Motivation
Motivation
Motivation
3.2 indicators of motivation, the need for hierarchy model, conflict and frustration
It was first introduced by Abraham Maslow in 1943 for his paper titled Theory of Motivation
and is based on a hierarchy of needs, which starts with the most basic needs and subsequently
moves on to higher levels.
The main goal of this need hierarchy theory is to attain the highest position or the last of the
needs, i.e need for self actualization..
Levels of Hierarchy
The levels of hierarchy in Maslow’s need hierarchy theory appear in the shape of a pyramid,
where the most basic need is placed at the bottom while the most advanced level of hierarchy
is at the top of the pyramid.
Maslow was of the view that a person can only move to the subsequent level only after
fulfilling the needs of the current level. The needs at the bottom of the pyramid are those
which are very basic and the most complex needs are placed on the top of the pyramid.
Let us read in detail about the various steps in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory.
1. Physiological needs: The physiological needs are regarded as the most basic of the needs
that humans have. These are needs that are very crucial for our survival. The examples of
physiological needs are food, shelter, warmth, health, homeostasis and water, etc.
In addition to all the above needs, Abraham Maslow also included sexual reproduction as one
of the most common needs as it is essential for the survival of the species.
2. Safety Needs: Once the basic needs of food, shelter, water, etc are fulfilled, there is an
innate desire to move to the next level. The next level is known as the safety needs. Here the
primary concern of the individual is related to safety and security.
Safety and security can be regarding many things like a stable source of income that provides
financial security, personal security from any kind of unnatural events, attacks by animals
and emotional security and physical safety which is safety to health.
The various actions taken by an individual in ensuring safety and security are finding a job,
getting an insurance policy, choosing a secure neighborhood for staying with family, etc.
3. Social Needs (Also known as Love and Belonging Needs): This is the third level in the
need hierarchy theory. It is that stage where an individual having fulfilled his physiological
needs as well as safety needs seeks acceptance from others in the form of love,
belongingness.
In this stage, human behaviour is driven by emotions and the need for making emotional
relationships is dominant here.
1. Friendship
2. Family
3. Intimacy
4. Social Groups
When an individual is deprived of the above needs, he/she feels lonely and depressed.
4. Esteem needs: This is considered as the fourth level of the hierarchy of needs theory. It is
related to the need of a person being recognised in the society. It deals with getting
recognition, self respect in the society.
The need for recognition and acceptance arises when a person has fulfilled their need for love
and belongingness.
In addition to recognition from others, there is a need for the person to develop self esteem
and personal worth.
5. Self-actualization needs: This is the final level of the theory of hierarchy of needs as
proposed by Maslow. It is the highest level of needs and is known as the self-actualization
needs. It relates to the need of an individual to attain or realise the full potential of their
ability or potential.
At this stage, all individuals try to become the best version of themselves. In other words, self
actualisation is the journey of personal growth and development.
Researchers have found that each type has a different effect on a person's behavior and
pursuit of goals.1 To better understand the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on
human behavior, it will help to learn how each type works.
Extrinsic Motivation
Studies have demonstrated that offering excessive external rewards for an already internally
rewarding behavior can reduce intrinsic motivation—a phenomenon known as
the overjustification effect.
For example, in a 2008 study, children who were rewarded for playing with a toy they had
already expressed interest in playing with became less interested in the item after being
externally rewarded.4
This is not to suggest that extrinsic motivation is a bad thing—it can be beneficial in some
situations. For example, extrinsic motivation can be particularly helpful when a person needs
to complete a task that they find unpleasant.
Be a source of feedback to let people know when their performance has achieved a standard
that is deserving of reinforcement
Induce interest and participation in an activity an individual was not initially interested in
Motivate people to acquire new skills or knowledge (once these early skills have been
learned, people might become more intrinsically motivated to pursue an activity)
However, when they are used appropriately, extrinsic motivators can be a useful tool. For
example, extrinsic motivation can get people to complete a work task or school assignment
that they are not interested in.
Researchers have arrived at three primary conclusions regarding extrinsic rewards and their
influence on intrinsic motivation:
1. Intrinsic motivation will decrease when external rewards are given for completing a
particular task or only doing minimal work.5 If parents heap lavish praise on their child
every time they complete a simple task, the child will become less intrinsically motivated to
perform that task in the future.
2. Praise can increase internal motivation. Researchers have found that offering positive
praise and feedback when people do something better than others can improve intrinsic
motivation.6
3. Unexpected external rewards do not decrease intrinsic motivation.7 If you get a good
grade on a test because you enjoy learning about a subject and the teacher decides to reward
you with a gift card to your favorite pizza place, your underlying motivation for learning
about the subject will not be affected. However, rewarding in this situation needs to be done
with caution because people will sometimes come to expect rewards.
Others have suggested that extrinsic motivators help students feel more competent in the
classroom, which in turn enhances their intrinsic motivation.8
"A person's interest often survives when a reward is used neither to bribe nor to control but to
signal a job well done, as in a "most improved player" award. If a reward boosts your feeling
of competence after doing good work, your enjoyment of the task may increase.
Rewards, rightly administered, can motivate high performance and creativity. And extrinsic
rewards (such as scholarships, admissions, and jobs that often follow good grades) are here to
stay."
conclusion
Both extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation drive human behavior. There are several
key differences between motivation that comes from external rewards and the kind that is
driven by an individual's genuine interest, including the influence of each type on a person's
behavior and the situations in which each type will be most effective.
Understanding how each type of motivation works and when it is likely to be useful can help
people perform tasks (even when they do not want to) and improve their learning.
Conflicts and frustration
Our feeling of chronic conflict and frustration will have a negative impact on
our well being. Frustration and unresolved needs and desires cause great
emotional unhappiness.
Meaning of conflict
Douglas and Holland defines conflict as a painful emotional state which results
from a tension between opposed and contradictory wishes.
Barney and Lehner defines conflict is a state of tension brought by the presence
in the individual of two or more opposing desires.
Types of conflict
Approach-Approach conflict: This arises when an individual is faced
with the problem of making a choice between two or more positive goals
almost equally motivating and important. For example, a child may have
to choose between watching a movie in TV or going out to play games.
Avoidance-Avoidance conflict: In this, an individual is forced to choose
between two negative courses of action. For example, a child who does
not want to study and at the same time does not want to displease the
parents by failing in the examination may experience such conflict.
Approach-Avoidance conflict: In this, an individual is faced with a
problem of choice between approaching and avoiding tendencies at the
same time.
Sources of Conflict
The conflict arises from the home, school, occupational social and
cultural environment. The faulty upbringing at home, unhealthy
relationships, over protection is the sources of conflict from home
environment.
Unpleasant school or college environment, role of teachers, faulty method
of teaching, denial of opportunities for self expression and classmates are
some of the sources of conflict in youngsters.
Improper working environment, dissatisfaction with the working
conditions, unsatisfactory relationships and poor salary or wages is the
sources of conflict in occupational environment.
The taboos, inhibitions and the negative attitude towards sex are the
causes of many sex conflicts in the minds of youth and adults.
Conflict resolution
Negotiation is an important part of conflict resolution
First of all, accept each desire as it arrives without judgment or
resistance
Remove any barrier or resistance in choosing among conflicting
desires
Think the goals of life and which one of the desires will be
helpful to achieve the life’s goal
Choose one desire and follow it with full enthusiasm
Meaning of Frustration
Frustration means emotional tension resulting from the blocking of a desire or
need (Good, 1959)
According to Barney and Lehner (1953), frustration refers to failure to satisfy a
basic need because of either condition in the individual or external obstacles.
Causes of Frustration
External factors
Physical factors: Natural calamities, floods, droughts, earthquakes, fire and
accidents cause frustration in an individual.
Social and societal factors: Societal norms and values impose certain obstacle
in meeting the individual needs which leads to frustration
Economic and financial factors: Unemployment and lack of money causes
frustration in an individual.
Internal factors
Physical abnormality or defects: Too small or too big a stature, very heavy or
thin body, an ugly face or dark complexion etc causes frustration.
Conflicting desires or aims: When a person has conflicting desires, he
develops frustration. For example, a nurse wants to work in abroad and does not
want to leave her family in home country causes frustration.
Individual’s morality and high ideals: An individual’s moral standards, code
of ethics and high ideals may become a source of frustration to him.
Level of aspirations: One may aspire very high in spite of one’s incapabilities
or human limitations which may lead to frustration
Lack of persistence and sincerity in efforts: Frustration may result in one’s
own weakness in putting continuous and persistent efforts with courage,
enthusiasm and will power.
Reaction to frustration
It can be classified as simple reactions and violent reactions
Simple reactions: It includes
· Increasing trials or improving efforts
· Compromising with what is available
· Withdrawal from the situation
· Submissiveness
Violent reactions: It includes aggression
EMOTION
TYPES
There are many different types of emotions that have an influence on how we live and
interact with others. At times, it may seem like we are ruled by these emotions. The choices
we make, the actions we take, and the perceptions we have are all influenced by the emotions
we are experiencing at any given moment.
Psychologists have also tried to identify the different types of emotions that people
experience. A few different theories have emerged to categorize and explain the emotions
that people feel.
Basic Emotions
During the 1970s, psychologist Paul Eckman identified six basic emotions that he
suggested were universally experienced in all human cultures.
The emotions he identified were happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, surprise, and
anger. He later expanded his list of basic emotions to include such things as pride,
shame, embarrassment, and excitement.
Combining Emotions
Psychologist Robert Plutchik put forth a "wheel of emotions" that worked something like the
color wheel. Emotions can be combined to form different feelings, much like colors can be
mixed to create other shades.
According to this theory, the more basic emotions act something like building blocks. More
complex, sometimes mixed emotions, are blendings of these more basic ones. For example,
basic emotions such as joy and trust can be combined to create love..
Happiness
Of all the different types of emotions, happiness tends to be the one that people strive for the
most. Happiness is often defined as a pleasant emotional state that is characterized by
feelings of contentment, joy, gratification, satisfaction, and well-being.
Research on happiness has increased significantly since the 1960s within a number of
disciplines, including the branch of psychology known as positive psychology. This type of
emotion is sometimes expressed through:
While happiness is considered one of the basic human emotions, the things we think will
create happiness tend to be heavily influenced by culture. For example, pop culture
influences tend to emphasize that attaining certain things such as buying a home or having a
high-paying job will result in happiness.
The realities of what actually contributes to happiness are often much more complex and
more highly individualized.2 People have long believed that happiness and health were
connected, and research has supported the idea that happiness can play a role in both physical
and mental health.
Happiness has been linked to a variety of outcomes including increased longevity and
increased marital satisfaction.3 Conversely, unhappiness has been linked to a variety of poor
health outcomes.
Stress, anxiety, depression, and loneliness, for example, have been linked to things such as
lowered immunity, increased inflammation, and decreased life expectancy. 4
Sadness
Sadness is another type of emotion often defined as a transient emotional state characterized
by feelings of disappointment, grief, hopelessness, disinterest, and dampened mood.
Like other emotions, sadness is something that all people experience from time to time. In
some cases, people can experience prolonged and severe periods of sadness that can turn
into depression. Sadness can be expressed in a number of ways including:
Crying
Dampened mood
Lethargy
Quietness
Withdrawal from others
The type and severity of sadness can vary depending upon the root cause, and how people
cope with such feelings can also differ.
Sadness can often lead people to engage in coping mechanisms such as avoiding other
people, self-medicating, and ruminating on negative thoughts. Such behaviors can actually
exacerbate feelings of sadness and prolong the duration of the emotion.
Fear
Fear is a powerful emotion that can also play an important role in survival. When you face
some sort of danger and experience fear, you go through what is known as the fight or flight
response.
Your muscles become tense, your heart rate and respiration increase, and your mind becomes
more alert, priming your body to either run from the danger or stand and fight.5
This response helps ensure that you are prepared to effectively deal with threats in your
environment. Expressions of this type of emotion can include:
Facial expressions: such as widening the eyes and pulling back the chin
Body language: attempts to hide or flea from the threat
Physiological reactions: such as rapid breathing and heartbeat
Of course, not everyone experiences fear in the same way. Some people may be more
sensitive to fear and certain situations or objects may be more likely to trigger this emotion.
Fear is the emotional response to an immediate threat. We can also develop a similar reaction
to anticipated threats or even our thoughts about potential dangers, and this is what we
generally think of as anxiety. Social anxiety, for example, involves an anticipated fear of
social situations.
Some people, on the other hand, actually seek out fear-provoking situations. Extreme sports
and other thrills can be fear-inducing, but some people seem to thrive and even enjoy such
feelings.
Repeated exposure to a fear object or situation can lead to familiarity and acclimation, which
can reduce feelings of fear and anxiety.6
This is the idea behind exposure therapy, in which people are gradually exposed to the things
that frighten them in a controlled and safe manner. Eventually, feelings of fear begin to
decrease.
Disgust
Disgust is another of the original six basic emotions described by Eckman. Disgust can be
displayed in a number of ways including:
This sense of revulsion can originate from a number of things, including an unpleasant taste,
sight, or smell. Researchers believe that this emotion evolved as a reaction to foods that
might be harmful or fatal. When people smell or taste foods that have gone bad, for example,
disgust is a typical reaction.
Poor hygiene, infection, blood, rot, and death can also trigger a disgust response. This may be
the body's way of avoiding things that may carry transmittable diseases.7
People can also experience moral disgust when they observe others engaging in behaviors
that they find distasteful, immoral, or evil.
Anger
Anger can be a particularly powerful emotion characterized by feelings of hostility, agitation,
frustration, and antagonism towards others. Like fear, anger can play a part in your body's
fight or flight response.
When a threat generates feelings of anger, you may be inclined to fend off the danger and
protect yourself. Anger is often displayed through:
While anger is often thought of as a negative emotion, it can sometimes be a good thing. It
can be constructive in helping clarify your needs in a relationship, and it can also motivate
you to take action and find solutions to things that are bothering you.
Anger can become a problem, however, when it is excessive or expressed in ways that are
unhealthy, dangerous, or harmful to others. Uncontrolled anger can quickly turn
to aggression, abuse, or violence.
Anger Issues: Take the Test
This type of emotion can have both mental and physical consequences. Unchecked anger can
make it difficult to make rational decisions and can even have an impact on your physical
health.8
Anger has been linked to coronary heart diseases and diabetes. It has also been linked to
behaviors that pose health risks such as aggressive driving, alcohol consumption, and
smoking.
Surprise
Surprise is another one of the six basic types of human emotions originally described by
Eckman. Surprise is usually quite brief and is characterized by a physiological startle
response following something unexpected.
This type of emotion can be positive, negative, or neutral. An unpleasant surprise, for
example, might involve someone jumping out from behind a tree and scaring you as you walk
to your car at night.
An example of a pleasant surprise would be arriving home to find that your closest friends
have gathered to celebrate your birthday. Surprise is often characterized by:
Facial expressions: such as raising the brows, widening the eyes, and opening the mouth
Physical responses: such as jumping back
Verbal reactions: such as yelling, screaming, or gasping
Surprise is another type of emotion that can trigger the fight or flight response. When startled,
people may experience a burst of adrenaline that helps prepare the body to either fight or
flee.9
Surprise can have important effects on human behavior. For example, research has shown
that people tend to disproportionately notice surprising events.
This is why surprising and unusual events in the news tend to stand out in memory more than
others. Research has also found that people tend to be more swayed by surprising arguments
and learn more from surprising information.
However, other theories and new research continue to explore the many different types of
emotions and how they are classified. Eckman later added a number of other emotions to his
list but suggested that unlike his original six emotions, not all of these could necessarily be
encoded through facial expressions. Some of the emotions he later identified included:
Amusement
Contempt
Contentment
Embarrassment
Excitement
Guilt
Pride in achievement
Relief
Satisfaction
Shame
For example, some researchers have suggested that there are only two or three basic
emotions. Others have suggested that emotions exist in something of a hierarchy. Primary
emotions such as love, joy, surprise, anger, and sadness can then be further broken down into
secondary emotions. Love, for example, consists of secondary emotions, such as affection
and longing.
These secondary emotions might then be broken down still further into what are known as
tertiary emotions. The secondary emotion of affection includes tertiary emotions, such as
liking, caring, compassion, and tenderness.
A more recent study suggests that there are at least 27 distinct emotions, all
CINCLUSION
Emotions play a critical role in how we live our lives, from influencing how we engage with
others in our day to day lives to affecting the decisions we make. By understanding some of
the different types of emotions, you can gain a deeper understanding of how these emotions
are expressed and the impact they have on your behavior.
There are many different types of emotions that have an influence on how we live and
interact with others. At times, it may seem like we are ruled by these emotions. The choices
we make, the actions we take, and the perceptions we have are all influenced by the emotions
we are experiencing at any given moment.
Psychologists have also tried to identify the different types of emotions that people
experience. A few different theories have emerged to categorize and explain the emotions
that people feel.
P=g+S
However, this formula suggests that both 'g' and 'S' factors participate
equally in affecting the performance (P). Actually they vary in different
activities. Vocabularly is very closely related to 'g. So the performance
on vocabularly should be written as
Pe = g + S
Pa = g + S
The exact nature of 'g' is unknown. Figure showing the relationship
between 'g' and 'S' abilities.
Characteristics of 'g'
1. 'g' is universal and inborn ability.
2. 'g' varies from person to person but in a person it is constant.
3. 'g' is common in all life activities.
4. 'g' is responsible for success in life.
5. Whenever we talk of testing intelligence, we actually mean to
measure 'g' with the help of intelligence test.
Characteristics of 'S'
1. 'S' is learnt and acquired in the environment.
2. 'S' is closely associated with the aptitude of person.
3. 'S' varies from person to person.
ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES OF
PERSONALITY
4 MARCH 2023 HARSHITA JAIN 4 COMMENTS
There are many known assessment techniques for personality. Assessing personality can be
done using a variety of techniques, depending on the specific goal of the assessment and the
context in which it is being conducted.
These are divided into two types, viz., types and traits theories. Both
these theories of personality focus on people’s personal
characteristics. However, ‘type’ theorists and ‘trait’ theorists differ
in the ways they use characteristics to describe people.
Type Theories:
Type theorists have explained personality on the basis of physique
and temperament. Temperament refers to emotional aspect of the
personality like changes in mood, tensions, excitement, etc. A ‘type’
is simply a class of individuals said to share a common collection of
characteristics.
Ambiverts:
There are only few people who are pure introverts or pure
extraverts. The remaining majority of people possess both the
qualities of introverts and extraverts.
a. Pyknic type:
These are people who are short and having round body. They will
have personality traits of extraverts. These people are more prone to
suffer from a mental disorder called Manic Depressive Psychosis
(MDP).
b. Asthenic type:
These people will have a slender or slim body. They will have the
personality traits of introverts. These people are more prone to
suffer from a serious mental disorder called Schizophrenia.
c. Athletic type:
These people will have strong body. They are more energetic and
aggressive. They will be strong enough, determined, adventurous
and balanced. They are comparable with ambiverts. They are more
prone to suffer from MDP.
d. Dysplastic type:
These people will have unproportionate body and do not belong to
any of the three types mentioned above. This disproportion is due to
hormonal imbalancement. Their behaviour and personality are also
imbalanced.
3.William Sheldon’s Classification:
Sheldon has proposed a theory of personality correlating
temperament and body type. He has divided people into three
types:
a. Endomorph:
These people will have soft, fat and round body, having
predominance of abdominal region. They are sociable and relaxed
(can be compared to pyknic type).
b. Ectomorph:
These are the people who are tall, thin and flat chested, having the
skin, bones and neural structure predominantly. They are shy,
reserved and self-conscious (can be compared with asthenic type).
c. Mesomorph:
These people are well built with heavy and strong muscles appear
predominantly. They are physically active, noisy, adventurous by
nature (can be compared to athletic type).
Sociocultural Factors:
The society and culture play important role in the development of
personality. Among the factors which influence the personality—
the influence of home atmosphere is very crucial. Parental
behaviour will have greater impact on children.
Psychological Factors:
The psychological factors like intelligence level, motives, different
interests acquired by the person, attitudes developed, will and
character, thinking and reasoning abilities, perceptual ability,
emotional development and such other psychological factors also
influence the formation, development and organisation of
personality.
Theories of Personality:
There are number of theories developed by psychologists to explain
personality and its development. Each theory is unique and explains
personality development and functioning in its own way. Some of
the prominent theories are explained here under:
Psychoanalytical Theory:
This theory was developed by famous psychologist Sigmund Freud.
This theory has three major parts: (a) The personality structure
which includes Id, Ego and Super ego (b) Topography of mind and
(c) Psychosocial stages of development,
Among all the crises the ‘search for identity’ during adolescence is
most powerful motive. Erickson also states that the individual
develops a healthy personality by mastering inner and outer crises
with positive solutions to life’s problems.
This Latin term was used to denote the mask and the actors used to
wear it in ancient Rome and Greece; an individual’s personality is
the combination of traits and patterns that influence their behavior,
thought, motivation, and emotion.
What is Personality?
Characteristics of Personality
Every individual has certain feelings and other permanent traits and
qualities.
They are, in fact, integrated into one. This integration is nothing but
a result of organization which may be different from man to man.
The behavior of a person directed to one particular individual may
differ from that of another.
Consistency
Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our
environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.
Multiple expressions
10 Factors of Personality
Having this knowledge is also useful for placing people in jobs and
organizations. Having a strong personality is the key to success.
This is also a key determinant of good leadership.
A person with a positive attitude can direct his thoughts, control his
emotions and regulate his attitude. Every person has a different
personality, and there are a lot of factors that contribute to that
personality. We call them the ‘determinants of personality or the
factors of personality.
1. Environmental Factors
2. Physical Factors
3. Situational Factors
4. Hereditary
5. Family and Social Factors
6. Identification Process
7. Cultural Factors
8. Intelligence
9. Sex Differences
10. Psychological Factors
Environmental Factors
The factors that exert pressure on our personality formation are the
culture in which we are raised; our early conditioning; the norms
among our family, friends, and social groups; and other influences
we experience.
Physical Factors
Physical factors are one of the major reasons for that. Most physical
structures change from time to time, and so does personality. With
exercises, cosmetics, surgeries, etc., many physical features are
changed; therefore, the individual’s personality also evolves.
Situational Factors
They often bring out the traits of a person that are not commonly
seen. Although generally stable and consistent, an individual’s
personality changes in different situations.
Identification Process
Cultural Factors
Intelligence
Sex Differences
But girls are less vigorous in games. They are quieter and interested
in personal appearance. Personal, emotional, and social problems
injure them more.
Psychological Factors
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