From a utilitarian alistic .or pastoral setting as an expression of the sur-
:;tandpoint, the caf covers the body of the wall or roundings. Fieldstone may also be used in walls
fence and prevent~ infiltration of water. In the case located in more formal settings as an element of con-
of walls, water that seeps into the internal areas can trast. Cut stone, on the other hand, is commonly
freeze and expand ~uring colder seasons of the year. used in situations that require a more controlled and
For fences constructed of vertical wood members, a formal quality. As in pavement, stone may be cut
cap serves a simil1ar purpose. The end grain of a into any number of sizes and shapes, depending o n
piece of wood sucll as a 2 x 4 is the most vulnerable the desired visual effect. Rectangular patterns or
to water penetratioln . When this portion of a piece of "ashlar patterns" are used most because they are
wood sticks up in the air, as in Figure 5.41, rain and easier to construct. Some of these various patterns
snow can easily sdep into the wood and cause it to of stone walls are illustrated in Figure 5.42.
rot. A cap on a wood fence prevents this undesirable Both freestanding and retaining walls of either
action from occur~ing. Visually, a cap on top of a fieldstone or cut stone may be constructed by either
wall or fence finislies and completes the appearance of two methods: (1) masonry or wet wall and (2) dry
of the vertical plane. In a way, the cap contains the wall. In a masonry wall the individual stones are
wall or fence surface and prevents it from visually held together by mortar. This wall tends to be more
moving off into sp~ce. And a cap, like the base, typ- stable and permanent, yet also more expensive than
ically establishes a noticeable horizontal line that can a dry wall. In some instances, concrete or concrete
be s ilhoue tted against a background. For emphasis, block is used as the core of the wall with· stone mor-
the cap is often visually heavier and wider than the tared to this core as a veneer (Figure 5.43). The re-
wall or fence surface below. Where the cap extends sulting appearance may be no different from an en-
out over the vertical surface, a shadow can be cast tirelv stone wall.
on the surface bel<bw, further accentuating the cap. A dry wall is one in which no mortar or any other
binder is used. The individual stones are skillfully
fitted together to form a stable mass held in place by
graYity and the fit of each stone to ·the riext. It re-
- Wall and Fence Materials quires a sensitive craftsman to constrnct a dry wall
As indicated earlier, freestanding walls, retaining to be structurally and visually acceptable. Depend-
walls, and fences can each be constructed out of a ing on how closely the individual stones fit, a dry
wide range of potential materials. Some of the more wall can provide a more noticeable texture than a
common material:s include stone, brick, concrete, masonry wall because of the lack of mortar filling the
iron, and wood. A more detailed description of the individual joints. A strong pattern of light and shade
characteristics ancl potential uses of these materials can be achieved by working with the voids between
in fences and walls follows. stones. A dry wall is best in circumstances where it
will not receive unusual physical wear such as
Stone. Stone of ~ifferent sizes, shapes, and geolog- would occur if it were used as a sitting wall. A dry
ical origins may be used in both freestanding and stone wall should not be built to excessive height or
retaining walls. Stone is typically used in walls to it might fall down. Generally speaking, the higher a
furnish a rough, naturalistic character even though a dry wall is, the wider its base must be for stmctural
diversity of appearances from highly textured and support.
irregular to smooth and refined can be created, de-
pending on type and pattern of stone u sed. Still, Brick. Brick is another wall material. As in pave-
compared with <j>ther possible materials, stone is ment, brick provides a warm, refined urban quality.
most suitable for providing an earthy gray or brown Brick typically creates a smoother, more polished
tone in a strong textural pattern. Stone is perhaps wall surface than stone. Brick can also be used in a
most appropriately used in walls that are intended wall to visually relate it to brick fa~ades of adjoining
to be solid. Rarely is stone used in a wall that is re- or nearby buildings, thus helping to unify building
quired to be partl~lly transparent. and site.
240

~- ,I
.1l .l.\ rr==-
~- .n ll

ll ,~
,- ·, ,--
II
I
ii
II

i I
-- ,, IL

FIGURE 5.42

FIGURE 5.43

MOF<TAR· --

:
. "
•.
.
6=:CT\0 1--\ : lv'\ASOI---Jtz'-( WALL 5 8CTIOl--4: ~ l-'-41<-'1' WALL
W ITH Sfef--iE Al-ID NPRTAR. W \TH CONC!<.E.T E BL.CX:K o::R.s·
OJf<i=. 510t--4E 15 A \/Et---11:=Ef<_.
\\'all and Fence Materials 241

t=.AC-H HOJ<.IZOI--ITAL F<ON

15 CALLED A If ca.JRSE I I - - - - ~ ~

o..ns\DE= ot= WALL

eoLDJE::RS

THR.EE:. WA'(S eR.ICK C,AN

l:,E USED 11--1 CCURSE:.5
11-l A W,h,Ll_.
FIGURE 5.44

As in pavement, brick can be employed in ,valls "header" is a brick placed in the wall perpendicular
in a number of potential patterns. All patterns are to the course so that one of the ends of the brick
based upon the different possible ways for arranging makes up the wall surface. Bricks used as headers in
brick in "courses," or horizontal rows. Within each a course are laid flat and may alternate with stretch-
course, individual brick can be used in one of three ers or make up an entire course themselves. A "sol-
basic ways as (1) stretchers, (2) headers, or (3) sol- dier" is a brick laid on its end with one of its long,
diers (Figure 5.44). When used in a course as a thin sides placed vertically to the outside of the wall.
"stretcher," a brick is laid flat with one of its long Soldiers are sometimes used as a base course of a
thin sides facing the outside surface of the wall. A brick wall.
242

I I I I

I
I

I I

I I

., . J • 11 . . .
RUJ.,.JN/1----B E::Ot--iD E l---t3L\5H 00t--J0 FLEM ISH ea-JD
BR\CK PATTE::f<.J-l5 IN WALLS.

FIGURE 5.45

FIGURE 5.46

-=C>.LDIE R. ~ E - - -- - - - --fl-~

~ E R ca.JRsE. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ---4,p__,...,...,....,......-;;-r,..
_ -r.-r-1""':'."T"
-.,.,._
.,.. ,..,_.-,....r
,

8:)LO IER COJRSt:. ~~

RU~-H-J I1---G eot---lD -------- - - -· -- ----1--...,._

HEADER C.CURS!=:. - - - - -- - - ,i"~

.,...,..__,
; "M,__,
; .,......___, --'c...,....+__,n-~r-1-_
-,-i,-,..... TT"~
,_..-+-1
-r1

fOTE¼-4TIAL WA'-(5 fOfZ TREA..T\1--B CAP M--0 B,A5E OF A B R. \CK.

~ -
Wall and Fence Materials 243

CURVIUNEAR
LAYOUT

\l<.RE.0.JLAR
LAYCUi

11-...lrrlAL PLASTlCrT'( OF ~RETE PE:RMTT5 IT ,o BE FCRM-

EP Iµ ~ T'(PES op l.AYa-tT5 .
FIGURE 5.47

The most common pattern of brick in a wall is the Portland Cement Concrete. Portland cement con-
running bond pattern, where each brick in a course crete may be used in both freestanding and retaining
is used as a stretcher offset from the one above and walls. As in pavement, Portland cement concrete
below it. Other patterns including the English bond can be u tilized as either cast-in-place or precast ma-
and Flemish bond can be created using brick as both terial. When concrete is used as cast-in-place, it has
stretchers <1nd headers in the sc1mC' course (Figure the unique chc1rncteristic of being h ighly flexible in
5.45). And still other patterns can be produced by terms of both plan layout and surface treatment.
either indenting or protruding bricks from the over- This is a result of concrete's initial plastic state,
all wall surface in a regular, repeating manner. As w hich allows it to conform to any form in which it
do stone walls, brick walls usually require a cap ·to is placed. The layout of a cast-in-place concrete wall
seal their top from rain and snow and to visually can be rectilinear, curved, or irregular (Figure 5.47).
"finish off" the wall top. A common cap for a brick Appealing wall patterns and textures can be pro-
wall is c1 row of headers or soldiers along the top. A duced by the configura tion of th e construction forms
brick wall can also be capped with either stone or in which Portland cement concrete is· placed or by
concrete. Some of these alternatives are illustrated in the treatment of the surface once the forms have
Figure 5.46. All brick walls are masonry walls re- been removed. For example, the shape of the forms
gardless of specific size or function. may create indentations and /or protrusions in the
244 Site Structures

... : : :: ,q: ::: :::::::::::::::~:::.: ::

.........................
cot---tREiE----"'-'-'-:~~:~YT CA:::
;.:: "" ::'a: ffi I::ITFHHf!
:::: :-d
11---lPENTATIONS CRE-
A"TED BY FCRM5
7l-tA-T FILL !HE.SE: PLAl,lj~
ARcA5 WHE~ CON-
Cf<-ETE- \5 fCX.Jt<-ED _ _ _ _ __,

INDEt---lTATl°"\5 CRE-
AiE: ~ PAT-
TER-t--+5

E:LE\/Ail0!---1
PL.AST\ CITY OF cq..tJ<.cfE AJ....LDN:5 PA1fEf<}-.lS P+-lD I\---U:::E~A-
TIQ---6 W BE \Y\APE IN t15 S-l f<..rPCE:..
FIGURE 5.48

FIGURE 5.49
wall surface. These pushes and pulls in the wall sur-
face can create striking patterns of light and shadow,
as seen in Figure 5.48. Or a wood texture can be
imprinted in the concrete by using rough-sawn
wood forms. After the forms have been taken off,
the aggregates in the concrete can be exposed to give
the surface a rough texture or the surface can be
hammered or chipped to provide other effects, as
shown in Figure 5.49. Despite the cold gray color of
concrete walls, the many possible pattern s and tex-
tures can make concrete walls extremely appealing.
The cost of a Portland cement concrete wall is gen-
erally less than that of either a s tone or brick wall
because less labor is involved in constructing a cast-
in-place concrete wall.
Th e second way Portland cement concrete can be
used in walls is as a precast material. Precast con-
crete, like brick, is available as modula r units of dif-
ferent sizes, s hapes, colors, and textures. A wall
constructed from precast concrete units actually has
more similarities to a brick wall than a poured con-
crete wall in terms of construction methods, poten-
tial u ses, and general appearances. The modular na-
Vnll and f-cncc M,1tcrinls 245

- --

• •• •• • •• •• •
•e • • • @ • @

• • 0

• •• •• •• •e
0 I)

t:ECORATIVE BLCCK Y-Al-L-5.

• •• • -~ •
• • ,G

FIGURE 5.50
·~
ture of concrete units does not have the flexibility of Wood. Still another material that can be used for
poured concrete in terms of shape or plan layo ut. both walls and fences is wood. Wood provides a
But precast concrete units can be used in different range of \'isual effects, from rustic and naturalis tic to
patterns and in semitransparent walls wh ere spaces smooth and forma l, depending on its finish. The ad-
ilnd voids are left in some predetermined design. vantage of using wood in the vertical plane com-
Precast concrete units are available in a variety of pared with other ma terials is that it is comparatively
sizes and appearances. It would be impossible to at- lightweight and thin. A wood fence, for example,
tempt to list and describe all of them h ere; however, does not require the same amount of structural sup-
some types are more common than others, including port as does a stone or brick wall of the same height .
the standard concrete block, slump block, and dec- The cost of a wood fence is considerably less than
orative block. The standard concrete block, which that of a stone or brick wall. Furthermore, the ma-
measures 8 in x 8 in x 16 in, (about 20cm x 20cm terials required to build a wood fence are generally
x 40cm) is used most for structural walls in the con- readily a\·ailable. The disadvantage of using wood is
s truction of buildings. Concrete block is not used by that it is not as durable or permanent as other ma-
itself to any large extent in the landscape owing to terials. It requires periodic maintenance to prevent it
its unappealing gray color and the feeling tha t it is from weathering or rotting from exposure to mois-
"unfinished" by itself. But concrete block is used ture. The particularly vulnerable part of a wood ver-
more frequ ently as an internal structural component tical plane is the portion that comes into contact with
of both stone and brick walls (Figure 5.43). In this the ground. This should be kept as dry as possible
situation, the s tone and brick are used as a veneer. th rough good drainage. Another limitation of wood
A similar use is to cover the concrete block with is that it must usually be used in s traight lines and
stucco to create a more appealing surface texture and planes. It is difficult to make wood conform to curves
color. or other irregularities, unlike concrete o r stone.
Slump blocks, a cross bet..,veen concrete block a nd Because of the wide ra nge of sizes and lengths of
adobe brick, are actually concrete blocks but look available wood timber and the relative ease of cut-
like adobe brick. This material is used in the South- ting it to custom s hapes, wood can be used in a free-
west for solid screen walls. Decorative block is a standing \·ertical plane in almost any manner de-
general term that describes the numerous precast sired. A wood fence may be completely solid or al-
units that are molded into attractive forms. Some of most totally transparent with an entire range of
these are ra ther simple, while others are quite ornate varia tions in between (Figure 5.29). A wood fence
with various shaped spaces in them. Decorative can appear very heavy and massive or quite light
blocks are most appropriate where a semitranspar- and delicate. Wood may be placed vertically in a
ent wall is required or where it is desired to have fence to accentuate height or horizontally to rein-
the wall surface itself take on visual prominence. Ex- force length. As pointed out before, w hen the posts
amples of decorative block are shown in Figure 5.50. of a fence are a visible part of it, the placemen t has
246 Site Structures

, I ..

- --
I
/ / I ,/ I
_,,,,.
----
-- -- I
t--... / /

I
' I
\
I
\
I' /
\
f /
I
/
\
/
I I

- -
\ \ \ \ \ \

FC:55\BLE: PAiTE~ DESI~ 11----l \J-KX)D PE~ES.

FIGURE 5.51

a direct impact on the visual rhythm and scale of the Wrought Iron. One other material for fences is
fence. Figure 5.51 illustrates different fence designs. wrought iron. Wrought iron is best t!sed where a
Wood in the form of heavy timbers may be used transparent screen is desired and/or decorative divi-
for retaining walls too. Here, wood such as Wol- sion between spaces is needed. Within the fence
manized® timber must be pressure-treated to pre- surface, wrought iron may be used in simple,
vent it from rotting. The reason why wood might be straight lines or bent to form elaborate patterns, as
used in retaining walls is to provide a gray or in Figure 5.28. Wrought iron, partially owing to its
stained texture near the ground or to blend the re- cost and historical use, is employed more in formal
taining wall in with wood in nearby structures such settings. Because of its normal black color (though it
as decks, fences, or the siding of a building. In ad- may be painted other colors), wrought iron can best
dition to pressure-treated timbers, railroad ties may display its intricate patterns when placed in front of
be used in retaining walls too. Although railroad ties a light background. Similarly, dramatic effects can be
have been successfully used in many designs, a created when either sunlight or artificial light shines
word of caution needs to be expressed about their through the wrought iron ience from the back-
use in all situations. For some untrained designers ground, as suggested in Figure 5.52.
and lay people, railroad ties have been used as a
panacea for all conditions requiring a retaining wall.
The result has frequently been the use of railroad Seating
ties in situations where they are aesthetically inap- Seating in the form of benches, walls, planters, or
propriate to their environmental context. Railroad other elements is another type of site structure that
ties are best used for retaining walls in a rustic or directly affects the comfort and enjoyment of an ex-
pastoral setting, not an urban or formal one. terior space. The most obvious role of seating in the
icating 247

------v\tl\L.L WITH LK3-IT V,AJ.JJE. SJ~E.

Ll0HT
\NRO..J3HT

PATTERJ-1 OF A Wl<0...0HT
Pr<ECIA"TED ~EN rr 15
6/<0...U---lD.
FIGURE 5.52

exterior environment is to serve as a clean, dry, s t~- meeting place can be reinforced by an element upon
ble surface on which to sit. Besides this, elements of w hich to sit and rest.
seating may act as objects that aid o ne to rest o r
wait, converse, obsen·e, and s tudy or eat, either sin- Converse. Besides being a place to rest or wait, seat-
g ly or collecti\'ely. ing may also be a location for conversation and dis-
cussion among a sm all group of people. While con-
Rest o r Wait. In any urban or rural situation where versation can occur on seating a t any location or
extensive walking or athle tic activity is anticipated, arra ngement, some designs are more conducive to it
seating should be provided so people can get off than others. Seating arranged in a small cluster al-
their feet and rest. For example, a bench or other lowing people to face one another, as shown in Fig-
seating element provides a welcome opportunity to ure 5.53, encourages conversation more than a linear
rest and catch one's breath w hen located along a arrangement where a person must h,irn awkwardly
hiking trail o r city street where ha rd pavement read- to the side to talk. Consequently, a single park
ily causes sore feet. Another similar use of seating bench or a group of the m placed side by side along
occurs just outside a building where a place to sit a walk is not the ideal layout for conversation. Fur-
allows a person to rest from activities and duties in- thermore, conversation is easier in locations that are
side. A short breath of fresh air gained outside can quiet and afford som e degree of privacy. This is not
sometimes do wonde,s to revive one's energy. to say, h owever, that a space must be totally isoltited
Benches, sitting walls, or plan ters located adjacent to or enclosed in order for conversation to occur.
a m ajor building entrance may further provide a
convenie nt place to sit a nd wait for a n acquaintance Observe. Many people enjoy sitting down simply to
to arrive or leave the b uilding. Such a convcnil'nt watch the world go by. In fo ct, one of th e most in-
248 Site Structures

A LINE-AP-. AR~E::MEt-rr 15
t-OT CQt--IDUC 1\/E FOR. t=;AC!hB
ANO"n--tER ~ ~ Pl5COJR.-
.lEJE5 ~ i l O H .
FIGURE 5.53

teresting activities for some individuals is to observe placed on a slightly higher elevation than the activity
other people. For sea ting to be u sed in this manner, area permitting those sitting down a good vantage
it should be installed near, but not directly in, an point.
area of major activity. As an example, seating situ-
ated along a major walk, on a busy corner, or over- Study or Eat. Seating offers convenience for study-
looking a plaza would be ideal for observing others. ing and eating. Seating for s tudying is of course
Moreover, observation is enhanced if the seating is mos t appropriate o n a campus or other academic

FIGURE 5.5-l

OFTE:1--\ A PER.SON PEEi 5 lJl---l -

CO\v'\ FORTML.E. 51 TTl!---l(:, I}-.\ A
LOCA-"TI~ ".</HERE. on-\E~ ~
Lo:JK. Ai HIM F~tv1 :BE.Hl~~P.
 249

FIGCRE 5.55

setting where some students prefer to sit on benches height of the space whiJe also furnishing shade, as
to read, as opposed to lying on the grass or prop- shown in Figure 5.55. However, some seating might
ping up against a tree. Seating furnishes a dry sur- still be placed in a more open area of the site so that
face on which to place extra books and papers and tisers can choose from either sunny or shady condi-
· supplies a spot to eat a brown bag lunch or takeout tions. There are those days of the year when it is
food purcht1sc. Doth studying and et1ting can be indeed enjoyable to sit in the sun. Although in the
aided if tt1bles are furnished with the set1ting. temperate zone people do not use outdoor seating
There are several design and location considera· as much in late fall, winter, and early spring as in
tions for all seating regardless of which function it is summer, climatic factors of this time of year should
to accommodate. One suggestion, as stated above, still be appraised. Seating is used more in these off-
is to place seating to the side of major activity or seasons if it is placed on the southern side of the
circulation rather than directly in it. A person can building where it can benefit from the warmth of the
feel uncomfortable when surrounded by commotion. sun. In addition, seating should be protected from
It is best to tuck seating into a protected corner or the chilling effects of the winter wind. To be used
simply to the ed~e of an activity area. Likewise, peo- during fall, winter, and spring, seating should not
ple may tend tdi feel more at ease if the seating is be located on the northern side of a building or in a
placed against some other element such as a wall or wind corridor. The ideal conditions for the location
mass of plant material, as suggested in Figure 5.54. of seating in terms of microclimate are illustrated in
Although this is not always possible or even desir· Figure 5.56.
able, some individuals feel ill at ease when their · From a visual and aesthetic standpoint, seating
back is turned to an open space or when they feel should appear as a thoughtful, integrated element of
they are in a "fishbowl." the total design. The design, location, and coordi-
Another desirable, though not always feasible, nation of seating with other elements should be
characteristic o~ a seating area is a location beneath given as much attention as other aspects of the de-
a shade tree or other overhead plane. The canopy of sign. Unfortunately, seating is sometimes not
the tree provides a comfortable scale by limiting the thought about until late in the development of a de-
250

t--i'IY WINTER Wll--lD - - - - - -

~ E lRE.E:. PkOv\DES
~ 8ib-.DE------- ~-:\,ti~~--~~~-~~
SEATH-43----------- ~ ~ ~ r - 9 /

-~
ICE.AL C.CWP\Tlct-6 FOR Lo::Allot-\ ot= SEATlf-..-6.

FIGURE 5.56

FIGURE 5.57

DESIRABLE ; $ATlf-JG \SAW

l~E.GRAL E.LE~E-.Ni II-\ THE
0/ER,t,J...l__ DE516r-\.
Sc.-iting 251

FIGURE 5.58

sign. A notable offender is the park bench that is an angular d esign layout, and so on (Figure 5.57).
ordered from a catalog and then randomly placed in Such ideal solutions are expensi\·e because they re-
the design. This solution, while often necessitated quire on-site, custom construction . In coordinating
by budget con:itraints, is usually an afterth ought the form of seating with other aspects of a design, it
that detracts from the overall design. The form of may be advisable in some instances to have the seat-
the seating should be coordinated with other ele- ing fu nction as a low wall around a space, as in Fig-
ments and shapes in the design so that it properly ure 5.58. Here, the bench also serves as a railing at
fits in with them. For example, a curved seat should the wa ter's edge in Sausalito, California.
be placed in a curvilinear design, an angular seat in One approach to seating that differs from the

FIGURE 5.59

o ---
252 Sile Stru.:lurcs

~--1z:.1e;'

t15
11

5\~bAl<-D PlME:1--lSIONS t=Of<.. SEAT.

FIGURE 5.60

FIGURE 5.61
common linear seat or cluster of seats is modular
seating. This type of seating utilizes the same unit
seat repeated throughout the seating area in an or-
ganic arrangement, as shown in Figure 5.59. A mod-
ular seating layout permits ~ndividual seating, group
seating, conversation, and orientation in a direction
selected by each individual user. One problem of
conventional benches is that they force a person to
sit facing a certain predetermined direction. Modular
seating, on the other hand, furnishes a choice of di-
rections. More options can be established in a mod-
ular seating cluster if the height of the individual
seats varies or if tablelike surfaces are included in
the design. Even though modular seating has a
number of advantages, it is not appropriate every-
where because of its character and its taking up a
large area of space.
A critical factor in designing seating is to utilize
correct dimensions so that each seat will be comfort-
able. The average seat should be between 18 (46cm)
and 20 in (51cm) above ground level for adults and
12 (30.5cm) to 18 in (46cm) wide, as shown in Figure
5.60. 13 If the sea t is to have a back, it should extend

1
YfhC' AmC'rican Society of Lilndscape Architects' Foundation,
Flarricr-Frel' Site Design, pp. 59- 60.
Summ.1ry 253

above 15 in (38cm) above the height of the seat sur- readily after a rain if they are improperly pitched.
face. Both the seat surface and the seat back should All these materials can be detailed and assembled in
be subtly contoured to fit the shape of the body. In a variety of ways to fit the desired character of the
some cases the designer may want to build armrests ·design context.
into the seat 6 (15cm) to 9 in (23cm) above the seat
surface. Underneath the seat surface enough space
should be left to allow legs and feet to be placed
some,vhat below the seat. Thus all seat legs or other Summary
structural support should be recessed a t least 3 Steps, ramps, walls, fences, and seat.i ng are ele-
(7.5cm) to 6 in (15cm) in back of the front edge of ments that enhance the spatial quality and livability
the scat. If the seat is not to be placed on pavement, of the outdoor environment. In the context of larger,
a hard surface or gravel sho~tld still be placed di- more dominant elements such as landform, plant
rectly below the seat to prevent dirt or mud patches materials, and buildings, site structures can be
that form from repeated wear of the area. thought of as smaller-scale detail elements that rein-
Seating can be constructed out of most any mate- force and complement the more substantial aspects
rial, but wood is generally an appropriate material of the outdoor environment. Steps and ramps facili-
for the seat surface because of its warm, personal tate movement from one ground elevation to an-
character and its availability. A simply designed other, walls and fences subdivide space and provide
wood bench is shown in Figure 5.61. Stone, brick, structural detail, and seating makes outdoor spaces
and concrete can also be employed for the seat sur- seem more human by furnishing places to rest and
face but have the disadvantage of becoming unbear- observe. The sensitive use of site structures makes
ably hot when exposed to summer sun and w inter the landscape more inhabitable and responsive to
cold . Stone, brick, and concrete also do not dry human needs.
 6
Water

Water is yet another physical design element used

by landscape architects in the design and manage-
General Characteristics ment of the exterior environment. Water is a highly
Plasticity varied design element and may take on such diverse
Motion forms as flat, quiet pools, falling water, and jets of
• S/11/itl Wtlll'r
water. Water may be used in the landscape as a
• Dy11a~11ic wal a
purely aesthetic element or it may be employed for
Sound
such utilitarian functions as cooling the air, buffering
Reflectivity
• Slope (gra vity) • Te111pera/1tr,• sound, irrigating the soil, or providing a means of
• Conllliller slrape and si:e • H'ind recreation. This chapter discusses the unique char-
• Conltlmer rouglrness • Liglrt acteristics of water, visual and other functions of wa-
ter in the outdoor environment, and the different
G enera l Uses of W ater
forms in which water may be used in landscape ar-
Consumption
Irriga tion
chitectural design.
Climate Control Water has a number of unique, distinguishing
Sound Control gualities compared with the other design elements
R L~c:r ....'a t ion discussed in previous chapters . Water is one o f thl'
Visua l Uses o f Water
most magnetizing and compelling of all design ele-
Flat, Statiq Water
ments . Few people can ignore or fail to react to its
• Pool presence in the outdoor environment. Humans seem
• Pond to be instinctively drav,m toward water for both util-
Flowing Water itarian and visual reasons. From a very practical
Falling W~ter viewpoint, people need water for survival just as
• Free-fall they require air, food, and shelter. Perhaps the des-
• Obstructed fall ert oasis best epitomizes the essential role water
• Sloped fall plays in sustaining life. It is easy to forget this basic
Je ts human need because modern technology has made
• Si11ghf.orifice • Aerated
water so readily available in most industrialized na-
• Spray • Formed
Combina tijm Water Features
tions of the world. Yet from an historical perspec-
tive, many early cities and villages in this country,
Summarv · as well as in others, were originally settled at the
edge of a river, stream, lake, sp ring, or w ell out of
necessity. Boston, New York, Albany, Philadelphia,
Pittsburgh, and Baltimore in the east, and Chicago,
Detroit, St. Louis, and Cincinnati in the Midwest are
all cities that have a strong historic link to water. For
General Characteristics 255

our ,rnccstors living in these communities, water the continuous gurgle of a brook can be soothing
was not only a necessary commodity for survival but and calming. So effective is the sound of water on a
also provided a source of food, transportation, and person's mood that the sound of ocean waves was
recreation. Even today we are reminded of water's produced for commercial sale on a record album in
critical role by examining its availability in many of the early 1970s. The cut was titled "The Psychologi-
the western and southwestern states of this country. cally Ultimate Seashore" 3 and was supposed to fill a
In some urban areas, such as Tucson, Arizona, fu- listener's jiving room with the tranquilizing sound of
ture growth will be directly influenced by ivater waves along a seashore. ·
availability. Besides these characteristics, water also has a def-
Besides this need to be near water to support life, inite romantic quality. Over time, numerous songs,
people are emotionally lured toward water for its poems, novels, and motion pictures have been
sight, sound, and recreational uses. Water in most_ based on a romantic theme of water either as the
any condition (unless polluted) holds a special visual primary setting or as an essential element of the
appeal magnetizing people to it. This is best indi- plot. "La Mer" by Debussy and "South Pacific" by
cated by the almost complete development of most Rodgers and Hammerstein are musical compositions
shorelines and the related high real estate value of where water plays a central role in the score. And
shoreline property. As of the late 1960s, over one- how many photographs or postcards have you seen
third of the population in the United States lived in where water provides a dramatic setting for a sunset
coastal counties, with the growth rate within one or an embracing couple? Even advertisers have at-
mile of shorelines increasing at more than three tempted to benefit from the romantic appeal of wa-
times the national rate. 1 For some people, this desire ter by showing their product (cars, shampoo, soft
to live at the water's edge outweighs the potential drinks, etc.) against a background of a lake or ocean.
hazards such as flooding and wave damage. Each Water possesses an undeniable emotional attraction
year there is extensive property damage and loss of for people, with numerous implications as to how,
life resulting from a careless wish to be near a body when, and where it is used in the design of exterior
of water. In fact, 33 million people or more in this spaces.
country are at major risk from flooding. 2
In addition to simply being attracted to water,
people have a strong innate temptation to interact
with water. Humans have a deep desire to touch
General Characteristics
and feel water or even become totally immersed in Water possesses several physical properties that in-
it for fun and recreation. This urge is perhaps most fluence the purpose and method by which it can be
strongly exhibited by small children who instinc- used in landscape architectural design.
tively enjoy playing with water. Without under-
standing the potential dangers of water, children de- Plasticity. Water is obviously a liquid (except when
light in touching and manipulating it. Long periods frozen), having no shape unto itself. Its form is de-
of time can be spent splashing water about or inter-· termined by the characteristics of its container. Thus
acting with it. Even most adults have a difficult time the same volume of water can have an infinite num-
walking up to the edge of a body of water without ber of different qualities, all depending on the size,
touching it. Sooner or later, a hand or foot reaches color, texture, location, and so forth of the container.
out to test the water and perhaps splash it about. In a sense, a person designs with water by designing
Water also has a therapeutic effect. It can be hyp- the container. Consequently, to create a certain wa-
notic in capturing and holding the senses of sight ter characteristic, one must first directly design the
and sound. Watching and listening to water along type of container that will in turn produce the de-
the shore of a lake, river, or stream can carry a per- sired result with the water. Because water is a highly
son's awareness away from the reality of the mo- plastic element, its particular form and appearance
ment to a more restful and peaceful state of mind. in any given situation is the direct result of the in-
The rhythmic repetition of waves washing ashore or fluence of gravity. For instance, flowing water is
attempting to reach a point of stability with grav-
ity while still water expresses an equilibrium with
1
Water Resources Council, Tire Nation's Water Resources (Wash- gravity.
ington, D.C.: The First National Assessment of Water Resources
Council, 1968).
2 3
Robert Kales, "Planning for Huzards," La11dscnpc Arcl1itec/11re "The Psychologically Ultimate Seashore," Enuironments; New
65 (2) 165 (April 1975). Concepts in Stereo-Disc 1 (Atlantic Recording Corporation, NY).
 \\'at~r
256

< )

< >
7~~----
fCO.\.... FAL.Llt-6 W,A\E=R e:..:g

Sf"ATIC WA1ER. DiNANC WATER.

flGURE 6.1

Motion. As just alluded to, water may be classified of static water. Dynamic ,-vater is energetic and emo-
into two general ca tegories according to its motion: tionally stimulating. It easily captt1.res the attention
static (quiet, nonmoving) or dynamic (moving, of the eye and may be accompanied by sound emit-
changing). These two types are graphically ex- ted through the motion of the ·water. Dynamic water
pressed in Figure 6.1. has the potential of being exciting and dramatic as a
result of its sound and its interaction with color and
Static 1mta. Stc1tic, quiet water is found in lakes, light. Dynamic ,.vater is not, but is attempting to be,
ponds, pools, or gently flowing rivers. It is peaceful, at balance with gravity. The greater the imbalance
relaxing, and mellow in character with a soothing with gravity, the faster the movement of dynamic
effect on human emotions. Static water is visually water. Historically, dynamic water was an important
placid, and this quality may allov.r and encourage the element in the Italian Renaissance gardens in the
mind to think in an uninterrupted manner. Again, sixteenth century and at Versailles in the form of
this type of water expresses a balance and equilib- water jets. Dynamic water has numerous possible
rium with the force of gravity. Historically, the static uses in design but is most easily used as an attrac-
body of water was an important element in both the tive point of interest. Other possible uses of dynamic
French Renaissance gardens of the seventeenth cen- water are outlined in later sections of this chapter.
tury and the English landscape gardens of the eigh-
teenth century. Although their containing form var- Sound. As already mentioned, another characteris-
ied, the static water in both these styles was used as tic of water is its ability to emit sound when it is in
a neutral, reflective element encouraging contempla- motion or when it abruptly strikes a fixed object or
tion. More will be said later in this chapter about surface . Depending on the amount of movement
other potential d esign uses of static water in the out- and volume of water involved, numerous possible
door environment. sounds can be produced that complement and en-
hance the visual aspects of an outdoor space. More-
Dynamic 1mter. The second general type of water over, water sound can be used to influence human
according to its motion is moving, flowing, or falling em.otions; it may calm and soothe on the one hand
\,·ater such as is found in rivers and streams or cas- or excite and inspire on the other. The ceaseless,
cading down wc1terfalls. Jets of water may also be rhy thmic motion of waves against a shoreline may
classified as another type of dynamic water. This be quiet and peaceful, while the roar of a waterfall
type of ·water has opposite characteristics from those may be motivating. Some of the common sounds
Gc1wr.il Ch.irncteristics 257

FIGURE 6.2

created by water include trickle, dribble, bubble, degree of slope on which it is located. Any slope
gurgle, roar, gush, splash, and babble. causes water to move, with its speed intensifying as
s lope steepness increases. With higher rates of
Reflectivity. Another significant characteristic of wa- movement, the visual attraction of water as well as
ter is its ability both literally and figuratively to re- the sound produced become greater. Moving water
flect its e nvironmental setting. In a quiet, static stutc, is a potential SOLJrcc of energy as ,q_•ll as a force of
water can function as a mirror, repeating an image erosion.
of its surroundings (land, vegetation, buildings, sky,
people, etc.) on the base plane. Under ideal condi- Co11tni11,:r shnpt' n11d size. Because of its fluid state,
tions, when the surface of the water is glass-smooth, a given volume of water expands outward until it is
the reflected image may be so precise as to make the stopped and contained by an up,,·ard slope or ver-
distinction between it and reality difficult to deci- tical wall. Water takes on the shape of any container
pher, as in Figure 6.2. This photograph gives only in which it is placed. For example, the edge traced
one clue as to which is the actual side of the picture by a body of water is irregular when the containing
and which the reflected. When the water surface be- edges push inward and outward in a random pat-
comes ruffled by a breeze or other disturbance, it tern. Or the water outline is straight when the con-
loses the exact detail of the reflection. Instead, the taining edge is a smooth p lane. The size of the con-
image now takes on a quality of an impressionistic tainer influences all water but has a noticeable effect
or abstract painting with forms and color mottled, on the characteristics of flowing water. For instance,
but still understandable. a constant volume of flowing water can be rather
In addition to actually reflecting the visual image placid in a .vide con tainer or channel but quite tur-
of its adjoining environment, a body of water figu- bulent when funneled through a na rrower channel
ratively reflects the characteristics of its container because of the increased resistance, as suggested in
and surroundings by responding to the following Figure 6.3.
factors.
C'o!ltni11<.1r rn11gl111css . The material and texture of
Slope (gra-uity). As previously stated . water in the the containing surfaces have an influence on the ap-
form of a river or a stream dirC'ctly responds to the pe;1rance cind movement of water. too. A given vol-
258

.. . . . . . ,, . :

. ,· ..
.. - ..

~ -c~µa_ w1on-1 ~ -
~ AT A 61'-1\:::.1'-l fOl\--.tf> TURE:U-
LS-lCES l~F<E:ASes.
FIGURE 6.3

ume of water flowing through a channel of a fixed a mirrorlike plane to a stormy tumult of white-
size moves easily and quietly when the channel capped waves, with many variations in between de-
sides and bottom are smooth and free of obstacles. pending on the presence and severity of wind. In
Yet the same volume of water will flow in a slower, fact, the surface texture of a flat, nonmoving water
more turbulent manner in the same channel size body can be considered a direct result of wind.
when the container surface is rougher and more
highly textured. This fact is often one of the reasons Light. Light interacts with water to influence its
cited for the engineered "channelization" of a mean- visual character and mood.· Water can vary from a
dering brook to allow the water to move faster and glittering and sparkling element when moving or
"more efficiently." Unfortunately, natural animal falling to a sullen black mass when in a quiet state
and fish habitats are lost, infiltration of ·w ater into under a dark sky. Under certain conditions water
the ground is diminished, and erosion is increased can take on the qualities of fine cut glassware or
from channelization. transpment plastic that twinkles and radiates arrows
of reflected light. Under other conditions water may
Temperature. As is well known, water often has a appear as a solid dark mass absorbing much of the
dramatic change from a liquid to a solid state be- light that strikes it. Consequently, numerous emo-
cause of seasonal temperature changes between tional responses from joyous and cheerful to gloomy
summer and winter. This also creates a notable al- and funereal can be evoked by water as a result of
teration in the appearance of water as well. A quiet, the interaction of water with light.
static body of water that may appear dark while in a
fluid state will appear light and glazed when frozen. Several conclusions can be drawn from the influ-
Likewise, moving water often produces sculptural ence of the factors cited above on water. Firs t, water
and unique forma tions as it freezes. Such natural by itself has no distinct design properties other than
beauty is even more stunning as it interacts with that it is a liquid. 4 Instead, all the visible character-
sunlight.
4
Wi11d. Wind, as mentioned earlier, is still another E. Byron McCulley, "Water-Pools and Fountains," in Hnnd-
l>ot,k of Lnndsca11e Arc/1itec/uml Co11struction, Jot D. Carpenter, ed.
environmental factor governing the character of wa- (McLean, Virginia: The Landscape Architecture Foundation, Inc.,
ter. The surface of a flat \•Vatcr body mi'ly vary from 197(,) I'· ·ISO.
General Uses of W,1ter 259

istics of •..vater are directly dependent on exterior fac- There are three general types of irrigation: (1)
tors (just outlined) that bear on and affect it. Water s pray irrigation, (2) flood irrigation, and (3) drip ir-
must depend on its em·ironmental context for its rigation. Spray irrigation, the most common type, is
particular qualities. Change the forces in the envi- accomplished by spraying an area from fixed spray
ronmental setting and you also alter the characteris- heads located strategically throughout the area of ir-
tics of water in that setting. Thus we may say water rigation. The pipes needed to support this type of
is both literally and figuratively reflective of its sur- system are permanently located below ground. As
roundings. the name implies, flood irrigation is accomplished by
A second conclusion from the impact of the many literally flooding an area of ground with one to t,vo
influencing factors on water is that it is a highly var- inches of water. To flood irrigate, the area to be ir-
ied and flexible design element. It has no constant rigated must be contained with slopes or low berms.
and is not apt to be exactly the same from one time Drip irrigation, the third form, provides water to a
to another. Again, it changes according to external plant by a slow, continuous drip of water from plas-
influences affecting it. Therefore water can provide tic tubing located on the ground's s urface. Drip irri-
another dimension of interest in a design because of gation is best used for individual locations, such as
its ability to change outside the control of the de- single plants, rather than for broad areas such as
signer. The challenge for the designer is to under- lawns. Compared with the other two types of irri-
stnnd sufficiently the factors that influence water's gation, drip irrigation is the most efficient and least
appearance to be able to manipulate them properly wasteful of water.
to create the desired visual effect.
Climate Control. Water may be used in the outdoor
envirornnent to modify air and ground surface tem-
peratures. It is well known that a large body of wa-
General Uses of Water ter at the regional scale can modify air temperatures
Water has numerous possible functions in the de- in the surrounding land areas. Large bodies of water
sign and maintenance of exterior spaces. Some uses warm up and cool off slowly so that they are nor-
relate directly lo the visuai aspects of a design, while mally cooler in the summer and warmer in the win-
others pertain to more utilitarian requirements. ter than adjacent areas of land. This causes local
Nonaesthetic functions of \\'ater arc outlined in this temperatures of land next to large water bodies to be
section; visual uses of \,·ater in design are discussed different from that of the general region. For in-
in a later section. s tance, this phenomenon raises the average January
temperature about 5 degrees F. in the Great Lakes
Consum12tion. Water is of course used for both hu- region. Conversely, the average July temperature of
man and animal consumption. Although this use this same area is decreased about 3 degrees F. owing
may not pertain to all designs, certain athletic fields, to the lakes. 5 In terms of daily temperature varia-
campgrounds, parks, and so on require water as an tions, breezes will move from the water body onto
essential consumable element to support the facility. the land during the day with a resulting cooling ef-
\:\'ith this need, the water source, method of trnns- fect when the land heats up in comparison with the
port, and means for making it available to the user water. Such a breeze can produce as much as a 10
become critical design decisions. degree F. drop in air temperature. 6
Water at a smaller site scale can fulfill similar
Irrigation. A common utilitarian use of water is irri- functions. Evaporation of mois ture from a surface
gation of field crops, lawns and gardens, park space, will lower the temperature of that surface and in
and the like. For dry regions of the country like Cali- turn the air temperature in its vicinity. Thus if water
fornia, Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado, irriga- is present in a pool or fountain, or is constantly
tion is essential to support a lush growth of plants. sprayed over a surface, the surrounding air temper-
lrrigntion is i'llso n means for reducing maintl'nnnce
because a progrnm of fortilization can be carried on
through liquid soh·ents in the irrigation system at
;I ld mut Lrndsb.:-rg, "Clim.it<' and Planning of Settlements,"
much less time and cost than conventional methods. Con"l.!nti0n Sympo:;ium I, l/1 h rn r.,r./ J?,:giv,wl Pl111111i11g, The
An irrigated site including a la,vn area can withstand Amcric.in Institutl' of Architects, Washington, D.C., May 1950.
heavier use th11n n nonirrignted site because grnss Cited by Victor Olgy.ig, Dc,ig11 wit!, Climat~; A Biodimatic ApproacJ,
l o Ard1itt'c/11ml R,·si(l1111/i;111 (l'rinccto n, N.J.: Princl'ton Uni\'ersity
and other plant i",iatc1ial can be mc1intc1;ncct in u Press. i%3). p. :>l.
260

SW

A Ei<E:EZ..'E
~ENT
FIGURE 6.4

ature will be lower than if water were lacking. The Sound Control. Water may be used in outdoor
cooling effect of water can be enhanced if wind is spaces as a sound buffer, especially in urban envi-
directed over and through an area of water into an ro·n ments where there is apt to be high noise levels
activity space where people are present, as shown in from cars, people, and industry. In these circum-
Figure 6.4. Spanish Moorish gardens such as at Al- stances, sound generated from falling or moving wa-
hambra used this principle as a method of air-con- ter can begin to mask these noises in the immediate
ditioning both their indoor and outdoor spaces. area of the water to create a more peaceful atmo-

FIGURE 6.5

. Ae>LA·
Visual Uses of 1.Vater 261

sphere, as suggested in Figure 6.5. One example of Flat, Static Water. Water can be used in the outdoor
water used partially for this function is in Paley Park environment as a flat, quiet water body in the form
in New York City. A wall of falling water in this of either a pool or a pond depending on the shape
minipark located in midtown Manhattan generates a and character of the container.;
loud sound that conceals the traffic noise of the
street for visitors standing or sitting in the park. Be- Pool. "Pool" is a term used for a body of water of
cause of this sound buffer, one easily forgets the any size placed in a hard, well-defined constructed
commotion. of the city in the relaxing background. container.s A pool is apt to be geometric in shape
Other examples of falling water that disguise noise but is not limited to symmetrical or pure geometric
in urban settings are located in Freewny Park in Se- forms (circle, square, triangle, trapezoid, etc.). His-
attle, Washington, designed by Lawrence Halprin, torically, examples of pools of water can be found in
and in Robson Square in Vancouver, British Colum- the Court of Myrtles at Alhaml:-:-a, at the Taj Mahal,
bia, designed by Robert Zinser of Arthur Erickson in the gardens of Vaux-le-Vicomte, and in the Par-
Architects (Figure 6.26). terre D'Eau (Water Parterre) at Versailles. More con-
temporary examples of pools include the expanse of
quiet water at the Christian Science Headquarters in
Recreation. Another popular use of water in the
Boston and the long, narrow basin at Las Arboledas,
landscape is for recreation. Water can be used for
Mexico, designed by Luis Barragan.
swimming, fishing, boating, scuba diving, sailing,
The exact shape of a pool used in a design de-
water skiing, and ice skating. These recreational
pends on the setting and other design determinants
uses of water account for intense use of lakes, rivers,
of form and character. The important factor is that a
streams, and oceans throughout the country. Land-
pool appears constructed, not natural or soft, as il-
scape architects become involved in the planning
lustrated in Figure 6.6. Consequently, a pool is most
and design of all types of water recreational facili-
appropriate in urban spaces where hard planes and
ties, from private backyard pools to regional lakes
edges predominate or in other circumstances where
and ocean fronts. In addition to the planning and
an expression of humans controlling nature is ap-
design of the body of water itself, the landscape ar-
propriate. Pools may be used in the outdoor envi-
chitect is apt to participate in the design of associ-
ronment for the following purposes.
ated support facilities such as bathhouses, marinas,
A pool of quiet, still water may be used as a plane
picnic areas, and lodges. Related to the development
of reflection for the sky and/or nearby elements such
of a water body for recreational use is the concern
as buildings, trees, sculpture, and people. By means
for its wise use and preservation. Recreational uses
of the reflected image, a person is able to see these
of water are proper and enjoyable only as long as
other elements in a new and fascinating way that is
the water resource is treated with care and sensitive
possible only by looking into the plane of water, as
m,rnagement.
in Figure 6.7. The viewer is provided with a new
point of perspective.
Reflecting pools also provide planes of either light
value or dark value, depending on the sky condi-
Visual Uses of Water tion, the surface of the container itself, and the lo-
Water can be used in the outdoor environment for a cation of the viewer. On a light, sunny day, for in-
number of visual functions in addition to the more stance, a reflective pool is apt to appear bright and
general uses just outlined. The process for integrat- shiny in contrast to dark areas of lawn or pavement.
ing water in the landscape for visual uses should be These shimmering pool surfaces in turn create a
similar to that employed for the other design ele- light, weightless quality in opposition to the heavy
ments. That is, the landscape architect should first massiveness of other areas of ground plane. At
decide \.•:hat functions water is to fulfill in an out- times this effect can give the feeling that there are
door space and subsequently analyze what type and holes or voids in the solid mass of the earth.
character of water meets these desired functions.
This procedure is critical because of the potentially
highly varied character of water, which permits in- =£. i3vron ll,kCultey, "Water-Pools and Fountnins," in Ha11d-
finite possible visual uses. Some of the more com- !.•o,,k ,,j' Lt11,,/.,rn11,· lird11t,·,·t11ml Co11,;lr11di,m, Jot D. Carpenter, ed.
(:\h L,•,111. \ 'irsini.1 : Thl' L,111ds.:,1pt• /\rd1itcdurc h,l111d,1tion,
mon visual functions of water based on its type of 1971'.), p . .JSI.
motion and character are described below. "Ibid.
262

~-

R:XJLs AF<-t:. STATIC eoo1es OF WATER. IN ~ 1 eEOMETR\c

"FOPJv'\5 .
FIGURE 6.6

To maximize the reflective ability, several factors object and the viewer (Figure 6.8). The length and
must be considered. First, the size and location of width w ill then depend on the size of the object it-
the pool should be studied with respect to the view- self and the amo unt of it that one wishes to mirror.
er's position(s) and the object(s) to be reflected. For The required dimensions should be studied by
a single object, the reflective pool should be placed means of section drawings and by applying the prin-
in front of the object to be reflected, between the cip le that the angle at which the sight line s trikes the

FIGURE 6.7
 263

c_____:___
I

i
I
I
I
i
I
_,,,. _,,,. ~~'\,z{,,';zz',~z~·',;,z~, -7
/
/
/

.,,...,_,,,.,..,.,.*() I

FIGURE 6.8

FIGURE 6.9

A PEF5PECTI\/E CA/--..! EE \J6E.P "TO S11JD'( THE. l~E. lµ A F:::oL-

Cf= WATE~.
~64

U6ITT- ----- PARK-------

~~,~~I~~ I ~-

U~DE51RAbLc:. i=OR REFL~- bESl R.AbLE. FOR. REl=LECTIO~:

1l0f-l : SHALLOW tU?L WITH DEEP P():?L WITH- OA.RK SJR-
LIGHT SJRP~E. rA::E .
co~D]TIONS FOi<. ft;:C>L Rt=.FLECTION.
FIGURE 6.10

water surface is the same as the angle of reflection. pool walls black or dark blue. As the pool becomes
Perspectives should also be employed, as in Fig- more shallow and/or the containing surface becomes
ure 6.9. lighter in value, perception of reflected images on
Another consideration is the depth of the pool the water surface becomes more difficult, as indi-
,tnd the tone of its containing surfaces. To enhance cated in Figure 6.10.
reflection, the surface of the pool should appear as Still other factors that affect reflectivity are the
·dark as possible. This can be accomplished by in- level of the ,.vater surface in the pool and the char-
creasing the depth of the pool and/or making the acter of the water surface itself. To provide maxi-
::ontaining surface dark in value. An effective means mum reflectivity, the water level should be relatively
for accomplishing the latter is to paint the inside high in the pool. This establishes maximum expo-

FIGURE 6.11
Visual Uses of Water 265

FIGURE 6.12

sure of the .vater surface to the surroundings and Weird and twisted kaleidoscopic images of the orig-
cuts down on the amount of shadows cast by the inal pattern often ensue under these circumstances.
pool sides. The water surface of a reflecting pool A static pool of water can be used as both a neu-
should be kept free of movement and clear of obsta- tral background and foreground to other elements
cles like algae or debris that would interfere w ith re- . and focal points in the outdoor environment, as in
flection . And last, a suggestion is to keep the s hape Figure 6.12. Like areas of lawn, ground cover, or
of a reflecting pool rather simple to prevent it from pavement, a quiet surface of water can provide an
visually competing with the n.,flcclion in the wa ter's unobtrusive setting for a piece of sculptur~, a build-
surface. ing, a unique tree, or a fountain jet. And in doing
If a pool of water is not to function as a reflective this, the water surface is able to reflect an image of
body, it may take on s pecial visual quality based on the central element, thereby accentuating its sight as
the treatment of its containing surface. The contain- well as providing a different visual experience of the
ing surfaces, particularly the pool bottom, can be de- element, as shown in Figure 6.7. As suggested pre-
signed with appealing patterns through the use of viously, the shape and appearance of a pool that is
attractive materials, paint, and texture, as su ggested to fulfill this purpose should be unobtrusive in order
in Figures 6.11 and 6.40. The bottom of the pool at not to take attention away from the object being vi-
the base of the large fountain jet in Point Park, Pitts- sually supported.
burgh, for ins tance, contains a repeating "fish scale"
pattern created by river stones (Figure 4.31). Painted Po11d. The second general type of flat, s tatic water
stripes and designs are a unique way to create ad- is the pond, which differs from a pool bl being de-
ditional interest along the bottom and sides of a res- signed to appear natural or seminatural. Neverthe-
idential swimming p ool. All the designs on the bot- less, a pond may be either constructed or natural to
toms and sides of a pool acquire another dimens ion the s ite. The shape of a pond is typically free-form
of visual quality when they interact with the pool or curvilinear, as shown in Figure 6.13, and conse-
water, its movement, and light filtering down quen tly is most appropria tely located in rural or
through the w ater. The image of the patterns be-
comes blurred and distorted as the result of surface
movement caused by wind or other disturbances. %id, p. 482.
266

~OS ARE STATIC f:ODIE:5 Of- 'MTER. I~ $OFT ) CUR.VILINt=AR CR..

~TU !<PL l5T\C FOt<wf5.

F!GL'RE 6.13

FIGCRE 6.1-l

STE-E~E.55 OF SLOPES 5URROJ~Dlf---0 A ~ O l~PLUEf--lCt::>5 71-\E

Pi=~PTI0!-4 Or 51Z:.E .
 267

FIGURE 6.15

parklike settings. A pond of a given size can be judge and compare relative heights of nearby land-
made to seem larger if the containing slopes are gen- forms and tree masses. To serve this function, hovv-
tle, or s maller if the containing slopes are steeper, as ever, it is critical that the pond occupy the natural
shown in Figure 6.14. In essence, the sides of a pond low area of a site. When a pond is located in an el-
act as spatial edges affecting perception and views. evated position relative to other surrounding areas
A pond may accomplish all the functions preYiously of the site, it acguires an uneasy feeling of tension
outlined for pools in addition to the following. with the lower elevations. A pond is not able to
A pond may be used to create a feeling of repose serve properly as a reference plane when situated
and tranguility in an outdoor space . A pond is more too high in a site.
effecti\·e in doing this than a pool because of the A pond may be used in the landscape to establish
pond's soft, peaceful forms. When combined with a unifying link between different areas of the envi-
visuall>· rounded and flowing landform and with ronment, as illus trated in Figure 6.15. Water in any
naturalistic pla ntings typical in the English land- setting is readily noticed because of its visual con-
scape gardens such as those found at Stourhead or trast to other elements in the outdoor environment.
Blenheim, ponds are able to reinforce the bucolic Consequently, its visual strength can tie together
feeling of undisturbed serenity. discordant parts of a design composition and link
Closely associated \.vith a pond's feeling of repose them through its commonality. This use of a pond is
is its ability to ~crve as ii rE'fcrcnce plnnc in the bnd- cspe,i.illy pffc,ti vP. wlwn it i s the dominant element
scape. Because a pond's surface is a tewl plane, ic or local point oi a particular portion of the la nd-
, I
268 Water

l"URBULE}..K:,E:
fLCoR Af<..Ef:>... w:>RN
~WAiE~------- - ----

FIGURE 6.16

ful in a large site covering many acres, where size signed to create different effects in the outdoor en-
alone can divide an area into unrelated segments. If vironment related to the design objectives and the
a viewer sees a portion of a pond in one area and context of the project. The behavior and characteris-
then travels a distance to another area where a dif- tics of flowing water depend on volume of water,
ferent part of the pond is seen, the two areas will be steepness of slope, channel size, and properties of
unified by the viewer mentally "recalling" the vie,v channel bottom and sides. As mentioned earlier in
of the pond at the earlier location. this chapter, a rel.itively smooth flow of water can
Figure 6.15 also s hows another potential function be achieved by a channel, lined with a slick material,
of a pond that is closely associated with the one just that is a constant width and depth. Such a character
described. The view of a pond from certain points of flowing water is suitable for a peaceful or casual
can be used to provide intrigue and lead a person environment where the water needs to be a neutral
through a sequence of outdoor spaces. A sense of clemen t.
mystery and fascination is created when a portion of A more turbulent effect of flo,.,ving water can be
a pond or lake is seen disappearing behind a hill or created where the channel alters back and forth be-
clump of trees, like a path or road that winds out of tween •Nide and narrow, the channel bottom is
view. In all these similar situations, the viewer is en- steeply pitched, and/or the channel is composed of
ticed to solve the puzzle of what is unseen and out rough materials such as rocks and boulders. These
of view by traveling to a different point where a new factors, either separately or collectively, establish ob-
view is provided of that which was previously only stacles for water to strike and flow around with re-
glimpsed. sulting turbulence, white water, and sound.
To be able to create different visual effects with
Flowing Water. The second general form that water agitated flowing water, it is helpful to understand
may take in the outdoor environment is that of flow- some of the mechanics of water moving through a
ing water. " Flowing water" is any moving water channel. For example, a " roller coaster" arrangement
confined to a well-defined channel. Flowing water of alternating valleys and crests along the channel
results when the channel and its bottom nre sloped, bottom forces water flowing along the channel to
allowing the water to move in response to gravity. move down and up in correspondence to the relief,
Streams, creeks, and rivers are natural examples of as illustrated in Figure 6.16. As the flowing water
flowing water. It should be noted that flowing water moves over each crest, it is forced to move faster to
does not include the category of falling water where get over the obstruction. Owing to the increased
water drops abruptly from a higher elevation to a speed at these points, more pressure is created here.
lo,,·er one . Flowing water is best used in outdoor As a result, these crests are subject to wear at a
spaces as a kine tic element to express movement, di- faster rate than the valleys that are less exposed to
rection, and energy. the flow. In plan, the same principles apply. Ele-
As a visual element, flowing water c.m be de- ments or points that project into the volume of mov-
Visual Uses of Water 269

FIGURE 6.17

FIGURE 6.18

RAPID )TURWLE:NT
tv'OIE10ENT-- - ~---.--------

CHAA..tCfER OF M0/1\43 WATER PAFO'"l.ALL'i' OE:PENCo U~~

CHA}..INE:L Y-LIDTH-.

ing water act as barriers deflecting the water away abrupt. Roughly flowing water can furnish a boiling,
from and around them, as shown in Figure 6.17. white water effect that is more eye-catching and
Again, these projections receive inte nse wear from lo ud than smoothly flowing water. It is very likely
the moving water. to be a stimulating element in the landscape that at-
Flowing water also reacts to channel width. A tracts people to it to watch and listen. Therefore
constant volume of water moves more slowly in a roughly flowing water is suitable in those outdoor
wide channel than in n narrow one, as indicated in spnces where nctivity and motion are desired. In
Figure 6.18, and turbulence is apt to result if the natural settings, roughly flowing water is also a
transition betw een wide and narrow channel sizes is challenging recreational resource for canoeing or
 Water
270

VATER. FALL5 W t1H-

OJT 11---ITERl<DPTI0--5
01<. Oe5TRlCTIONS-------~'411

FREE=.-FALLIN0 ~TER..
FIGURE 6.19

rafting. The New River in West Virginia, the Yough- point in the outdoor environment. There are three
iogheny in Pennsylvania, and the Colorado River are basic types of falling water: (1) free-fall, (2) ob-
known for their white water rapids. structed flow, and (3) sloped fall.

Falling Water. The third form of water in the land- Free- fall. As the name implies, this type of falling
scape is falling water, which occurs when water water drops directly from one elevation to another
moves over and do,vn a sudden d rop in the eleva- in an uninterrupted manner, as illustrated in Figure
tion of the channel. Falling water expresses the 6.19. The character of free-falling water depends on
forces of gravity even more dramatically than flow- volume, velocity, height of fall, and edge condition
ing water nnd therefore is often a noticeable focal over which the water falls. The possible combina-

FIGURE 6.20

DIRECTIOt---1 OF WAl"EZ
F-LOH - - - - - -- -- -- -
t:05t::. OF \ftAlt=\<-.. FM.L - - - -- ~

'f/ATER. WILL 'FALL 0/ER.

STRA\SHT EDGE \1--.l A
~
1--4ER. ,GLASSL\KE:
_____ _ __ lv\N--l-
_ __ __ __....

WATER W ILL FALL +-+ERE=.

l=I~ C~llH6 A a::R.-
T
RATED ~ L . - -- - -- - - -

WAiER W \LL co.-..t::Ew-

--rR/\l"E. \-H::-RE: 10 F'RO-
P-JC.!:: A 'RI PP.l..E.D PALL
~ECT q=:- F-t.X:,1::: ON CHAMCTER Of FALJ--11--B W ~ .
Visunl Uses 01 \Vater 271

5:XJf-..-lP .AJ--10 5PLA.5Hll--G

ARE:. A550RE:ED VMEt·-l-
WATt::R FAW...$ lf--JTO
WA"TER.----------

FIGURE 6.21

tions of these variables suggest the many different As suggested in Figure 6.21, another variable that
appearances and sounds that can be created with influe nces the sight and sound of free-falling water
falling water from an almost inconspicuous dribble is the s urface on which the water falls. When the
of a garden brook to the monumental roar of Niag- falling water strikes a hard surface such as rock or
ara Falls. concrete, it creates a distinct splashing effect with
As one design variable, the edge over which the water deflected in all d irections. A sharp splattering
water falls should be carefully studied to create the sound also results from such a condition. When wa-
desired effect, particularly ·with small volumes of ter falls into a pool at the base of the fall, part of the
water. The effects of different edge conditions on movement of the fall is absorbed by the pool so that
falling water are indicated in Figure 6.20. A perfectly the amount of splashing is slightly less than when it
smooth edge causes water to cling to its surface and falls on a hard surface. The sound emitted when wa-
fall in an unwrinkled sheet that looks like a stretched ter falls into water tends to be a deeper, fuller-bod-
piece of clear cellophane. An excellent example of ied one compared with water falling on a fixed sur-
this is found at the edge of the large reflective pool face.
at the Christian Science Headquarters in Boston. A Another design variable that can be worked with
rougher edge concentrates the ·water at certain is the position of the falling water with respect to
points and produces a rippled result in the falling light. When a strong light source such as the sun is
water. When the edge becomes very rough and er- behind the falling water as in Figure 6.22, the fa lling
ratic in combination with a relatively large volume of ·w ater often takes on a sparkling, crystalline quality
water, a white ..vater effect is created.
1
that adds to the visual appeal.
2 ) Water

FIGURE 6.22 FIGURE 6.24

FIGURE 6.23

Examples of free-falling water in the landscape

are numerous. Natural examples include Niagara
Falls, the Upper Falls and Tower Falls in Yellow-
stone National Park, and Bridal Veil Falls in Yose-
mite National Park. Still other examples are shown
in Figures 6.23 and 6.24. Figure 6.23 shows a falls in
the state of Washington and Figure 6.24 shows the
falls \:Jelow the house Falling Water, designed by
Frank Lloyd Wright in Bear Run, Pennsylvania.
Constructed free-falling waterfalls can be found at
The Fountain of Arethusa and the Terrace of the
Hundred Fountains at Villa d'Este, in the central
water display in Constitution Plaza in Hartford,
Connecticut, at the Auditorium Forecourt in Port-
land, Oregon, and at Freeway Park in Seattle, Wash-
ington.
One vari.1tion of free-falling water suitable for ur-
ban settings is the water wall. A "water wall" is as
the n.:inw suggests, a w,11! of falling water. Usually
the \\'atcr is pumped to the top of the wall whence
it is allowed to foll in a continuous sheet down the
front of the wall. The result is a spectacular treat-
ment of a vertical plane with both sight and sound
stimulus. Examples of water walls can be found at
Visual Uses of \\'a tcr 273

FIGURE 6.25

dard Oil 0uilding in Chicago (Figure 6.25), and in stacles or planes while dropping between two ele-
Robson Square in Vancouver, British Columbia (Fig- vations, as illus tra ted in Figure 6.27. These obstacles
u re 6.26). The water wall in Paley Park provides a act as commas or pauses in the continuity of the
dramatic focal point for the minipark as well as a dropping water. Obstructed falling water is apt to
source of sound for shutting out the cacophony of produce more commotion in terms of sight and
the city. sound and consequently be more easily noticed than
free-falling water. Many interesting theatrical effects
O/Jstn1clcd fnll. The second type of falling water is can be made by controlling the volume, height of
obs tructed fall, caused by water striking various ob- falls, and the surface(s) o n which the water falls.

FIGURE 6.26
274 Willer

MTE~ ~ II----!
=H0Rr PISF<LlPTEO
~ENt5----------~-=~

FIGURE 6.27

One possible variation is to imitate the water falling Sloped fall. The third category of fallin·g water is
a rocky mountain stream by making it fall onto a water dropping along and down a steeply sloped
_-ge boulder or concrete mass before allowing it to surface, as illustrated in Figure 6.28. This type of
drop to the next lower elevation. An excellent ex- falling water is similar to flowing water but occurs
. ,ple of this is the water display in Lovejoy Park, on a steeper slope in smaller controlled volumes. For
rtland, Oregon, designed by Lawrence Halprin. small volumes of water, the visual result is a surface
<.:'elution should be exercised to limit the number of that merely looks wet and glistens in the light. For
interruptions in obstructed fall so as not to ·n egate larger volumes, distinct patterns of moving water re-
! feeling that the water is indeed falling. sult. Again, the material and character of the sloped

FIGURE 6.28

''h1'ATER. FALLS ei!viCOTHLy

~ SLOPED ~R-
CE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~

_OfE:0 FALL
 275

\---~
\.

\ ,
--
.....

FIGURE 6.31

FIGURE 6.30

~~--::.::·,
·.,
_. :
:.
. ~. ·.
·. r-~
-.. , .. ·.·

~:11::\~;;;;=la:
~j;;;~j
'· ..

RA<MEDvET
276

FIGURE 6.32

surface significantly impact the behavior of the fall- s tructed falling water. One example of sloped falling
ing water. The water can be made to fall in clear thi n water is fou nd in the central v;ater feature in Copely
s heets, in scalloped pa tterns, or in miniature rippled Square in Boston . Here, water tha t initially rises in
waves, as shown in Figure 6.29. An area of turbu- the central water jet fall s and strikes the sloped sides
lence and white water usually occurs at the bottom of the fountain's pyramidal base. Then the water
of the slope where the falling \,·ater meets a more falls down the sloped surfaces, which are g roved,
static body of water. Sloped fall tends to be more until it reaches the bottom ·where it is captured and
placid and rese rved than either free-falling or ob- recirculated.

FIGURE 6.33

·., •· ·-.: ::· . ~

. . .. :-:- .
.. ·. : . ; ..
FIGURE 6.36

FIGURE 6.37

FIGURE 6.38
 in quiet garden settings or restful outdoor spaces, as
in Figure 6.31. Used in combinations of more tha n
one jct, as in Figure 6.32, single-orifice jets may be
employed as a more noticeable center of attention in
an outdoor space.

Spray. A spray fountain jet is produced by many

fine, mistlike streams of water that result from water
being forced through a nozzle with many small
openings. A spray jet characteristically has a fine
texture that is light and airy in appearance. The
sound created by this type of jet is a soft " hiss." A
spray jet may be used as a design element for its
delicate texture or to portray a refined, quiet mood.
A spray jet may also be incorporated into an outdoor
space as a means of increasing the moisture content
of the air and as a natural air-conditioning element.

Aerated. An aerated fountain jet is similar to a sin-

gle-orifice jet in that the nozzle has one opening.
However, the primary difference between the two is
that the opening of the nozzle in the aerated jet is
much larger, thus producing a turbulent, white wa-
ter effect. Hence the aerated appearance is a conse-
quence of the forced water mixing with air. An aer-
ated fountain jet is particularly attractive because the
white water interacts with sunlight to create a fresh,
FIGURE 6.39 sparkling appearance, as shown in Figure 6.33. Aer-
ated fountain jets are easily and appropriately used
as dominant focal points in the landscape because of
their visually compelling nature. Examples of aer-
ated jets used as predominant elements in the out-
door environment include the fountain jet at Point
are fo ur basic types of fountains characterized by Park in Pittsburgh, in front of the City Hall in Dal-
their form and appearance: single orifice, spray, aer- las, and at L'Enfant Plaza in Washington, D.C. (Fig-
ated, and formed. 10 These four types are graphically ure 6.34).
portrayed in Figure 6.30.
Formed. A formed fountain jet is any type of jet
Single-orifice. This is the simplest type of fountain that is shaped to furnish a special effect. "Morning
jet, with water forced through a single opening n oz- glories" or " mushrooms" are two of the more com-
zle. A single-orifice jet produces a relatively clear mon formed fountain jets. Formed jets appear exact
s tem of water that is generally simple but striking in and studied, therefore, requiring special attention in
appearance. The height of a single-orifice jet is apt their location. They often have the appearance of a
to be limited to the point where the water stem be- perfectly shaped glass or plastic sculpture placed in
gins to break apart and fall downward, a factor of the outdoor environment, as shown in Figure 6.33.
both water volume and pressure. The sound pro- Formed fountain jets are best used in those spaces
duced by a single-orifice jet is typically a distinct where a formal, precise shape is required.
dribbling or dripping on e made as the falling water
of the jet s trikes the surrounding water. Individual- Combination Water Features. All the types and
ly, single-orifice jets are effectively used as accents characteristics of water described in this chapter may
be used alone in a design or combined w ith each
other to establish effects that can be gained only in
IOfbid, p. 483. a synthesis of various types. One notable example of
280

FIGURE 6.40

different forms of water used collectively is the Wa- playing the contrasts of falling water and rising wa-
ter Organ and associated pools at Villa d'Este, Tivoli, ter against each other.
Italy (Figure 6.36). Here flat water, falling water, and Another example of varied mixtures of water
fountain jets are used in combination to create a va- forms is in Mellon Square in Pittsburgh. Here, foun-
riety of visua l effects and sound. For falling water tain jets are incorporated with flat, quiet water as a
alone, one can see a large central fall with a volu- base and falling water emitting from large dishlike
minous mass of w hite falling water juxtaposed with strnctures (Figure 6.37). An added dimension of dy-
smaller, lower falls that furnish a light, lacy effect. namics is provided by the periodically changing
The fountains include both single-orifice and aerated height and overall appearance of the fountain jets
jets. The result is a sensitive yet exciting composition (Figures 6.38 and 6.39). Consequently, the overall ef-

FIGURE 6.41
Visual Uses of Water 28 1

Washington, D.C. Here, the aerated fountain jet

changes volume and height to produce dramatically
varied visual effects (Figures 6.40, 6.41, and 6.42).
No matter what ty pe of water form o r combina-
tion of water forms are used in an outdoor space, it
should be based on the intended character and ob-
! : ]1!h _
:: .. jectives of the design project. Closely associated
with this is the relationship of the water to the cli-

--- "'
. ~'.··_,., l
~> . , ,,
matic character of the region. As one example, water
is a helpful and required element in those regio ns of

II
. . . the world that are hot and arid. Here, water sern ~s
.: 1 .. as both a physical and psychological cooling agent.
On the other hand, extensive use of ,,·ater is innp-
.~jf,~-ci..-~
•
-· . .~~*
~.--_!i~flli
· - ·
~>"·""~";'.~ ))-i-~ . .
tJf,h}1l-~.., ·ir-...~ ! .. _
y-, i', • ft 1111• ~ 'J •
propriate in regions that are generally cloudy and/or
receive heavy rainfall. Here, water only adds to the
: . pL' rce ivl'd tbmpnl'ss ilnd gloom of lhl' L'nvironnwnl.
; ' Finally, water sho uld be coordinated with all
other elements so that it appears and functions as an
integral part of the entire design. Like other design
elements, it should not be added on to a design as
an afterthought. If used correctly, water can add to
the vitality and enjoyment of an outdoor space.

Summary
Water is an extremely varied element ,,·hose charac-
ter and appearance d epend on factors external to it.
FIGURE 6.42 To desig n with water, o ne must firs t s tud y the
s hape, size, height, and bottom slope o f the contain-
ing element. Even then, uncontrollable elements
s uch as s un, wind, and temperature can influence
the visual quality of a _body of water. Visually, water
feet of the water displa y alters from moment to mo- may be used in the outdoor environment as a flat,
ment, g iving the viewer numerous combinations of reflective element to suggest tranquility a nd contem-
water sounds and displays. Gushing water, white wa- platio n; as a moving, flowing element to p rovide ac-
ter, water stre tched like cellophane, water sculpted tivity and sound; as fall ing water to express the
like glass, dripping water, and splashing water are forces of gravity, or as vertical fountain jets as ac-
some of the assorted sights and sounds created. Wa- cents and exclamation points. Used in any of these
ter can even vary from moment to moment, as seen capncities, water is a s pecialty element that adds
in the central fountain at the Hirshhorn Museum in meaning and a sense of life to outdoor spaces.
 7
The Design Process

Previous chapters have dealt with the characteristics

and potential uses of the basic landscape architec-
Project Acceptance tural design elements in the outdoor environment.
Research and Analysis For the most part, the discussions in those chapters
Base Plan Preparation considered the design elements as separate, individ-
Site Inventory and Analysis ual elements. This permitted focusing on each el!?-
Client Interview ment alone without interference or confusion with
Program Development the .other design elements. Yet the landscape archi-
Design tect rarely designs with landform, plant materials,
Ideal Functional Diagram buildings, pavement, site structures, or water indi-
Site-Related Functional Diasram vidually. Although the designer must have a thor-
Concept Plan ough understanding of each of these elements, ulti-
Form Composition Study mately the true success of an outdoor space depends
Prelimin.iry M<1ster Plan upon the thoughtful and sensitive combination of all
Master Plan the design· elements.
Schematic Design When worked with collectively, all the landscape
Design Development architectural design elements can reinforce one an-
Construction Drawings other to meet the objectives of a project, solve prob-
Implementation lems, and create outdoor environments of a desired
quality. The design elements should be coordinated
Post-Construction Evaluation and Maintenance to accentuate the positive aspects of each while si-
Summary multaneously negating the weak qualities. To do
this, the design elements must be studied in concert
with one another while developing a design. They
should not be treated in a ·piecemeal or sequential
fashion. The landform of a site, for example, cannot
be completely or properly studied without consider-
ing how it will affect the integration of buildings,
plant material, and pavement. Each of the design
elements affects the others.
To effect a suitable integration of the different
landscape architectural design elements with one
another as wdl as with the site and the requirements
of the client, most landscape architects employ a se-
ries of analytical and creative thinking steps referred
to as the "design process." The design process helps
 1.: Design Process 283

the landscape architect arrive at a finished site de- while the designer is visiting the site and conducting
gn that collectively utilizes all the design elements a site analysis. Or the form composition phase may
meet the requirements of the project in the most take place as an integral part of the preliminary de-
efficient and aesthetically pleasing manner possible. sign. At other times, the process is not apt to pro-
The design process has a number of other uses ceed in a neat sequence of phases in which one step
,eluding the following: (1) it provides a logical, or- is absolutely completed before the next. In many in-
0anized framework for creating a design solution, (2) stances it is necessary to move back and forth be-
it helps to insure that the solution that evolves will tween the various phases with information gained at
e appropriately suited to the circumstances of the one step feeding back to an earlier step. As an illus-
esign (the site, the client's needs, budget, etc.), (3) tration, the extent and type of information sought
it aids in determining the best use of the land for the during the site analysis should directly depend on
'.ient by studying alternative solutions, and (4) it the character and complexity of concepts prepared in
-=rves as a basis for explaining and defending the a later phase. Likewise, one may find it necessary to
design solution to the client. revisit the site or talk to the client again once the
The design process, also sometimes termed a design phase itself has been started because some
problem-solving process," includes a series of steps item of information was overlooked the first time or
n1at usually (though not necessarily) follow a se- one's memory and impression simply need refresh-
quential order. In general terms, these same s teps ing. And sometimes it helps to revisit the site after
re also used by architects, industrial designers, en- starting the design phase because then the designer
ineers, and scientists to solve problems. For site d e- can look at the site with experience and greater un-
signers, the design process typically includes these derstanding of what limitations or opportunities are
cteps: present. In other words, no one step of the design
process occurs independently of the others.
Project acceptance
Several other points also need to be made. First,
2. Resea_rch and analysis (including site visit)
the application of the design process may vary from
a. Base plan preparation
one design situation to the next. Each project repre-
b. Site inventory (data collection) and analysis
sents a unique set of circumstances and, therefore,
(evaluation)
requires a different method for proceeding through
C. Client interview
the design process. Similarly, the emphasis placed
d. Program development
on each of the individual steps may also change. For
Design
a. Ideal functional diagram example, the site may be so barren or nondescript
that the s ite analysis is meaningless. In other cases,
b. Site-related functional diagram
the client may not care what is done and have little
c. Concept plan
or no input in the process. In many situations, the
d. Form composition study
entire process may end with the preliminary design.
e. Preliminary design
The need to undertake any of the steps of the design
f. Schematic design
process or the emphasis placed on each can be jus-
g. Master plan
tified only so Jong as it contributes to the other
h. Design development
phases as well as the overall process. In all cases, the
L Construction drawings
limits of a budget dictate how much time can be
a. Layout plan
spent on the various phases of the design process.
b. Grading plan
So the process may be applied slightly differently
c. Planting plan
each time a design is produced.
d. Construction details
It is important for a novice designer to under-
5. Implementation
stand that beautiful and practical design solutions do
6. Post-construction evaluation
not appear out of thin air like magic. There are no
7. Maintenance
esoteric formulas or secret states of mind that pro-
These steps of the design process represent an duce good designs effortlessly, and the design pro-
ideal sequence of events. Many of the steps overlap cess itself is no guaranteed recipe either. The design
::me another and blend together so the neat ordering process is only a framework or outline of various
of the outline is less clear and apparent. Further- steps. Its success relies upon the designer's obser-
more, some of the steps may parallel one another in vations, experience, knowledge, ability to make
time and occur simultaneously. For example, client proper judgments, and creativity. All these factors
interview and program development may occur must be utilized within the structure of the design
284 The Design Prnn'ss

process. If any one of them is weak or lacking, the the terms of each party at this meeting are agreeable
design will suffer no matter how faithfully the de- to the other, then the landscape architect prepares
signer may have attempted to follow the steps of the for the client a written proposal detailing the scope
design process. The design process requires the of services, products, and cost of services to be un-
landscape architect to be continually thinking about dertaken. If the client agrees to the proposal, both
what is occurring and asking the questions, "Why parties sign the proposal or written contract. It is al-
am I doing this?" "What do I hope to accomplish?" ways advisable, no matter what the size of the proj-
"Is this necessary?" "Is there a more efficient way of ect or the scope of the work, to have the agreement
doing this task?" In the final analysis, designs that in writing to avoid misunderstandings or legal prob-
work \Vell and affect our emotions require a great lems at a later date.
deal of sensitive observation, analysis, studying,
'.hinking, and restudying as well as inspiration and
:rea ti vity. Research and Analysis
It should be noted here that producing a design
Once an agreement on the project has been made
involves both rational aspects (inventory, analysis,
between client and landscape architect, the land-
Jrogram development, construction knowledge,
scape architect needs next to obtain a base plan of
~tc.) and intuitive aspects (the feel of putting forms
the site and conduct a site inventory and analysis. A
and shapes together, aesthetic appreciation, etc.).
site visit is almost always necessary to accomplish
i"he design process, then, is a framework of steps,
this step. These early steps of the design process are
ncorporating both rational and intuitive phases that
much like those undertaken in any other creative en-
aid the designer to organize work, thoughts, and
deavor such as writing a speech or paper or con-
feelings in an effort to produce the best possible de-
ducting research. One must have a thorough under-
ign solution.
standing of the background of the project and the
Because of the significance of the design process
conditions that will affect the end product before
in organizing the designer's procedure, it is essential
proceeding to the later phases where new and crea-
:::,r the beginning designer to cover each step thor-
tive ideas are formulated.
ughly. This is necessary to prevent any factor from
being forgotten or any possibility overlooked. There-
)re the novice should carefully record and docu- Base Plan PreP-aration . One of the first items that
,ent each step as a reference and as a learning tool, mu_s t be obtained or prepared before any analysis or
provided time nnd budget permit. Thus the design design proposals can be undertaken is a base plan.
o rocess may be somewhat laborious and time-con- Normally, the information required for the base plan
1ming the first few times one proceeds through it. (property survey, topography, etc.) should be sup-
• ~r an experienced designer, some of the steps of plied by the client. If such information is not avail-
the design process can be covered rapidly without able, a professional property and topographic survey
:traordinnry effort. Having utilized the process a must be undertaken by on-site survey, aerial pho-
.1mber of times, the designer is apt to proceed tography, or a combination of both. The expense for
through the various phases automatically. such a survey should be billed directly to the client.
The following sections of this chapter cover each For small sites such as private residences, the
the steps of the design process in greater detail. client or home owner may have a scale base plan in
P.gain, we emphasize that these steps represent an the form of a deed description, a plot plan, or a site
approach, not the approach. The information studied plan accompanying the house plans. When the
, 1d the procedure of each of the steps should be client does not have this information, and frequently
~ .refully analyzed and tailored to each new project this is the case, the landscape architect must then
undertaken. visit the site, take field measurements, and prepare
a scale base plan. For small sites (1/ 4 to 5 acres), the
most efficient scales for drawing a base plan are 1 in
i:-roject Acceptance = 10 ft, 1 in = 20 ft, 1/8 in = 1 ft, and 1/16 in == 1
Th_e first s tep of the design process is to have a proj- ft. For bigger sites, the scale is larger (1 in = 30 ft, 1
l : proposal accepted by both the landscape archi- in = SO ft, 1 in = 100 ft, etc.). The scale chosen will
k·d and the client. At the first meeting between the also depend on the amount of detail in the design
two parties, the general needs and requirements of proposal. For preliminary and schematic design pro-
l : client are discussed and the landscape architect posals, the scale of the drawings is often larger than
·F :sents the type and scope of services offered. If for design development drawings. Sheet size is fre-
Kesearch and Anah-sis 285

auently a determinant of scale too. The base plan several objectives for this step. Primarily, the pur-
1ould show the following existing information: pose of the site analysis and inventory is for the de-
:L Property line with bearings and distances, if signer to become as familiar with the site as possible
known (as if the designer lived or worked there) in order to
~- Topography (contour lines shown as dashed evaluate and determine the site's character, prob-
lines with spot grades indicated where neces- lems, and potentials. In other words, what are the
sary) site's good points and bad points? What should be
1. Vegetation (for small-scale sites, it may be nec- preserved and enhanced? What should be changed
essary to identify the size, caliber, and species or corrected? How does the site function? What are
of trees) its limitations? How do you feel and react about the
4. Bodies of water (streams, lakes, ponds, etc.) site? In essence, this step of the design process is
>. Buildings, including the following for detail very much like going to the library to do research
scale plans: when writing a paper or preparing a speech. You
a. floor plan with all doors and windows cannot do a design or write a paper without know-
b. basement windows ing the subject or its qualities.
c. down spouts Each design should be specifically tailored to fit
d. outside water spigots and adapt to the conditions of the given site. There-
e. outside electrical outlets fore the second major purpose of a site analysis and
f. air conditioning/heat pump units inventory, which is very much a part of the objective
g. exterior lights (both on the building and in stated in the previous paragraph, is to identify those
the site) "keys" or "clues" of the site that will indicate how
,. Other structures such as walls, fences, electrical the design proposal can be best suited to the existing
and telephone junction boxes, telephone poles, site conditions in a manner that takes advantage of
culverts and head walls, fire hydrants, etc. the site's positive aspects while simultaneously elim-
" Roads, driveways, parking areas, walks and inating or minimizing its negative aspects. Conse-
paths, terraces, etc. quently, the site inventory and analysis is under-
15. On-site and off-site utilities including electric, taken essentially as a tool for the landscape architect
telephone, gas, water, sanitary sewer, and to aid in developing the most appropriate solution
storm sewer. for the given site. The site inventory and analysis is
'· Immediate off-site conditions such as adjoining conducted to a lesser extent for the client, although
roads and streets, nearby buildings, telephone it does serve as useful information when explaining
poles, vegetation, bodies of water, etc. the logic of the solution to the client. The site anal-
Any other elements considered necessary for ysis can often provide defensible reasons for doing
developing the design. things in subsequent design phases.
As shO\vn in Figures 1.4 and 7.1, the base plan There are a number of conditions to record and
ould be drawn in a simple and legible graphic evaluate during the site inventory and analysis, as
s-ryle because it (or more probably copies of it) will indicated in the accompanying outline. For each
be used for later steps of the design process. Fancy, condition, there should be two distinct phases: (1)
1borate symbols or graphic textures are not appro- inventory: identify and record the condition (i.e.,
..-iate on a base plan. For example, existing trees data collection; note what and where it is), and (2)
should be drawn as simple circular outlines, not as analysis: evaluate or make a judgment about the
mplex symbols with branches and foliage. Notes worth/importance of the condition. Is it good or bad?
ould be kept to a minimum so as not to clutter the How will or should it influence the design proposal?
sfleet or reduce its flexibility for subsequent draw- Can it be taken advantage of? Will it limit what can
ings. Any element that will be removed as part of be done on the site at a particular point? Recording
e design proposal, such as an existing walk, road, the site data (inventory) is relatively easy. One
....1ilding, or tree, should be drawn lightly with needs to be observant and organized in recording
dashed lines (if at all) so it will not graphically inter- the information. A camera is a helpful tool for this
re with the ne\"' proposal. procedure because photographs can be used to
check the information in the office or simply to re-
Site lnventorx and Analxsis. After a base plan has fresh one's memory of the site from time to time.
rnen prepared (or while the site is being surveyed Determining the importance of the data or informa-
, .d measured in order to prepare it), the next step tion (analysis) tends to be more difficult. It is, in fact,
rs-to conduct a site inventory and analysis. There are the step most inexperienced designers tend to skip
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1 Lym Residence
310~~TEET
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FIGURE 7.1
Research and Analysis

over or cover inadequately. Analysis requires expe- lyzed. If the condition is of little signifil',1nl°l' lir "''II
rience in knowing the probable impact of an item on not. affect the eventual design soluti·c)n , 1·t s·t)llll 11
~ !\t ,t
the design proposal and the ability to think ahead be included. Don't make your work nnv mor~ dit'ii-
about how a solution may respond to the condition. cult or complex than necessary. ·
Analysis requires thoughtful judgment and fore- A. Site Location and Context
sight. Written examples indicating the difference in 1. identify conditions and land uses surround-
thought and terminology between site inventory and ing the site .
site analysis are given in the following outline. • tyf:'e_ a:1d condition of adjoining land uses
• adJommg street or road(s): how heavilv
Inventory Analysis traveled? when? · ·
• how much noise and headlight glare is
A. -10-ft-(12m) high sugar maple • should be preserved and
good condition used for shade on west
generated from street?
10-ft (3m) canopy, 30-ft (9m) side of building 2. identify character of neighborhood
spread • might be used as a • style, age, and condition of architecture;
bright orange fall color "ceiling" over the terrace height
• maturity of vegetation
8. southwest slope • vie\\' toward valley should
bl? taken adv,mtage of; • feeling and character of neighborhood
good vil'W toward valley
might be good • fabric and "texture" of neighborhood
orientation for lodge 3. identify location of significant functions in
• has good exposure to the community and neighborhood
southwest summer • schools
breezes; should not be
• police/fire stations
screened
• churches
• needs shading from hot
summer afternoon sun • commercial centers and type of business in
each
C. wooded area of beech, • has a dark, enclosed feeling
maple, and oak in summer
• parks and other recreation centers
• should be used only for 4. identify pattern of vehicular circulation in
IO\,·-intensity functions the neighborhood
• restrict grading and soil • hierarchy of road types, intensity and type
compaction in this area of use (i.e., residential, commercial, etc.)
D. building entrance with a • good southern orientation; • note daily or seasonal fluctuations in the
double set of doors; walk is maintain openness for intensity of traffic ·
6 ft wide winter sun exposure • identify primary means for arriving at the
• entrance area feels tight site. is there more than one? which one is
and congested; should be the most frequently used? when?
widened to avoid this
problem
• identify location and schedule of nearby
bus routes
• need closer vehicular drop-
off for ease of access to 5. identify zoning ordinances and building
buildi!1g entrance codes for the neighborhood
E. OsB Soil Type; clay loam • should be developed only
• building types allowed
with moderate to slow at 101,· density, 2 to 5 • building height and length restrictions
permeability; pH 5.9 units:acre • setback requirements
• septic systems should not • ROW and road width requirements
be located here • building permits
• restrictions on fence and wall locations and
In conducting a site inventory and analysis, a height
number of conditions should be studied. The follow- B. Topography
ing outline of various site conditions is an ideal 1. identify degree of slope at various locations
checklist (inventory) of items to consider. Not all throughout the site (slope analysis)
conditions will exist on or apply to every site. Others • identify restrictions for building on the
will be common knowledge from working in a given various slope conditions
area. Use the outline as appropriate! For each new • identify land uses most appropriate for the
site, the landscape architect should determine the different slope conditions present on the
most relevant conditions to be inventoried and ana- site
288 Th\? Design Proc\?ss

2. ide ntify ma jor landform types and the signif- • crown density for wooded a reas
icance of each • age (maturity) and h eight of wooded areas
• convex 3. for small-scale sites, identify
• concave • plant species
• valley • size (height, spre ad, and canopy h eight for
• ridge trees)
3. iden tify a reas of erosion (too steep) and form
a reas of wet ground (too level) • color (foliage a nd flowe r) and seasonal
4. ide ntify g rade change between inside (floor variation
elevation) and outside (grade around wall of • texture
building) of existing buildings • any unique features or ch a racteristics
5. check comfort of walking on different areas 4. for all existing p lant material, identify con-
of the site (this will also indicate relative dition, value, and client's opinion (like or
steepn ess) dislike?)
6. identify elevation changes between top and 5 . identify restrictions for d eveloping in or
bottom of all existing steps and retaining around existing vegeta tion
walls
F. Microclimate
C. Hydrology and Drainage
1. identify plan direction of sun at sunrise and
1. identify watersheds and divides between
sunset at critical seasons of the year
each
2. identify height of s un at critical times o f d ay
• check to see if \,·ater drains away from ex-
and seasons of th e year
is ting building(s) at all points
3. identify and locate areas that a re p redomi-
• ide ntify where water flows from building
na tely sunny during critical times of day and
down s pouts
seasons of the year
2. identify m a jor bodies of surface water
4. identify and locate areas exposed to inten se
• ch eck water quality
s ummer afternoon s un
3. identify seasonal fluctuation of streams and
5. identify and locate s hadow patterns at criti-
lakes
cal times of day a n d season s of the yea r
• floodin g a nd cle\·ation of high water
6. identify prevailing w ind direction through
• check for areas of erosion
the year
4. ide ntify wet spots or areas of standing water 7. identify and locate areas exposed to or pro-
(whe n a nd for \,;hat lengths of time)
tected from cooling s umme r breezes
5. identify subs urface water conditions
8. identify and locate a reas exposed to or pro-
• water table elevation; fluctua tion with season
tected from cold winter w inds
• aquifers and recharge areas
9. identify overall temperature ranges a t critical
6. identify drainage onto and away from site
times of day and year
• does a n y s urface water run onto site from
10. identify areas of cool air drainage
surroundings? if so, how much and w h en?
11. identify time periods and a m ounts of heavi-
• w here d oes the water go when it leaves
est and least precipitation
this site?
12. identify depth to fros t line
·o. Soil
1. identify soil type G. Existing Building(s)
• acidic or alkaline? 1. architectural style
• sandy, clay, or gravel? 2. overall massing a nd h eight
• fer tility? 3. identify materia ls of fa!;ade
2. identify d e pth of topsoil layer 4 . identify location of d oors and windows. For
3. ide ntify d epth to bedrock doors, identify which a re used mos t fre-
4. identify gene ral rate of percola tion quently and when
5. identify the limitations for building on the 5. for small-scale sites or those involving close
various soil types association w ith the building, identify
· E. Vegetation • location of rooms inside building
1. iden tify and locate existing p lant mate rial • h ow used a nd w h en?
2. for large-scale sites, identify • are a n y of the rooms used more fre-
• zon es of different p lant materi~11 types quently than o thers?
Rest!ilrch and Analysis 289

• location of basement windows (and depth K. Spaces and Senses

below ground) 1. identify the existing "outdoor rooms"
• height of bottom and top of windows and • where are "walls" (fences, walls, hedges,
doors from ground plant masses, landform slopes, etc.)?
• location of down spouts, outside water • where are ceilings (tree canopies, etc.)?
spigots, outside electrical outlets, outside 2. identify the feeling and character of these
lights attached to building, electric meter, rooms
gas meter, clothes dryer vent, etc. • open, enclosed, cheerful, gloomy, etc
• location of overhangs and height above 3. identify and locate unique or- disturbing
ground noises
• views to the outside from inside the • traffic noise
building • flowing stream
• what is seen? • wind moving through pine boughs
• should it be enhanced or screened? 4. identify and locate unique or disturbing
H. Other Existing Structures smells
1. location, condition, and materials of walks, L. Site Functions
terraces, steps, walls, fences, swimming 1. identify how the site is currently used (what,
pools, etc. where, when, and how?)
2. for three-dimensional elements, identify 2. identify location, time, and frequency for
height above ground such things as
I. Utilities • employee arrival and departure
1. location, height above ground or depth be- • office/store hours
low ground of water line, gas line, electric • work/maintenance
line, telephone line, storm sewer, septic • parking of cars
tank, and leach field (if present) • garbage collection
• identify easements associated \,·ith utility • service people
lines 3. identify and locate maintenance problems
• location of telephone and electrical junc- 4. identify and locate special areas of wear and
tion boxes tear
2. location and height of air conditioner or heat • worn grass edges along walks or driveway
pump • worn lawns due to children's play
• check direction of air flow (front? top?) 5. identify how one arrives at site
3. location of pool equipment and any pipes or • how do you feel?
lines servicing it • what do you see?
4. location of lights and electric lines servicing 6. identify location for dumping snow in
them winter
5. location of irrigation system
J. Views An example of a site inventory and site analysis
1. observe and identify what is seen from all for a residential site is provided in Figures 7.2
sides of the site and 7.3.
• good; should it be taken advantage of?
• bad; should it be screened? Client Interview. During or after the site inventory
• indifferent and analysis, the designer should obtain detailed in-
2. observe and identify views from inside the formation about the client's needs and wishes. One
building looking out (especially from rooms should conduct a client interview, similar to the site
used most frequently) analysis, so that the eventual design solution will re-
• how should these be worked within the spond correctly to the desires and needs of the
design? client. A design solution that fails to respond to the
3. observe and identify vievvs from off the site client's needs is just as ill-suited as onethat does not
looking on properly fit the conditions of the site. The best way
• views from different sides of the site to obtain the necessary information is to personally
• views from street discuss thoughts about what is wanted, liked, and
• where are the best views of the site? disliked, and how the client intends to use the site
• where are the worst views of the site? in the future. To be most useful, all the people who
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3 Lynn Residence
310 5EE.CH ~TEET
SITE I\NA.L'1515

FIGURE 7.3
292 The Design Process

will eventually use and maintain the site should be 2. for each activity, identify which members of
involved in this phase. In the case of an office build- the family participate, frequency of activity,
ing, this might include the owner of the property, a time of day or season, and amount of space
representative group of employees (from top man- required
agement to secretaries and office boys), and the per- 3. identify special needs of children if P,resent
son or persons who will be responsible for actually • where do they play? ·
taking care of the site. For a residential design, all • what do they like to d o?
members of a family should participate in the client • what problems, if any, do they create?
interview because they often have different and op-
D. Gardening
posing opinions on what the design should or
l. is gardening enjoyed by the family?
should not do. If conflicting ideas do occur, then
they need to be resolved so the designer will have a
• if so, how much time is spent gardening?
by whom?
clear direction to proceed in. Although it is desirable
• are there any special gardening likes (vege-
to sit down face to face with the client, it may in
tables, flowers, herbs, ferns, etc.)?
some instances be difficult or impossible to do so.
• are there any preferences on the location of
For example, the users of a park or housing project
a garden?
are typically a large group of people who cannot all
2. identify favorite plants of family; a ranked list
be personally interviewed or even identified. In this
of preferences would be helpful
case, the designer may wish to talk to users of exist-
• note disliked plants
ing parks or housing projects that are similar to the
one the designer is working on. E. Maintenance
The following is a sample outline of items that 1. identify how much time is currently spent or
might be identified and discussed with the client in would like to be spent in the future on main-
the context of a residential site design. The list is tenance
meant as a general guideline and would of course • is all maintenance done by the client?
change with different types of design projects and 2. identify special maintenance problems in the
clients. It is n o t m eant to be all-inclusive or apply to eyes of the client
all situations. 3. identify type of maintenance equipment client
A. Family Members mvns. \Viii it place limitations on the d esign?
l. identify family members and their ages, em- • riding lawn mower vs. push lawn mower?
ployme nt, hobbies, interests, activities, hab-
its, etc. F. Budget
l. identify how much client is willing to spend
• ho'i.v much time is spent on each activity or
and when (only at one time? over a span of
hobby? how should this affect site design?
several years?) ·
• how much time is spent at home or away
2. although the budget must be realistically
from home? inside or outside?
taken into account, it should n ot stand in the
• identify pets, especially those who might
way of proposing a good design solution. A
use or be outside
client can sometimes be persuaded to spend
• identify personal pleasures such as outside
more than originally intended if the result can
cooking, sun bathing, lounging, reading, e tc.
be sh own to have value. Moreover, a design
2. identify specific wishes and needs of each
d oes not have to be installed all at once; it can
family member for the site, and have family
be spread out over a period of years. Remem-
members list these in order of p riority
ber, however, that labor and materials will
B. Entertaining
never be cheaper than they are today.
l. identify frequency, time (day/night), and
numbers of people involved (average and
maximum) Program DeveloP-ment. A program is a list or out-
2. identify requirements for outside uses line of all the elements and requirements the d esig n
• are there any special need s or activities? solution must include and satisfy. It serves two pur-
C. Recreation poses: (1) it acts as a summary and synthesis of the
1. identify types of recreation of family members site inventory/analysis and client interview, and (2)
a t home (throwing baseball/football, badmin- it functions as a checklist to compare the design p ro-
ton, volleyball, frisbee, swimming, croquet, posal against. Under the first purpose, the progra m
etc.) does bring the findings of the analysis steps previ-
Research and Anal\'sis 293

ously conducted into an ordered summary of things should identify the element, its size, its material,
that must be accomplished. If the site inventory/ and any other important characteristic.
analysis and client interview were themselves well The first aspect of the program is a list of goals
organized and recorded, this part of the program and objectives. Goals may be defined as general
might seem redundant. Therefore this aspect of the statements of intent. They identify thoughts and
program can be shortened or even omitted com- ideas that should be accomplished by the design so-
pletely. The second purpose of the program can re- lution. Often the goals set the tone and philosophy
mind the ·d esigner of what should be done and in- of the entire design. Objectives are more specific
cluded in the solution. While studying a design or statements that suggest how the goals might be ac-
already having completed a preliminary proposal, complished. Objectives tend to be more action-ori-
the designer can check back with the program to see ented. For each goal there should be a subset of ob-
if everything that was intended was actually accom- jectives that more explicitly outline how the goal is
plished. Were the correct number of dwelling units to be accomplished. An example of the subtle differ-
included on the site? Are there enough parking ence between goals and objectives is as follows:
spaces? Is there adequate shade on the southwest Goal. Maintain a clearly identifiable entrance to
side of the buildings? Was the terrace made the the plaza
proper size? Was the view screened from neighbors
on the west side? Do the play facilities accommodate Objectives
1. Create an entrance space that is "public" in
the desired activities? Did I solve the drainage prob-
lem next to the garage? And so forth. If time and scale.
budget allow, the program may also serve as a basis 2. Provide a pavement change at entrance that
for returning to the client for a quick review of what is easily seen and recognized.
the design proposal intends to do. 3. Allow some controlled views of the plaza
The written program should consist of three re- from the entrance.
lated parts: (1) a list of goals and objectives (these 4. Provide a focal point at the entrance that will
may be part of the program or outlined as a separate catch people's attention and cause them to
part of the design process), (2) a list of the elements stop.
(spaces or things) to be included in the design, and The other elements of a program are more detailed.
(3) a list of special requirements the design is to ful- To make this more clear, a sample list of the various
fill. The list of elements to be included in the design aspects of a program follows.

Element/Space Size Material . Notes

A. Walk to front entrance 5 it (152cm) wide Concrete or brick Should exte nd along edge of
driveway; include low lighting
B. Shade trees on west 50 ft (15m) high, 30 ft (9m) ? (don't know yet) Be careful of telephone wires
side of house spread at maturity
C. Community recreation 3,000 sq. ft (280 sq.m) Natural cedar siding Should be centrally located with views
center to all areas of the site
D. J tennis courts 78 ft (23.78m) X 120 ft Asphalt base with Should be located on 1 to 3 percent
(36.59m) each aluminum fence slope next to parking
E. Screen on north side 5 ft (1 52cm) high minimum Wood fence or plant hedge Must provide year-round protection
of p roperty
F. Front lawn 1,200 sq. ft (110 sq. m) Keep simple shape for easy
maximum maintenance
G. Work area with work about 100 sq. ft (9 sq.m) Concrete floor Keep close to garage and garden;
bench and s tornge protect from sun; screen from terrace
H. Bus s top about 200 sq. ft (20 sq.m) Enclosed brick shelter Should be located on Maple Drive
within convenient walking distance
to community center
1. Climbing structure 8 ft (2.Sm) high maximum Rough timbers Place on sand next to balance beam
]. Water feature about 150 sq. ft (14 sq. m) Concrete Should act as a focal point to
5 ft (152cm) high m,1ximum the entrance space
94 The Design Process

As can be seen from this outline, some early de- 2. What functions/spaces should be separated from
;ign decisions have already been made. The more one another and how far? Should there be bar-
10ught that can be given at this time, the easier riers or screens established between incompatible
1bsequent design steps will be because many deci- functions?
1ons will already have been made. However, you 3. How should one move through a space or func-
·ill note that some information has been left unde- tion? Through the middle or along the sides?
ned to allow a choice '\,Vhen more is known about Should the movement be direct or meandering?
fie actual design solution. It should also be under- 4. Should the function/space be open or enclosed?
tood that some ideas formulated at this point might Should one be able to see into or out of the space?
1ange in later phases. That is okay and is to be ex- 5. How should one be able to enter the function/
~cted. Again, the program helps to clarify thoughts space? Should there be one way or several ways?
nd give direction.
The ideal functional diagram can be drawn at any
scale on a blank sheet of paper not relating to any
condition of the known site. An example of an ideal
)esign functional diagram for a residential site is shown in
{eal Functional Diag.@_ffi. This is the first step of Figure 7.4. It should show the following:
,e design phase (i.e., the phase when one actually
6. The major proposed site functions/spaces as
tarts to study design possibilities on paper in
simple bubbles.
·aphic form. Note: some designers start this phase
7. The relative distance or proximity of the func-
ith an "ideal diagram" that is even more abstract
tions/spaces to one another.
nd general than the ideal functional diagram). It
8. Type of enclosure for each function/space (i.e. ,
uts into action all the conclusions and proposals
open or enclosed, etc.).
'.at have grown from the previous steps of site in-
9. Barriers or screens.
-:!ntory/analysis, client interview, and program de-
10. Significant views into and from the various func-
~lopment. In the design phase, the studies begin
tions/spaces.
ith general and loose arrangements of the solution
11. Points for entering/exiting the functions/spaces .
.mctional diagram and concept plan) and proceed
12. Interior functions/spaces as well as proposed ex-
, very specific and exact considerations (de tail de-
terior site functions/spaces.
; n) .
13. Notes.
The ideal functional diagram is, again, the begin-
.ng point of the graphic development of a design. Various alternative arrangements of the ideal func-
., e purpose of an ideal functional diagram is to tional diagram should be studied. The designer
entify the best and most appropriate relationships should not settle upon the first idea unless the prob-
at should exist between the major proposed func- lem is so simple that the solution is obvious.
ms and spaces (outlined previously in the pro-
am) of the design. The intent of this objective is to
Site-Related Functional Diagram. The next step of
in insight about which functions a nd elements
1ould be associated with each other and which the design phase is to adapt the relationships estab-
1es should be separated. At this point, the de- lished in the ideal functional diagram to the known
; ner is striving for the absolute functional relation- conditions of the given site. The site-related func-
ips among the various parts of the design. tional diagram should show the same information as
the ideal functional diagram along with two addi-
The ideal functional diagram is nonsite related. It
tional considerations: (1) the functions/spaces should
·ould deal with the design's functions and spaces
relate to the actual site conditions including the in-
general bubbles or outlines in an abstract graphic
terior rooms of associated buildings, . and (2) the
anner. There is no pictorial or graphic realism in
functions/spaces should now be drawn keeping in
e solution at this initial d esign step. The bubbles
mind their approximate size and scale. At this step
ould be arranged to establish ideal relationships
of the process, the designer should be most con-
·1ong the functions and spaces. In preparing the
cerned about (1) the location of the major functions/
?al functional diagram, the d esigner might ask the
llowing questions : spaces with respect to the site, and (2) the relation-
s hip of the functions/spaces with respect to each
What functions/spaces should occur n ext to one other. All functions/spaces should be dealt with as
another and how close? generalized arec1s, as shown in Figure 7.5.
 <----PUeLIC 2'.0t--E - ------:11\:-- - ?RlVATE ZOh..lE: _ _ _....)

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KEY
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5 Lynn Residence
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FLNCTl~L DJt>ORA.v1

FlGURE 7.5
Design 297

Because the designer is now taking the site itself 3. Bubble outline of major functions/spaces includ-
nto account, the basic relationships established in ing the subareas for each
the ideal functional diagram (nonsite related) are ap t a. entrance area including subspaces for
o change a little to respond correctly to the site's • walk
ictual conditions. Such variations should not be • court or exterior foyer
feared or prevented if they appropriately correspond • sitting area
to the site. The designer should develop and study • steps _
he site-related functional diagram as an overlay • potted plants, sculpture, waterfeature, etc.
placed directly on top of a copy of the site analysis. b. terrace/entertaining area including subspaces
This is desirable to force the designer to keep the for
;ite's potentials and limitations in mind as the pro- • lounging/sitting
.:,osal is studied. And because the site-related func- • picnic table
tional diagram is now concerned with approximate • barbeque
;izes of the functions/spaces, the overlay technique • deck
helps the designer see the size and location of the • potted plants, sculpture, water feature, etc.
proposed functions and elements in direct relation to c. lawn area including subspaces .for specific
the site conditions. As with the previous step of the types of recreation (unless the recreation ac-
process, alternative studies should be made to help tivity can occur anywhere)
ensure the best solution·. d. service/work area including subspaces for spe-
cific types of work (carpentry, potting plants,
etc.) and storage
Concer.t Plan. The, concept plan is a direct out-
e. garden
growth and elaboration of the site-related functional
f. planting areas subdivided into outline of
diagram. The essential difference between the two is
masses for plants of different type and height
that the concept plan is more de tailed in both con-
(example: 3-to-4 ft-high (91.5cm-122cm) high
tent and graphic representation. The concept plan
deciduous shrubs, 7-to-8-ft-high evergreen
takes the generalized areas of the site-related func-
shrubs). Do not show individual plants. The
tional diagram and subdivides them into more spe-
general location of shade trees and ornamen-
cific uses and areas. The generalized "entrance area"
tal trees should also be identified.
shown in Figure 7.5, for example, now becomes seg- g. access walks (example: walk from front yard
regated into bubbles for walk, exterior foyer, and
to backyard or walk to garden).
planting of various sizes and types, as illustrated in 4. Entrance/exit points into and from each of the
Figure 7.6. Or the "central meeting space" now be-
above spaces.
comes detailed into subspaces such as open paved 5. Walls, fences, barriers, vegetati\·e hedges, plant
area, sitting, planting areas, and kiosk location. The
screens, mounds, etc.
concept plan sh ould also note major grade changes
6. Spot grades for major elevational changes.
between levels or high points and low points with
7. Significant views that are to be either taken ad-
spot grades. Again, freehand bubbles and other ab-
vantage of or screened.
stract symbols should be used for the graphic rep-
resentation of the solution. However, no specific Again, all these spaces and elements should be
shapes or forms of areas are studied. The concept drawn to scale with bubbles and other abstract sym-
plan should be developed as an overlay on the site- bols. Specific shapes or forms should not be studied
related function al diagram so that previously devel- (this occurs in the next step). The challenge of this
oped ideas, locations, and sizes are easily carried step is to be as detailed as possible in thinking about
forward. It should be noted that some designers the functional relationships and sizes without be-
combine this step with the previously described site- coming overburdened or strangled with the aesthetic
related functional diagram. The result is often the considerations of design forms. The more thought
same though the title of the draw ing varies among that goes into a concept plan, the easier subsequent
designers. steps become. Notes on the concept plan should not
To elaborate, a concept plan for a residential site only identify each space or element but also the de-
design would show, for example: sired height and material of each.
1. Property line. Form Comeosition Study. Until this point in the de-
2. House/garage with a bubble outline of the rooms sign phase, the designer has been dealing with ra-
and an indication of door and window locations. tional, practical considerations of function and loca-
 • C ITY PAR.~

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- -- -· ............ ,,,
 Design 299

tion. In other words, the designer has been solving and lines that extend to and touch the ground. The
the factual problems. Now the attention is turned to idea becomes progressively less important the farther
the appearance and feel of the design, a more sub- one moves from the building. Furthermore, the ex-
jective area. Taking a single concept plan, the de- tended imaginary "lines of force" should be used
signer can create a series of solutions all with the only as generators of ideas, not restrictions for crea-
same basic functional arrangement, but each with a tivity. They should be applied only when useful.
different theme, character, and set of forms . For a As seen in Figure 7.7, the form composition study
small scale site such as that related to a residence, deals almost entirely with the outline around hard
office building, or urban plaza, the design solution structural elements of the design (pavement areas,
might have a theme of forms that are rectilinear, cur- walks, pools, planters, etc.) and the lawn .areas. It
vilinear, circular, angular, arc and tangent, or a ~om- does not deal with plant material in any more detail
bination of these. The shapes and forms of a design than the preceding concept plan, nor does it deal
can be developed in any desired style from the same with the pattern of materials within the outlines.
concept plan. Consequently, one should choose a The form composition study is drawn as a simple,
design theme (i.e., style of forms) that will work and freehand line drawing with all elements and areas
appear best for the situation. The selection of a de- drawn to scale. In addition, it often helps to include
sign theme may be based on the character and size the lines of force and their construction lines on the
of the site, the location of the site, or the preference form composition study as long as they do not be-
of either the client or the designer. The theme estab- come too confusing. No graphic textures or elaborate
lishes order or structure for all the spaces and design symbols are used. As with the previous steps of the
elements to fit into. The theme is the framework of design process, a number of alternative studies
the design. should be undertaken before selecting the best one.
With a basic theme of forms in mind, the designer One last word about the form composition phase
converts the bubbles and abstract symbols of the is that, as described, it is most applicable to small
concept plan into specific and exact forms. This is sites (5 acres/2 hectares or fewer) where the shape of
done as an overlay on top of the concept plan so that areas and spaces is critical. The form composition
its basic arrangement is retained. While trying to ad- phase is less essential for a large site such as a park
here to the functional and spatial arrangement of the project or condominium development at the scale of
concept plan, the designer is also attempting to cre- the entire site, though it still might be undertaken as
ate a composition of forms that are attractive to the specific areas of the site are dealt with in more de-
eye. The form-to-form composition should be based tail. Some designers undertake the form composition
on basic principles of design and form composition. as an integral part of the development of the prelim-
One of the major considerations of this step of the inary master plan.
design process is the visual relationship between a
building and the surrounding site. In a good design Preliminary Master Plan. In the preliminary master
the building and site are unified and appear to be plan all elements of the design are put together and
strongly integrated parts of the same theme. The studied in association with one another in a realistic,
building and site should blend together. To achieve semicomplete graphic manner. All design elements
this goal, an initial step in studying the form com- are considered, some for the first time, as interre-
position of the design is to extend imaginary lines, lated components of a total environment. Within the
sometimes referred to as "lines of force," relating to framework established previously by the concept
the edges of the building's walls, doors, and win- plan and the form composition study, the prelimi-
dows outward into the site. Remember that these nary master plan moves ahead to take into account
lines were previously discussed in Chapter 3 for and study the following:
aligning buildings with each other in a cluster (Fig- 1. The general material of all elements and forms
ures 3.38 and 3.39). These extended lines can serve as (wood, brick, stone, etc.).
- guidelines for aligning selected edges and forms in 2. Plant materials as masses drawn to approximate
the site design with those of the building itself. For mature size. The size, form, color, and texture of
example, the form of an entrance area will appear to the plants are now considered and studied. In
- be visually related to the adjoining building if certain this step, plants are described in general terms
edges of the entrance are aligned with an edge of a such as ornamental tree, low evergreen shrub,
door, window, or wall. This concept is most critical tall deciduous shrub, and so forth. No plant spe-
immediately around the building with those planes cies are identified.
 ., _____..----,
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oHIEti TR.ELLI5 FB-CE ~

EiAAf'ES
f'LAI-Jfll---6 AP-EA

FIGURE 7.7
Design 301

3. The three-dimensional qualities and effects of the 4. Outline or "footprint" of all buildings and struc-
design including the location and height of such tures.
elements as tree canopies, awnings, overhead 5. All major design elements of the site plan illus-
trellises, fences, walls, and earth mounds. In trated with their proper graphic texture
other words, the relative height of all elements of a. driveway, walks, terrace, deck, lawn, etc.
the design to one another should be considered. b. roads and parking.
4. Sketch grading shown by proposed contours c. bridges, shelters, docks, etc.
drawn at 2- or 5-ft (1 or 2m) contour intervals de- d. masses of plant materials (both existing that
pending on scale and complexity of the design are to be retained and proposed).
layout. Major elevation changes between terraced e. walls, fences, etc.
levels as well as tops of 'Nalls and fences might i. steps, ramps, curbs.
also be noted. g. sketched proposed contours.
The preliminary master plan evolves best as an In addition to graphically showing the above, the
overlay on top of the form composition study. A preliminary master plan should also identify the fol-
number of studies and reiterations on different lay- lowing with notes:
ers of tracing paper will most likely be undertaken 1. l\!ajor use areas (examples: lawn, community
before concluding with a solution with which the
open space, service area, natural wooded area,
designer feels happy. It is also quite possible that
amphitheater).
initial ideas developed during the form composition
2. Materials of the design elements and forms .
study or concept plan (or earlier) will change during
3. Plant materials by general characteristics (size and
the preliminary master plan because new thoughts
type; e.g., deciduous, evergreen, broadleaved ev-
have come to mind or the designer feels differently
ergreen).
about a particular element or form when it is seen in
4. iv1ajor level changes by the use of spot grades.
the context of other elements. Having completed the
5. Description or justification for special situations.
preliminary master plan, the designer should check
it against the program to make sure all intentions
Master Plan. The master plan, the next step in the
were implemented. Next the designer should review
the plan with the client for feedback. This may be design process, is a refinement of the preliminary
the first time the client has seen the design, so a few master plan. After gaining the reactions of the client
days might be allowed for review. Hopefully, the from the preliminary master plan, the designer may
client will accept the solution and have a few sug- need to revise and restudy certain portions of the
proposal. With these changes included, the. designer
gestions or requested revisions. The designer then
makes the necessary revisions and proceeds to the once again draws the site plan in a presentable fash-
master plan or even to schematics or design devel- ion. One of the primary differences between a pre-
opment. This depends on how many changes result liminary master plan and a master plan, in addition
from the client's review and how elaborate the de- to the necessary design revisions, is the graphic style
of each. While the preliminary master plan is drawn
sign proposal is. In some cases the designer's ser-
in a loose, freehand, yet legible manner, the master
vices to the client may end with the presentation of
plan is typically drawn with more control and refine-
the preliminary master plan and proceed no further.
ment, as in Figure 7.9. Rather than drawn entirely
The preliminary master plan should be drawn
freehand, the mas ter plan may have certain parts
freehand and show all the elements of the design in
a semirealistic, illustrative fashion, as in Figure 7.8. such as the property line, building outline, and
Variations in line weight-, textures, and values edges of hard structural elements (walls, terrace,
walks, decks, etc.) drafted with a triangle and T-
should be used to make the drawing read clearly.
square. However, other elements such as plant ma-
The preliminary master plan should show the fol-
lowing: terials are still drawn freehand. To give the plan a
controlled appearance, more time is usually spent
1. Property line . drawing the master plan compared with the prelim-
2. Existing topography and significant spot grades inary master plan.
for design proposal. Because of this additional time required and be-
3. Adjoining roads/streets (at least to centerline) and cause the master plan is somewhat redundant, many
other significant elements such as buildings ad- designers elect to prepare a master plan in a graphic
jacent to the site. style similar to a preliminary master plan to save
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9 Lynn Residence
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 The Design Process

both time and money. Some designers stop with the . tual pavement pattern, the appearance of a wall or
preliminary master plan step as noted previously be- fence, the design of an entrance sign, or the detail-
:ause the cost to the client does not justify the time ing of an overhead trellis. This is often accomplished
~o draw a highly ornate "pretty picture." Conse- by studying specific areas of a project (site entrance,
quently, budget restraints have a direct impact on arrival court, terrace, pool and deck area, etc.) in
,vhat is or is not done at the master plan step. A plans, sections, and elevations at a detailed scale be-
naster plan typically shows the same information as tween 1 in = 20 ft and 1/4 in = .1 ft. Design devel-
the preliminary master plan with similar labeling as opment drawings give both the designer and the
well. client a clear idea of what the project will actually
look like in critical areas. While quite specific, design
development is primarily concernec! with the visual
Schematic Design. For some projects the design
quality of the design, not the technical or construc-
orocess continues on to schematic design. For small-
tion detailing.
scale sites such as residence or a vest-pocket park,
master plan and schematic plans are synonymous.
However, design projects entailing many acres with Construction Drawings
multiple land uses utilize schematic design to study
the proposal in greater detail. Like the master plan, Having completed the design phase of the design
schematic design concerns itself with the entire site. process, the designer next prepares construction
Graphically, the schematic plan shows the same drawings. These typically include such 9-rawings as
the layout plan, grading plan, planting plan, and
information as the master plan with the following
construction details as well as the writing of specifi-
additional detail:
cations. All these drawings are prepared as a means
1. Building floor plan showing all first-floor rooms, of communicating how to construct all elements of
doors, and windows. the project from overall building location to the size
2. As appropriate, the plan may show such items as and location of individual bolts in a fence. The con-
roof overhang (by means of a light, dashed line), tractor(s) use these documents as instructions to
down spouts, water spigots, electrical outlets, build from. At this point in the process, the designer
window wells, air conditioner, etc. is'most concerned with the technical and mechanical
3. Individual plant materials within masses. Plant issues, though aesthetic concerns cannot be dis-
materials are identified and labeled according to missed.
size, form, color, and texture. If the schematic de-
sign is the final step in a design proposal (no de-
sign development or contract documents are to be Implementation
undertaken), then species of individual plants Once all the construction drawings have been com-
may be identified. pleted, they are made available for bid. Although
4. Grading shown by proposed contours drawn at procedures differ from one situation to another, the
2- or 1-ft (1 or .Sm) contour intervals. In addition, contract is usually awarded to the lowest bidder. Af-
spot grades should be used to represent major ter the construction contract has been signed, the
high points and low points as well as the tops of contractor then proceeds to build and install the de-
walls and fences. sign. The amount of time required may vary from a
matter of days to many months. The designer's role
The schematic plan is drawn in a neat, controlled
style. Like the master plan, the schematic plan may at this point is usually one of observation. Although
usually not held by contract to supervise officially,
combine both drafted and freehand lines for the var-
the landscape architect may want to watch over the
ious elements of the plan, though typically the sche-
construction phase to make suggestions as neces-
matic plan tends to be almost entirely drafted.
sary. In addition, questions and problems often arise
during construction that the designer must answer
Design DeveloP.ment. The final step of the design and solve. It is not unusual in the implementation of
process is design development. In this step of the a design that unforeseen circumstances require
process, the designer is most concerned about the changes in some aspect of the design. The designer
detail appearance and integration of materials. For must keep abreast of the construction so that these
example, design development might study the ac- changes can be made as quickly as possible.
Summ.iry 305

because the alignment of a bed line, the size and

Post-Construction Evaluation shape of plant material, the replacement of a defec-
and Maintenance tive element, general upkeep, and so forth all tend
The design process does not end once the project to be the responsibility of the maintenance person.
has been built. Rather, the designer should obsen-e If the design was originally ill-conceived in terms of
and analyze the project from time to time to see how maintenance, or if the maintenance person is not
well it works and grows with time. Much can be sensitive to the designer's intentions, then the proj-
learned after a project is in use. The designer might ect over time will not be of the highest quality. It is
ask: "Does the design appear and function the way important for the designer to consider maintenance
I intended?" "What is good about the project?" from the very beginning of a project and for com-
"What are the weak points?" "What would I do dif- mu nication with the maintenance person to occur on
ferently, if anything, the next time?" It is vital the a continuing basis.
designer learn from the built project so that the pos-
itive aspects can be carried forward into similar proj-
ects in the future while the negative qualities are Summary
corrected the next time around. When the design As can be interpreted from the preceding sections,
process is looked at in this light, it is seen as a con- the design process is a complex undertaking in-
tinuing procedure. What has been done and learned tended to encourage the best design solution possi-
in the past should always be taken into account on ble for any given situation. The process is a frame-
current and future design projects. work of steps and phases that structure, but do not
One last item that is also an ongoing aspect of the inhibit, the designer's creative thinking in problem
design process is maintenance. To be successful, a solving. The designer should use the design process
design must not only work well on paper and be as a tool that can be modified as needed to aid in
constructed with the utmost care and quality, but it solving the particular problem at hand . The design
must also be maintained properly throughout its ex- process requires the designer to be as knowledge-
istence. Too often a design that meets the first ti.vo able and experienced as possible. Moreover, the de-
criteria suffers owing to poor maintenance. It has sign process should be thought of as an ongoing
been said that the maintenance person is the ulti- procedure that extends from one project and expe-
mate designer. There is much truth to this statement rience to the next.
 Conclusion

As with all art forms and design disciplines, there is ifying microclimate, cleansing the air, stabilizing
a distinct set of media characteristic of the profession soil, and acting as important visual elements based
of landscape architecture. Landform, plant materi- on their size, form, color, and texture.
als, buildings, pavement, site structures, and water Buildings, the locus of numerous human activi-
are, in numerous combinations, the primary physi- ties, are solid volumes in the outdoor environment.
cal components comprising most works of landscape Compared with either landform or plant materials,
architecture. They are the media that landscape ar- buildings are a relatively hard, firm medium in the
chitects utilize to formulate space and establish ex- landscape. As compositional elements, buildings
periences that delight the eye as well as the emo- may be treated as either single objects of individual
tions. In a purely artistic sense, the physical design significnnce in the environment or located in clusters
elements of landscape architecture are analogous to that define spaces and spatial sequences of numer-
the words of a poem or notes of a piece of music. ous possible temperaments. Building masses usually
Collectively, they constitute a composition affecting establish fixed, nonpliable spatial limits in the orga-
the human physical and emotional senses. nization of outdoor functions and activities.
Individually the physical design elements of land- Pavement is one of the materials that can be em-
scape architecture each have their own unique qual- ployed on the ground plane. Pavement, in contrast
ities and roles to fulfill in the outdoor environment. to landform, plant materials, and buildings, is a flat,
Landform is the base or floor plane of the landscape. planar element that can be used as a durable, fixed
It is the one element that supports and unites all the support of human and vehicular functions of intense
other components of the environment. Landform' s or repeated use. Furthermore, pavement may func-
configuration affects such diverse factors as the tion as both a directional and nondirectional ele-
structure of the outdoor environment, land use lo- ment, accentuate different uses on the ground
cation, views, drainage, and microclimate in addi- plane, influence perceived scale, provide unity, and
tion to spatial definition and character. Furthermore, impress spatial character.
landform is a plastic medium in its own right that Site structures are constructed three-dimensional
can be molded to create solids and voids on the elements of the outdoor environment directly relat-
ground plane in many possible ways. ing to the ability of people to use the outdoor envi-
Plant materials provide the aspect of life in the ronment conveniently. Steps, ramps, walls, fences,
landscape. They are living, breathing elements that and seating contribute to the comfort and safety of
grow and change with time. Their relatively soft, outdoor spaces as well as to the d elineation of hu-
sometimes irregular shc1pe along with their living manly scaled outdoor rooms. As a group, site struc-
green appearance provide a habitable feeling in the tures are hard elements of an architectural quality
outdoor environment. In addition, plant materials used in the landscape to reinforce the spatial
fulfiII a number of more practical functions such as and functional organization provided by landform,
defining space in all three planes of enclosure, mod- buildings, and plant material.
 ; ion
307

'iy, water is a specialty element of the land- ian and aesthetic uses. landscape architectural de-
.vith a strongly compelling quality. Water, sign media are typically not used solely as visual
r to plant materials, is a life-giving element elements to attract the eye or stimulate the mind, as
lps to provide a feeling of vitality and ani- the media of painting and sculpture often do. Yes,
As a fluid element, water is a highly varied landform, plant materials, buildings, pavement, site
:exible medium. It may be utilized as a static structures, and water often provide beautiful, emo-
-t in the outdoor environment to calm the tionally moving experiences, but this is most often
of sight and sound or it may be employed as done while serving the other functions that have
amic element of motion, exciting the eye in ad- been outlined in the pre\·ious chapters of this book.
to providing a sound stimulus. However it is The design elements of landscape architecture can
; ater is a unique feature easily attracting peo- be considered as constituting an applied art. The
. t. goal of the landscape architect should be to utilize
-;ides the individual qualities of the major land- the design media of the profession in a manner that
.rchitectural design media, they possess other is practical while at the same time visually inspiring .
uishing characteristics when considered col- This is not easily accomplished, ·with errors some-
ely . Perhaps one of the most notable aspects of times made in creating landscape architectural de-
"'lpe architectural design r 1ements is that they signs that are visually beautiful and delightful while
nponents of the exterior environment where being impractical or very utilitarian yet dull in ap-
are directly subjected to the forces of nature. pearance. A truly successful landscape architectural
:e the media of certain other design disciplines design imaginatively combines the design media so
1ust be protected or delicately treated, land- that the practical aspects coincide and complement
. plant material, buildings, pavement, site the visual aspects.
tures, and water are all exposed to such factors Perhaps the most note,\·orthy consideration about
, wind, precipitation, temperature variations, landscape architectural d esign elements is that they
osion. In some circumstances, these forces are should be applied collecti,·cly in a design. Much of
and insignificant in their influence on the phys- the focus of this book has been on each of the ele-
'-~sign elements of the landscape. In other situ- ments as an individual medium in the outdoor en-
. the natural forces of the exterior environment vironment. This was done to permit a thorough un-
o harsh as to be destructive. derstanding of the significance and role played by
1e consequence of natural forces is that all the each element in the context of the total environment.
1 media of the landscape weather and change But landscape architectural design elements are
.ime, if only subtly . A pavement may become rarely used by themsel\'es in a design. What is im-
1, a slope may erode slightly, plant materials portant is not how each element functions or looks
;row and die, the coloration of a wall may ei- by itself but how it is ,vo\·en into the fabric of the
1de or darken with age, or the water in a pond ·w hole design and surrounding environment. In cre-
vary in level and quality. The landscape archi- ating a landscape architectural design, the design
"'1.ust accept these changes and allow them to elements are not the end product. Rather, the design
and recognize that nature provides the final media are the means to an end, or facilitators. Ulti-
:n to a design located in the exterior environ- mately the design elements are composed to create
:t, The challenge for the landscape architect is to carefully choreographed outdoor rooms and spatial
.e to properly anticipate and understand the in- experiences that deal with all the human senses .
.. ~e of the natural forces so that they enrich the Works of landscape architecture should sensitively
'. ity of a landscape architectural design with time, unite people with the outdoor environment in a
·1e opposite. symbiotic association making life a beautiful experi-
.other distinctive quality of landscape architec- ence worth living .
l design elements is that they have both utilitar-
 Index

plant ma terials, 89, 92, 103, 104

ccei'lt. See Focal point \,·alls and fences, 234
ccent plant, 84, 8€r-87, S9, 95, 9€r-97 water, 265
.:1 ,tance, project, 284 Barragan, Luis, 261
cl 0wledgers, use of plant materials as, 112, 114 Base plan. See base sheet
:.i~sive pa\'ements, 200-209 Base plane, 4
<?sthetic character of Base sheet,
:. .iform, €r-11, 35-36 information on, 4, 285, 286
f ·ement, 169-170 preparation of, 28-1--285
pra:1t materials, 83-111 scale of, 284
walls and fences, 227- 228, 234-235 Batter, in retaining walls, 235-236
\ :er, 255-259 Belgian block, 192, 193-194, 195
e: tetic uses of Bench mark, 18
lrndform, 61-65 Berm. See Landform
pa,: ement, 170-181 Bituminous concrete, 207-209
r- nt materials, 70-71, 111-115 Blenheim, 267
S C'S, 221, 222 Bomanitei, 204
\'<!qs and fences, 234-235 Brick pa\·ement, characteristics and design uses of,
\,·ater, 261-281 19-1--199
i1 ·.1ality, as affected by plant materials, 69 Brick walls, 239-243
It nbra, Granada, Spain, 138, 260, 261 Broad-leaved evergreens, characteristics and design uses
lignment of of, 10€r-108
buildings in a cluster, 147-151 Brown, Capability, 65
r- ·ement patterns, 182-184, 197-199, 202, 204 Bubble diagram. See Functional diagra m
n ·sis, elevational relief, 27-28, 29 Budget, questions about during client interview, 292
r.':rr<·sis, site, 285-289, 291 Building entrance, 165
A./5,1 see Inventory, site Building fa~ade, influence on spatial ch aracter, 138-140
n :sis, slope, 2S:...29, 30 Building height, compositional and spatial influence of,
p rn Way, 170 130- 131, 152
rcm:ecture. See Buildings Buildings
rch itectural uses of plant materials, 70, 71-83, 85, 86, clusters of, 128-129, 147-152
88-89, 91 defining space with, 130- 147
n :d, Henrv, 73 individual, 152
shmara, Yashinobu, 130 in open fields, 160-161, 162
sphalt. See Bituminous concrete in wooded areas, 159-160, 161
u · :orium Forecourt, Portland, Oregon, 63, 272 plan arrangement of, 131-138
Buildings, relating to site by
landform, 65, 153-159
B pavement, 168, 182, 183
;round, as created by
.1<-:- plant materials, 112, 161
1, dform, 53, 54, 57-58 walls and fences, 165-167, 234
pcrvement, 180 Bye, Edward, 62
 Index

Court of Lions, in the Alhambra, Granada, Spain, 138

)py, tree, influence on spatial definition, 73, 85, 86 Cut, as related to grading, 20
ent. See Portland cement concrete Cut stone
1eek wall, 217-218, 219 as a pavement material, 191, 193-194
iristian Science H eadquarters, Boston, Massachusetts, as a wall material, 239
261, 271
Jlation, direction as influenced by
b uildings, 144-147 D
L> l"\dform, 44-46, 48--49, 58-59 Deciduous plant materials
vement, 171-173, 175-176 characteris tics and design uses of, 102-104
mt materials, 70, 76-77, 78, 91 combining with coniferous en~rgreens, 106
:culation, rate and rhythm as influenced by seasonal \·ariation of, 67-68, 102
I;, rid form, 59-60 Decomposed granite, 189-190
vement, 173-175 Decorative block, as a ,,·all material, 245
Hall, Dallas, Texas, 279 Design d evelopment, phase of the Design process, 30-l
imt interview, 289- 292 Design principles
•mate. See Microclimate, Sun, or Wind balance, 132
tate control uses of plant materials, 70, 71, 85-86 dominance, 83, 152, 181, 182
ure of space, 80 linkage, 80-81, 90-91, 92, 93, 234
>bblestone pavement, 191, 192 repetition, 125, 166, 167
,l0r unity, 119, 120, 123, 125, 180
.tumn foliage, 99, 101 Design process, 115
ilding facade, 138 base plan preparation, 284-285
t1ower, 99, 101, 106 client interYiew, 289-292
navement, 170, 180-181, 187, 196--197, 199, 200, concept plan, 116--117, 297, 298
204-205, 209 construction drawing5, 304
,mt, 99-101, 104-103, 106 definition and purpose of, 282-283
summer foliage, 99, 101 design development, 30-l
)k>rado River, 270 form composition study, 297-299, 300
lplementors, use of plant materials as, 112, 161 ideal functional diagram, 29-l, 295
,position implementation, 30-l
ouilding cluster, 128- 137, Hl-132 maintenance, 305
olan ting, 115-126 master plan, 121, 301-304
:puter graphics of landform, 30-31 post construction e\'aluation, 305
cave landform preliminary master plan, 299-301, 302
.1s depicted by contour lines, 23 program development, 292-294
JS influe nced by plant materials, 78-79 project acceptance, 28-l
1uacteristics and use:; of in the landscape, 46-48 schema tic design, 30-l
~,we slope, 23, 64 · site analysis, 285-287, 291
rn-:ept plan, 116--117, 297, 298 site inventor\·, 285-290
•ncrete. See Portland cement concrete site related functional diagram, 115-116, 294-297
.:rete block, as a wall material, 245 Distance to height ratio, in defining space, 130-131
iferous evergreens Dominance, 83, 152, 181, 182
-:haracteristics and design uses of, 10-l-106 Drainage
::ombining with deciduous plant materials, 106 around buildings, 155-159
:;titution Plaza, Hartford, Connecticut, 272 as influenced by landform, 12-13, 46, 48
;truction drawings, 304 as influenced by pavement, 170, 187, 203, 207, 209
mtour line inventory of during site analysis, 288
ccfinition of, 18 Drv wall construction, 239
i5ting, 19 D);namic water, characteristics and design uses of, 256,
ading with, 19-21, 64-65 268-281
prnposed , 19
,i~natures, 23-2-l
tour interval, 18 E
trol joint. See Scoring line Earth art, 62
mvex landform Earth work. See Grading
as depicted by contour lines, 23 Ele\·ational massing diagram, as related to planting
in fluenced by plant materials, 77-78 design, 118
.aracteristics and uses of in the landscape, 38-44 Elevational relief plan, 27-28, 29
mvex slope, 23, 64 Embarcadero Center, pavement pattern in, 180-181
mely Square, Boston, Massachusetts, 276 Emphasizers, use of plant materials as, 112, 113
:, comparison of pavement and vegetative surfaces, Enclosure. See Spatial definition
170 Engineering uses of plant materials, 70, 71
[ndt:X 311

English landscape gardening, 11, 56, 267 French Renaissance gardens, 9-11, 36, 236, 261
Em·ironmental uses of plant materials. Also see Climate Functional diagram,
control and Engineering uses of plant materials a step in the planti ng design process, 115-116
Epoxy gravel, 189 related to landform, 4-5
Erosion, influence of plant material on, 69- 70, 93 used to coordinate a building with its site, 161-163
E\·ergreen plant materials Functional diagrams, types of
broad-leaved, 106-108 ideal, 294, 295
coniferous, 104- 106 site related, 115--116, 294-297
Expansion joints, in Portland cement concrete pa\·ement,
201-203, 204
Exposed aggregate concrete pa\'ement, 205 G
Gh;ardelli Square, San Francisco, California, 133-133
Goals and objectives, as used in a design program. 293
f Gradient. See Slope calculation
Falling water Grading
as related to convex landform, 42-43 aesthe tics of, 63-65
fre e-fall, 270- 273 around buildings, 65, 155-159
obstructed fall, 273-274 cut in, 20
sloped fall, 274- 277 definition of, 19
Falling Water, Bear Run, Pennsylva nia, 152, 272 fill in, 20
Fein, Albert, 67 · objectives for, 19- 20
Fences, types of Grading plan, 20, 21
\\"OOd, 245-246 Granite pavement, 190, 193-194, 195
\\"fought iron, 246 Grassy pavers, 207, 209, 210
Fen.:es, use of to Gravel, characteristics and design uses of, 186--19L1
define space, 227-228 Great Wall of China, 230-231
modify microclimate, 231-233 Ground cover, characteristics and design uses oi. 91- 93
screen views, 228-229 Ground plane. See Base plane
separate adjoining functions, 229- 231 Guggenheim Museum, 12
ser\·e as a background, 234
Fen.:es, visual elements of, 236--239
Fieldstone
as a pavement mate rial, 190, 191 H
Hachures, use of to express landform, 27, 28
as a wall material, 239
Fill, as related to grading, 20 Ha-Ha Wall, 56, 57
Flagstone pa\'ement, 191, 192-193, 195 Halprin, Lawrence, 62-63, 133, 221, 261, 274
Fla t landform. See Level la ndform Hampton Court, England, 188
Handrail, as associated with steps, 218-219, 220
Flo1,·ing water, characteristics and design uses of,
268-270 Hirshhorn Museum, Washington, D.C., 188, 281
Focal point, as created by · Horizon/silhouette line, 49-51
buildings, 35, 37 Hyatt Regency hotels, 140, 231
landform, 40-41
plant materials, 84, 86-87, 89, 95, 96, 97, 101, 109
\,·ater, 270, 272- 273, 275-279 !
Foliage Igneous stone, as a pavement material, 190
color, 99-101 Indoor-outdoor relationship, 162-163, 16-1-165, 16$
texture, 108-111 Interlocking brick pavement, 199, 200
Form composition study, 297-299, 300 International Earthwork Sculpture Symposium, 62
Formulas for calculating Interpolation, as used to determine spot elevations, 24, 27
riser-tread relationship in steps, 215 Im·entory, site. Also Analysis, site
percentage of slope, 31-32 . definition and objectives of, 285-287
. slope gradient as a ratio, 31 outline of site elements included in, 287- 289
spot grades, 24--27 . Irrigation, types and uses of in the landscape, 259
Foundation planting, 66- 67 Isola tion joint. See Expansion joint
Freestanding walls, use of to Italian Renaissance gardens, 9, 10, 43, 256, 272, 2S0
define space, 227-228
modify microclimate, 231-233
screen views, 228-229 J
separate adjoining functions, 229-231 Jets, water
ser\'e as a background, 234 aerated, 279
sit on, 234 formed, 279
\"isually relate a building to its site, 165-167, 234 single orifice, 279
Freeway Park, Seattle, Washington, 261, 272 spray, 279
312 Index

L plant materials, 85--86, 105- 106

Landform walls and fences, 231-233
aesthetic character of, fr-11, 35- 36 water, 259- 260
definition of, 1 Microclimate, inventory of during s ite analysis, 288
expression of, 18-33 :t--.·lilitary crest, 57- 58
inventory of, 287-288 Morris, Robert, 62
relation to buildings, 65, 153-159 i\lount Katahdin, Maine, 40
significance of, 1-18, 306 Mount Rainier, Washington, 40
Landform, influence on ~fount Washington, Pittsburgh, Pen nsylvania, 42
circulation, 44-46, 48-49, 58-60 Mountainous topography, 2, 9
landuse, 2-3, 14-17, 37- 38, 44- 46, 49 l\[ovement. See Circulation
microclimate, 13-14, 43, 48, 60-61 Museum of Modern Art, New York, New York, 229
spatial definition, 11, 35, 40, 47, 49-53
views, 12, 35, 42, 48, 50-51, 53-58
Landform, types of N
concave, 23, 4fr.48 Nantucket, ivlassachusetts, 177, 178, 192
convex, 23, 38-44 >!elson, William R., 125
level, 2, 8-9, 3-!-38, 153-154 New England village green, 141
macroland form, 1 New River, 270
microlandform, I 0!iagara Falls, 42, 271, 272
minilandform, 1
ridge, 23, 44-46
valley, 23, 48-49
0
Landscape architecture
definition of, 5 (also in Preface) Olympic Penninsula, Washing ton, 14
"Report on the Profession," 67 Open space, as created by plant materials, 75--76
role of plant material in the profession, 66-67 Open space, types of as created by build ings
Landuse patterns, influence of landform on, 2-3, 1-1---17, cen tral, 141-143
37-38, 44-46, 49 chan neled linear, 144-145
L'Enfant Plaza, ·washington, D.C., 277, 279 focused, 1-13--144
Level landform, characteristics and use of in the organic linear, 144-147
Ornamental tree, characteristics and design uses of,
landscape, 2, 8-9, 3-1---38, 153-154
Lines 86-87, 88
branch, 103-104 Outdoor rooms and outdoor space. See Space
scoring, 201-203 O\·erhead plane, as created by tree canopy, 73, 85, 86
Lines, used relate buildings to
each other, 150, 151
pavemen t, 182, 183 p
Linkage, as created with Paley Park, New York, New York, 261, 272
plant materials, S0-81, 90-91, 92, 93 Patterns
walls and fences, 234 branch, 103--104
water, 267-268 brick pavement, 197-198
Lovejoy Plaza, Portland, Oregon, 63, 221, 274 brick wall, 242-243
Luminosity, of plant foliage, 102-103 fence, 236-238, 245--246
in pools, 265
land use, 2-3, 14-17, 37-38, 44-46, 49
M pavement, 176, 178-179, 180, 181, 183-184, 193, 195,
Maintenance, 197-198, 200, 204
as a step in the design process, 305 precast concrete wall, 245
of gra\·el, 187, 188 shadow, 104, 234, 244
of pavement, 170 stone pavemen t, 193, 195
questions abou t d uring client interview, 292 stone wall, 239, 240
reducing by use of ground cover, 92-93 water, 274
Mall, Washington, D.C., 144, 187, 188 Pavement
Manhatten Square Park, Rochester, New York, 63, 221 as used to coordinate building and site, 168, 182, 183
Masonry wall construction, 239 design guidelines for, 181- 186
Massing of plants, 119-123 functional and compositional uses of, 170-181, 306
Master plan, preparation and content of, 121, 301- 30-! texture of, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 199, 200, 202,
Mellon Square, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 141, 280 204, 205
Metamorphic stone, as a pavement material, 190 unique characteristics of, 169-170
tvlicroclimate, as influenced by. Also see Sun and Wind Pavement materials
landform, 13-14, 43, 48, 60-61 asphalt. See Bitu minous concrete
pavement, 170 bituminous concrete, 207-209
 Index 313

brick, 19-,1-199 R
concrete. St!c Portland cement concrete Rain shadow, as created by landform, 14
gravel, 186-190 Ramps
Portland cement concrete, 200-207 advantages and disadvantages of, 223-225
stone, 190- 194 dimensions and design guidelines for, 224-227
tile, 199-200 Ratio method, for calculating slope, 31
Percentage of slope, 31-33 Ravine. See Valley
Percolation of surface runoff, 170, 187, 203, 207, 209 Recall. Also see Repetition
Perspective drawing, as used to study pavement Reflection, from pools of water, 257, 261- 265
patterns, 182, 185 Repetition, for design unity, 125, 166, 167
Piazza del Camp, Siena, 141 Retaining walls, 235-236
Piazza de! Duomo, Milan, 181 Rhythm, of
Piazza della Signoria, Florence, 141 fences, 237, 245-246
Piazza di San Pietro, Rome, 141 landform, 9
Piazza San Marco, Venice, 141, 181 movement, as influenced by pavement, 173-175
Plant color Ridge
as related to planting design, 118, 125 as depicted by contour lines, 23
design uses, 99- 101 characteristics and uses of in the landscape, 44-46
Plant foliage influence on building layout, 44-46, 155, 158
categories and design uses of, 101-108 Riser, dimensions and design guidelines of in steps,
color of 99-101 213-217
texture of, 108-111 Riverstone pavement, 190, 191
Plant form Robinette, Gary 0., 130
as related to planting design, 95, 117-118, 125 Robson Square, Vancouver, British Columbia, 223,
categories and design uses of, 94, 95- 99 226- 227, 261, 272
Plant materials Rockefeller Center, New York, New York, 48, 141
aesthetic uses of, 70-71, 111-115
architectural uses of, 70, 71-83, 85, 86, 86-89, 91
functional uses of, 69-71 s
influence on microclimate, 85-86, 105 Schematic plan, preparation and content of, 30-,1
inventory of during site analysis, 288 Screening of sun by
seasonal variation of, 67-68, 73 freestanding \Valls and fences, 231, 232
unique characteristics of, 67-69, 306 plant materials, 85-86, 250
visual characteristics of, 83-111 Screening qf views by
Plant size frees tanding walls and fences, 228-229
as related to planting design, 84, 93-95, 117-118, 125 landform, 56-58
categories and design uses of, 83- 95 plant materials, 81-83, 89, 105, 106
Plant texture Screening of wind by
as related to plan ting design, 118, 125 fences, 231-232, 233
categories and design u ses of, 108-111 landform, 43, 61
Planting design, 115-126 plant materials, 105-106, 250
Point Park, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 190, 265, 279 Scoring lines, in Portland cement concrete pa\'ement,
Pond, characteristics and design uses of, 265-268 201-203
Pool, characteristics and design uses of, 261-265 Seasonal changes, in plant materials, 67-68, 102, 108
Portland cement concrete pavement, characteristics and Seating
design uses of, 200- 207 as incorporated with w alls, 234, 235- 236
Portland cement concrete walls, 243-245 design guidelines for, 249- 252
Post construction evaluation, 305 dimensions for, 252-253
Precast concrete, as a uses of in the landscape, 246-249
pavement material, 201, 205-207 Sedimentary stone, as a pavement material, 190
wall material, 244-245 Sequence of
. Precipitation, as influenced by landform, 14 spaces, 76-77, 145-147
Preliminary master plan, preparation and content of, views, 12, 53-55, 76-77, 145-147
299-301, 302 Shade. See Screening of sun
Privacy control, by Shade tree. See Trees
freestanding walls and fences, 228-229 Shrubs, design u ses of by size, 87- 91
plant materials, 82-83, 89 Simon, Jacques, 62
Program, design Site analysis. See Analysis, site
example of, 293 Slope
goals and objectives in, 293 along ramp floor, 225
purpose and elements of, 292-293 analysis map of, 28-29, 30
Progressive realization, 12, 53-55 as related to siting buildings, 154-158
Also see Views calculation of, 31-33
.:rr4 Index

,-\ope [rn11t. ] Sun, exposure to, 13, 43, 60

nfluence on spartial definition, 50 Sun, protection from. See Screening of sun
nfluence on flowing water, 257, 268 Swale. See Valley
orientation of, 13-14, 15
percentage of, 31-33
.tandards of use for, 31, 33, 53, 93 T
pe, types of Tacha, Athena, 60, 62
concave, 23, 64 Taj Mahal, 261
convex, 23, 64 Taliesin West, Scottsdale, Arizona, 152
mp block, as a wall material, 245 Telegraph Hill, San Francisco, 41
•ithson, Robert, 62 Temperature
Softener, use of plant materials as, 112-114 above paved surfaces, 170
C'JiJ erosion, as influenced by plant materials, 69-70 as influenced by plant materials, 85-86
md, as as influenced by water bodies, 259-260
•milted by water, 256--257, 271 influence on water, 258
mfluenced by water, 260-261 Texture of
C,.:,ace, character of as influenced by pavement, 188, 189
>uildings, 129- 130, 138-140 plant materinls, 108-111
andform, 52 Thin paver. See Tile pavement
plant materials, 100-101, 104, 106 Tile pavement, characteristics and design uses of, 199- 200
pavement, 180-181 Topography. See Landform
1ce, definition of as influenced by Topographic regions to United States, 7- 8
iuildings, 130-147 Transition space, between indoors and outdoors, 165, 166
rree standing walls and fen ces, 227-228 Tread, dimension and design g uidelines of in steps,
landform, 11, 35, 47, 49-53 213- 217
Javement, 176--177 Trees, design uses of by type
J]ant materials, 71-81, 85, 86, 88-89, 91 coniferous evergreen, 104-106
:,pace, interpenetration of between building and site, 139, large and intermedia te, 83-86
163-165 ornnmental, 86-87
1ce, inventory o f during site analysis, 289
,ce, o rientation of as influenced by
ciu ildings, 141, 143-144 u
landform, 11, 12, 53 Unifiers, use of
1ce, scale o f as influen ced by pavement as, 180
>uildings, 136, 138-139 plant matcrinls as, J 12, 113
r'lant color, 100 United States Capitol, 39
plant texture, 109- 110, 111 Unit pavers, ty pes, characteristics, and design uses of,
..,avement, 178-179 190-200
1ce, types of as created by Unity, design, 119, 120, 123, 125, 180
_Juilding dusters, 141-147 Utilities, inventory of during site analysis, 289
plant materials, 75-76
-1 nish Moorish gardens, 138, 260, 261
1tial leak, 130, 133, 134 V
, icimen plant, 119-120 Valle\'
Jpot e levations, 24, 27 as depicted by contour lines, 23
·'1t grades. See Spot elevations characteristics and uses of in the landscape, 48-49
·eiregen, Paul D., 136 Vaux-le Vicomte, 9, 36, 261
.tic water, characteristics and design uses of, 256, Vegetation. See Plant materials
261-268 Versailles, 11, 36, 256, 261
~ps Views
dvantages and disadvantages of, 213 enframement of, 53, 88-89, 114--115
heek wall next to, 217- 218, 219 inven tory o f during s ite analysis, 289
fun ctions of in the land scape, 219-223 progressive rc.ilization of, 12, 53- 55
handrail on, 218- 219, 220 Views, as influenced by
ext to a building, 165, 167 buildings, 131-135, 141-147
iser, tread relationship in, 213-217 landform, 12, 35, 42, 48, 50- 51, 53-58
,tone pavement, types, characteristics, and design uses Views, screening of by
of, 190-194 freestanding walls a nd fences, 228-229
ne walls, 239, 240 landform, 56-58
urhead, 267 plant m a terials, 81- 83, 89, 105, 106
)tructu ral uses of plant materials, 70-71 View shed, 50
Also see Architectural uses of plant materials Villa d'Este, 9, 43, 272, 280
nmit. Sr!e Convex landform Villa Lante, 9
Index 315

\V falling, 270-277
Walls, as extensions of buildings, 165-167, 234 flowing, 268-270
Wall materials static, 256, 261-26$
brick, 240-243 Water wall, 272-273
Portland cement concrete, 243-245 Watershed divide, 46
stone, 239, 240 Weep hole, in retaining walls, 235, 236
Walls, type of Whirling square la~·out, of open space. See Windmill
cheek, 217-218, 219 layout
drv, 239 Wind, exposure to, 13, 43, 232-233
freestanding, 227-235 ·Wind, influence on water, 258
masonry, 239 Wind, protection fwm. Sc,• Screening of wind
retaining, 235-236 Windmill layout, of o pen space, 141-143
Walls, visual elements of, 23€--239 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 12, 35, 152, 272
Washington Monument, 39 Wrought iron fence, 246
'Nater,
general characteristics of, 255-259
general uses of in the landscape, 259-261
unique characteristics of, 254-255, 307
visual uses of in the landscape, 261-281 y
Water, jets of, 277-279 Yellowstone Nation,,! Park, 42, 272
Water, types of in the landscape. Also Ponds and Pools Yosemite National P,uk, 42, 272
dynamic, 256, 268-281 Youghiogheny River, 270