Motivation

Download as docx, pdf, or txt
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1of 37

Content

3.2 indicators of motivation, the need for hierarchy model, conflict and frustration

3.3.emotion: types, theories

4.1 intelligence: 2 factor theory

4.2 and 4.3…complete

7 indicators of high motivation


Here are seven signs that you may discern in yourself or others when
motivation is high:

1. Energy – not necessarily being extrovert, but


alertness and quiet resolve.
2. Commitment – to the common purpose.
3. Staying power – in the face of
problems/difficulties/setbacks.
4. Skill – possession of skills indicates purpose and
ambition.
5. Single-mindedness – energy applied in a single
direction.
6. Enjoyment – goes hand in hand with motivation.
7. Responsibility – willingness to seek and accept it.
One practical way of using this list is to turn it into a set of benchmarks to
assess the motivation and level of morale of your team at any given time.

Erthrbfkarchy of Needs Theory

THE NEED HIERARCHY MODEL OF MASLOW


Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory is regarded as one of the most popular theories on
motivation. It is a theory of psychology that explains that humans are highly motivated in
order to fulfill their needs, which is based on hierarchical order.

It was first introduced by Abraham Maslow in 1943 for his paper titled Theory of Motivation
and is based on a hierarchy of needs, which starts with the most basic needs and subsequently
moves on to higher levels.

The main goal of this need hierarchy theory is to attain the highest position or the last of the
needs, i.e need for self actualization..

Levels of Hierarchy
The levels of hierarchy in Maslow’s need hierarchy theory appear in the shape of a pyramid,
where the most basic need is placed at the bottom while the most advanced level of hierarchy
is at the top of the pyramid.

Maslow was of the view that a person can only move to the subsequent level only after
fulfilling the needs of the current level. The needs at the bottom of the pyramid are those
which are very basic and the most complex needs are placed on the top of the pyramid.

Let us read in detail about the various steps in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory.

1. Physiological needs: The physiological needs are regarded as the most basic of the needs
that humans have. These are needs that are very crucial for our survival. The examples of
physiological needs are food, shelter, warmth, health, homeostasis and water, etc.

In addition to all the above needs, Abraham Maslow also included sexual reproduction as one
of the most common needs as it is essential for the survival of the species.

2. Safety Needs: Once the basic needs of food, shelter, water, etc are fulfilled, there is an
innate desire to move to the next level. The next level is known as the safety needs. Here the
primary concern of the individual is related to safety and security.

Safety and security can be regarding many things like a stable source of income that provides
financial security, personal security from any kind of unnatural events, attacks by animals
and emotional security and physical safety which is safety to health.

The various actions taken by an individual in ensuring safety and security are finding a job,
getting an insurance policy, choosing a secure neighborhood for staying with family, etc.
3. Social Needs (Also known as Love and Belonging Needs): This is the third level in the
need hierarchy theory. It is that stage where an individual having fulfilled his physiological
needs as well as safety needs seeks acceptance from others in the form of love,
belongingness.

In this stage, human behaviour is driven by emotions and the need for making emotional
relationships is dominant here.

The following examples can satisfy this need:

1. Friendship

2. Family

3. Intimacy

4. Social Groups

When an individual is deprived of the above needs, he/she feels lonely and depressed.

4. Esteem needs: This is considered as the fourth level of the hierarchy of needs theory. It is
related to the need of a person being recognised in the society. It deals with getting
recognition, self respect in the society.

The need for recognition and acceptance arises when a person has fulfilled their need for love
and belongingness.

In addition to recognition from others, there is a need for the person to develop self esteem
and personal worth.

5. Self-actualization needs: This is the final level of the theory of hierarchy of needs as
proposed by Maslow. It is the highest level of needs and is known as the self-actualization
needs. It relates to the need of an individual to attain or realise the full potential of their
ability or potential.

At this stage, all individuals try to become the best version of themselves. In other words, self
actualisation is the journey of personal growth and development.

Why Motivation Is Important


Motivation serves as a guiding force for all human behavior. So, understanding how
motivation works and the factors that may impact it can be important for several reasons.
Understanding motivation can:

 Increase your efficiency as you work toward your goals


 Drive you to take action
 Encourage you to engage in health-oriented behaviors
 Help you avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors, such as risk-taking and addiction
 Help you feel more in control of your life
 Improve your overall well-being and happiness

Psychologists have proposed different ways of thinking about


motivation, including looking at whether motivation arises from outside (extrinsic) or inside
(intrinsic) an individual.1

Researchers have found that each type has a different effect on a person's behavior and
pursuit of goals.1 To better understand the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on
human behavior, it will help to learn how each type works.

What Is Extrinsic Motivation?


Extrinsic motivation is when we are motivated to perform a behavior or engage in an activity
because we want to earn a reward or avoid punishment.1 You will engage in behavior not
because you enjoy it or because you find it satisfying, but because you expect to get
something in return or avoid something unpleasant.
Understanding Extrinsic Motivation

What Is Intrinsic Motivation?


Intrinsic motivation is when you engage in a behavior because you find it rewarding. You are
performing an activity for its own sake rather than from the desire for some external reward.
The behavior itself is its own reward.2

Extrinsic Motivation

 Participating in a sport to win awards


 Cleaning your room to avoid being reprimanded by your parents
 Competing in a contest to win a scholarship
 Studying because you want to get a good grade
Intrinsic Motivation

 Participating in a sport because you find the activity enjoyable


 Cleaning your room because you like tidying up
 Solving a word puzzle because you find the challenge fun and exciting
 Studying a subject you find fascinating

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation:


Which Is Best?
Extrinsic motivation arises from outside of the individual while intrinsic motivation comes
from within. Research has shown that each type has a different effect on human behavior.3

Studies have demonstrated that offering excessive external rewards for an already internally
rewarding behavior can reduce intrinsic motivation—a phenomenon known as
the overjustification effect.

For example, in a 2008 study, children who were rewarded for playing with a toy they had
already expressed interest in playing with became less interested in the item after being
externally rewarded.4

This is not to suggest that extrinsic motivation is a bad thing—it can be beneficial in some
situations. For example, extrinsic motivation can be particularly helpful when a person needs
to complete a task that they find unpleasant.

Additionally, external rewards can:

 Be a source of feedback to let people know when their performance has achieved a standard
that is deserving of reinforcement
 Induce interest and participation in an activity an individual was not initially interested in
 Motivate people to acquire new skills or knowledge (once these early skills have been
learned, people might become more intrinsically motivated to pursue an activity)

Extrinsic motivators should be avoided in situations where:

 An individual already finds the activity intrinsically rewarding


 Offering a reward might make a "play" activity seem more like "work"

When to Use External Rewards


 Motivate a person to learn something new
 Make a person more interested in an activity that they are not interested in
 Provide feedback to people to let them know their performance is worthy of
recognition
When Not to Use External Rewards

 A person is already interested in the topic, task, or activity


 Offering a reward would make the activity feel like "work" instead of "play"

When to Use Extrinsic


Motivation
Most people assume that intrinsic motivation is best, but it is not always possible in every
situation. Sometimes a person simply has no internal desire to engage in an activity. Offering
excessive rewards can be problematic as well.

However, when they are used appropriately, extrinsic motivators can be a useful tool. For
example, extrinsic motivation can get people to complete a work task or school assignment
that they are not interested in.
Researchers have arrived at three primary conclusions regarding extrinsic rewards and their
influence on intrinsic motivation:

1. Intrinsic motivation will decrease when external rewards are given for completing a
particular task or only doing minimal work.5 If parents heap lavish praise on their child
every time they complete a simple task, the child will become less intrinsically motivated to
perform that task in the future.
2. Praise can increase internal motivation. Researchers have found that offering positive
praise and feedback when people do something better than others can improve intrinsic
motivation.6
3. Unexpected external rewards do not decrease intrinsic motivation.7 If you get a good
grade on a test because you enjoy learning about a subject and the teacher decides to reward
you with a gift card to your favorite pizza place, your underlying motivation for learning
about the subject will not be affected. However, rewarding in this situation needs to be done
with caution because people will sometimes come to expect rewards.

How Do Intrinsic Motivation and


Extrinsic Motivation Influence
Learning?
Both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation play a significant role in learning. Experts have argued
that education's traditional emphasis on external rewards (such as grades, report cards, and
gold stars) undermines any existing intrinsic motivation that students might have.

Others have suggested that extrinsic motivators help students feel more competent in the
classroom, which in turn enhances their intrinsic motivation.8

"A person's interest often survives when a reward is used neither to bribe nor to control but to
signal a job well done, as in a "most improved player" award. If a reward boosts your feeling
of competence after doing good work, your enjoyment of the task may increase.

Rewards, rightly administered, can motivate high performance and creativity. And extrinsic
rewards (such as scholarships, admissions, and jobs that often follow good grades) are here to
stay."

—David G. Meyers, Psychology: Eighth Edition in Modules

conclusion
Both extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation drive human behavior. There are several
key differences between motivation that comes from external rewards and the kind that is
driven by an individual's genuine interest, including the influence of each type on a person's
behavior and the situations in which each type will be most effective.

Understanding how each type of motivation works and when it is likely to be useful can help
people perform tasks (even when they do not want to) and improve their learning.
Conflicts and frustration
Our feeling of chronic conflict and frustration will have a negative impact on
our well being. Frustration and unresolved needs and desires cause great
emotional unhappiness.

Meaning of conflict
Douglas and Holland defines conflict as a painful emotional state which results
from a tension between opposed and contradictory wishes.
Barney and Lehner defines conflict is a state of tension brought by the presence
in the individual of two or more opposing desires.

Types of conflict
 Approach-Approach conflict: This arises when an individual is faced
with the problem of making a choice between two or more positive goals
almost equally motivating and important. For example, a child may have
to choose between watching a movie in TV or going out to play games.
 Avoidance-Avoidance conflict: In this, an individual is forced to choose
between two negative courses of action. For example, a child who does
not want to study and at the same time does not want to displease the
parents by failing in the examination may experience such conflict.
 Approach-Avoidance conflict: In this, an individual is faced with a
problem of choice between approaching and avoiding tendencies at the
same time.

Sources of Conflict
 The conflict arises from the home, school, occupational social and
cultural environment. The faulty upbringing at home, unhealthy
relationships, over protection is the sources of conflict from home
environment.
 Unpleasant school or college environment, role of teachers, faulty method
of teaching, denial of opportunities for self expression and classmates are
some of the sources of conflict in youngsters.
 Improper working environment, dissatisfaction with the working
conditions, unsatisfactory relationships and poor salary or wages is the
sources of conflict in occupational environment.
 The taboos, inhibitions and the negative attitude towards sex are the
causes of many sex conflicts in the minds of youth and adults.

Conflict resolution
 Negotiation is an important part of conflict resolution
 First of all, accept each desire as it arrives without judgment or
resistance
 Remove any barrier or resistance in choosing among conflicting
desires
 Think the goals of life and which one of the desires will be
helpful to achieve the life’s goal
 Choose one desire and follow it with full enthusiasm

Meaning of Frustration
Frustration means emotional tension resulting from the blocking of a desire or
need (Good, 1959)
According to Barney and Lehner (1953), frustration refers to failure to satisfy a
basic need because of either condition in the individual or external obstacles.

Causes of Frustration

External factors
Physical factors: Natural calamities, floods, droughts, earthquakes, fire and
accidents cause frustration in an individual.
Social and societal factors: Societal norms and values impose certain obstacle
in meeting the individual needs which leads to frustration
Economic and financial factors: Unemployment and lack of money causes
frustration in an individual.
Internal factors
Physical abnormality or defects: Too small or too big a stature, very heavy or
thin body, an ugly face or dark complexion etc causes frustration.
Conflicting desires or aims: When a person has conflicting desires, he
develops frustration. For example, a nurse wants to work in abroad and does not
want to leave her family in home country causes frustration.
Individual’s morality and high ideals: An individual’s moral standards, code
of ethics and high ideals may become a source of frustration to him.
Level of aspirations: One may aspire very high in spite of one’s incapabilities
or human limitations which may lead to frustration
Lack of persistence and sincerity in efforts: Frustration may result in one’s
own weakness in putting continuous and persistent efforts with courage,
enthusiasm and will power.

Reaction to frustration
It can be classified as simple reactions and violent reactions
Simple reactions: It includes
· Increasing trials or improving efforts
· Compromising with what is available
· Withdrawal from the situation
· Submissiveness
Violent reactions: It includes aggression

EMOTION
TYPES
There are many different types of emotions that have an influence on how we live and
interact with others. At times, it may seem like we are ruled by these emotions. The choices
we make, the actions we take, and the perceptions we have are all influenced by the emotions
we are experiencing at any given moment.
Psychologists have also tried to identify the different types of emotions that people
experience. A few different theories have emerged to categorize and explain the emotions
that people feel.

Basic Emotions
 During the 1970s, psychologist Paul Eckman identified six basic emotions that he
suggested were universally experienced in all human cultures.
 The emotions he identified were happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, surprise, and
anger. He later expanded his list of basic emotions to include such things as pride,
shame, embarrassment, and excitement.

Combining Emotions
Psychologist Robert Plutchik put forth a "wheel of emotions" that worked something like the
color wheel. Emotions can be combined to form different feelings, much like colors can be
mixed to create other shades.

According to this theory, the more basic emotions act something like building blocks. More
complex, sometimes mixed emotions, are blendings of these more basic ones. For example,
basic emotions such as joy and trust can be combined to create love..

Happiness

Of all the different types of emotions, happiness tends to be the one that people strive for the
most. Happiness is often defined as a pleasant emotional state that is characterized by
feelings of contentment, joy, gratification, satisfaction, and well-being.

Research on happiness has increased significantly since the 1960s within a number of
disciplines, including the branch of psychology known as positive psychology. This type of
emotion is sometimes expressed through:

 Facial expressions: such as smiling


 Body language: such as a relaxed stance
 Tone of voice: an upbeat, pleasant way of speaking

While happiness is considered one of the basic human emotions, the things we think will
create happiness tend to be heavily influenced by culture. For example, pop culture
influences tend to emphasize that attaining certain things such as buying a home or having a
high-paying job will result in happiness.
The realities of what actually contributes to happiness are often much more complex and
more highly individualized.2 People have long believed that happiness and health were
connected, and research has supported the idea that happiness can play a role in both physical
and mental health.
Happiness has been linked to a variety of outcomes including increased longevity and
increased marital satisfaction.3 Conversely, unhappiness has been linked to a variety of poor
health outcomes.
Stress, anxiety, depression, and loneliness, for example, have been linked to things such as
lowered immunity, increased inflammation, and decreased life expectancy. 4
Sadness
Sadness is another type of emotion often defined as a transient emotional state characterized
by feelings of disappointment, grief, hopelessness, disinterest, and dampened mood.
Like other emotions, sadness is something that all people experience from time to time. In
some cases, people can experience prolonged and severe periods of sadness that can turn
into depression. Sadness can be expressed in a number of ways including:

 Crying
 Dampened mood
 Lethargy
 Quietness
 Withdrawal from others

The type and severity of sadness can vary depending upon the root cause, and how people
cope with such feelings can also differ.

Sadness can often lead people to engage in coping mechanisms such as avoiding other
people, self-medicating, and ruminating on negative thoughts. Such behaviors can actually
exacerbate feelings of sadness and prolong the duration of the emotion.
Fear
Fear is a powerful emotion that can also play an important role in survival. When you face
some sort of danger and experience fear, you go through what is known as the fight or flight
response.

Your muscles become tense, your heart rate and respiration increase, and your mind becomes
more alert, priming your body to either run from the danger or stand and fight.5

This response helps ensure that you are prepared to effectively deal with threats in your
environment. Expressions of this type of emotion can include:

 Facial expressions: such as widening the eyes and pulling back the chin
 Body language: attempts to hide or flea from the threat
 Physiological reactions: such as rapid breathing and heartbeat

Of course, not everyone experiences fear in the same way. Some people may be more
sensitive to fear and certain situations or objects may be more likely to trigger this emotion.

Fear is the emotional response to an immediate threat. We can also develop a similar reaction
to anticipated threats or even our thoughts about potential dangers, and this is what we
generally think of as anxiety. Social anxiety, for example, involves an anticipated fear of
social situations.

Some people, on the other hand, actually seek out fear-provoking situations. Extreme sports
and other thrills can be fear-inducing, but some people seem to thrive and even enjoy such
feelings.
Repeated exposure to a fear object or situation can lead to familiarity and acclimation, which
can reduce feelings of fear and anxiety.6

This is the idea behind exposure therapy, in which people are gradually exposed to the things
that frighten them in a controlled and safe manner. Eventually, feelings of fear begin to
decrease.

Disgust
Disgust is another of the original six basic emotions described by Eckman. Disgust can be
displayed in a number of ways including:

 Body language: turning away from the object of disgust


 Physical reactions: such as vomiting or retching
 Facial expressions: such as wrinkling the nose and curling the upper lip

This sense of revulsion can originate from a number of things, including an unpleasant taste,
sight, or smell. Researchers believe that this emotion evolved as a reaction to foods that
might be harmful or fatal. When people smell or taste foods that have gone bad, for example,
disgust is a typical reaction.

Poor hygiene, infection, blood, rot, and death can also trigger a disgust response. This may be
the body's way of avoiding things that may carry transmittable diseases.7

People can also experience moral disgust when they observe others engaging in behaviors
that they find distasteful, immoral, or evil.

Anger
Anger can be a particularly powerful emotion characterized by feelings of hostility, agitation,
frustration, and antagonism towards others. Like fear, anger can play a part in your body's
fight or flight response.

When a threat generates feelings of anger, you may be inclined to fend off the danger and
protect yourself. Anger is often displayed through:

 Facial expressions: such as frowning or glaring


 Body language: such as taking a strong stance or turning away
 Tone of voice: such as speaking gruffly or yelling
 Physiological responses: such as sweating or turning red
 Aggressive behaviors: such as hitting, kicking, or throwing objects

While anger is often thought of as a negative emotion, it can sometimes be a good thing. It
can be constructive in helping clarify your needs in a relationship, and it can also motivate
you to take action and find solutions to things that are bothering you.

Anger can become a problem, however, when it is excessive or expressed in ways that are
unhealthy, dangerous, or harmful to others. Uncontrolled anger can quickly turn
to aggression, abuse, or violence.
Anger Issues: Take the Test
This type of emotion can have both mental and physical consequences. Unchecked anger can
make it difficult to make rational decisions and can even have an impact on your physical
health.8
Anger has been linked to coronary heart diseases and diabetes. It has also been linked to
behaviors that pose health risks such as aggressive driving, alcohol consumption, and
smoking.

Surprise
Surprise is another one of the six basic types of human emotions originally described by
Eckman. Surprise is usually quite brief and is characterized by a physiological startle
response following something unexpected.

This type of emotion can be positive, negative, or neutral. An unpleasant surprise, for
example, might involve someone jumping out from behind a tree and scaring you as you walk
to your car at night.

An example of a pleasant surprise would be arriving home to find that your closest friends
have gathered to celebrate your birthday. Surprise is often characterized by:

 Facial expressions: such as raising the brows, widening the eyes, and opening the mouth
 Physical responses: such as jumping back
 Verbal reactions: such as yelling, screaming, or gasping

Surprise is another type of emotion that can trigger the fight or flight response. When startled,
people may experience a burst of adrenaline that helps prepare the body to either fight or
flee.9

Surprise can have important effects on human behavior. For example, research has shown
that people tend to disproportionately notice surprising events.

This is why surprising and unusual events in the news tend to stand out in memory more than
others. Research has also found that people tend to be more swayed by surprising arguments
and learn more from surprising information.

Other Types of Emotions


The six basic emotions described by Eckman are just a portion of the many different types of
emotions that people are capable of experiencing. Eckman's theory suggests that these core
emotions are universal throughout cultures all over the world.

However, other theories and new research continue to explore the many different types of
emotions and how they are classified. Eckman later added a number of other emotions to his
list but suggested that unlike his original six emotions, not all of these could necessarily be
encoded through facial expressions. Some of the emotions he later identified included:

 Amusement
 Contempt
 Contentment
 Embarrassment
 Excitement
 Guilt
 Pride in achievement
 Relief
 Satisfaction
 Shame

Other Theories of Emotion


As with many concepts in psychology, not all theorists agree on how to classify emotions or
what the basic emotions actually are. While Eckman's theory is one of the best known, other
theorists have proposed their own ideas about what emotions make up the core of the human
experience.10

For example, some researchers have suggested that there are only two or three basic
emotions. Others have suggested that emotions exist in something of a hierarchy. Primary
emotions such as love, joy, surprise, anger, and sadness can then be further broken down into
secondary emotions. Love, for example, consists of secondary emotions, such as affection
and longing.

These secondary emotions might then be broken down still further into what are known as
tertiary emotions. The secondary emotion of affection includes tertiary emotions, such as
liking, caring, compassion, and tenderness.

A more recent study suggests that there are at least 27 distinct emotions, all

CINCLUSION
Emotions play a critical role in how we live our lives, from influencing how we engage with
others in our day to day lives to affecting the decisions we make. By understanding some of
the different types of emotions, you can gain a deeper understanding of how these emotions
are expressed and the impact they have on your behavior.

It is important to remember, however, that no emotion is an island. Instead, the many


emotions you experience are nuanced and complex, working together to create the rich and
varied fabric of your emotional life.

There are many different types of emotions that have an influence on how we live and
interact with others. At times, it may seem like we are ruled by these emotions. The choices
we make, the actions we take, and the perceptions we have are all influenced by the emotions
we are experiencing at any given moment.
Psychologists have also tried to identify the different types of emotions that people
experience. A few different theories have emerged to categorize and explain the emotions
that people feel.

The James-Lange theoryof emotion asserts that emotions arise from


physiological arousal. Recall what you have learned about the sympathetic
nervous system and our fight or flight response when threatened. If you
were to encounter some threat in your environment, like a venomous snake
in your backyard, your sympathetic nervous system would initiate
significant physiological arousal, which would make your heart race and
increase your respiration rate. According to the James-Lange theory of
emotion, you would only experience a feeling of fear after this physiological
arousal had taken place.
Furthermore, different arousal patterns would be associated with different
feelings.Other theorists, however, doubted that the physiological arousal
that occurs with different types of emotions is distinct enough to result in
the wide variety of emotions that we experience. Thus, the Cannon-Bard
theory of emotion was developed. According to this view, physiological
arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently
(Lang, 1994). So, when you see the venomous snake, you feel fear at
exactly the same time that your body mounts its fight or flight response.
This emotional reaction would be separate and independent of the
physiological arousal, even though they co-occur.

The James-Lange Theory


In the 1880s, two theorists, psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange,
independently proposed an idea that challenged commonsense beliefs about emotion. This
idea, which came to be known as the James-Lange Theory, is that people experience
emotion because they perceive their bodies’ physiological responses to external events.
According to this theory, people don’t cry because they feel sad. Rather, people feel sad
because they cry, and, likewise, they feel happy because they smile. This theory suggests that
different physiological states correspond to different experiences of emotion.

The Cannon-Bard Theory


The physiologist Walter Cannon disagreed with the James-Lange theory, posing three main
arguments against it:
1. People can experience physiological arousal without experiencing emotion, such as
when they have been running. (The racing heart in this case is not an indication of
fear.)
2. Physiological reactions happen too slowly to cause experiences of emotion, which
occur very rapidly. For example, when someone is in a dark alley alone, a sudden
sound usually provokes an immediate experience of fear, while the physical
“symptoms” of fear generally follow that feeling.
3. People can experience very different emotions even when they have the same pattern
of physiological arousal. For example, a person may have a racing heart and rapid
breathing both when he is angry and when he is afraid.

Spearman's Two Factor Theory of Intelligence

 Two factor theory was propounded by Charles Spearman in


1904. He concluded that intelligence is comprised by two factors,
viz. "General ability" known as 'g' factor and Specific ability
known as 'S' factor.
 This theory states that every cognitive task involves a general
factor 'g' which it shares with all other cognitive tasks and a
specific factor 'S' which it shares with none.
 To state in simple terms, Intelligence is composed of two factors:
One is general factor 'g' which is involved in all walks of life
and ether is specific factor or 'S' which is reflected in a specific or
particular ability e.g. musical ability, artistic ability etc.

The performance on any cognitive task is predicted by the formula-

P=g+S

Performance = General factor + Specific factor

However, this formula suggests that both 'g' and 'S' factors participate
equally in affecting the performance (P). Actually they vary in different
activities. Vocabularly is very closely related to 'g. So the performance
on vocabularly should be written as

Pe = g + S

Whereas, performance on the test of aesthetic judgement may depend


on training of art and some specific ability. Here we would write the
formula

Pa = g + S
The exact nature of 'g' is unknown. Figure showing the relationship
between 'g' and 'S' abilities.

Characteristics of 'g'
1. 'g' is universal and inborn ability.
2. 'g' varies from person to person but in a person it is constant.
3. 'g' is common in all life activities.
4. 'g' is responsible for success in life.
5. Whenever we talk of testing intelligence, we actually mean to
measure 'g' with the help of intelligence test.

Characteristics of 'S'
1. 'S' is learnt and acquired in the environment.
2. 'S' is closely associated with the aptitude of person.
3. 'S' varies from person to person.

ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES OF
PERSONALITY
4 MARCH 2023 HARSHITA JAIN 4 COMMENTS
There are many known assessment techniques for personality. Assessing personality can be
done using a variety of techniques, depending on the specific goal of the assessment and the
context in which it is being conducted.

Here are some common techniques for personality assessment:

1. Self-Report Measures: Self-report measures are questionnaires or inventories that


individuals complete themselves. These measures ask individuals to respond to questions
about their attitudes, behaviors, and emotions. Examples include the Big Five Inventory
and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory.
2. Observational Methods: Observational methods involve observing an individual’s
behavior in natural or controlled settings. This can include structured observations, such as
laboratory experiments, or unstructured observations, such as watching how someone
behaves in a social setting.
3. Behavioral Assessments: Behavioral assessments involve assessing an individual’s
behavior in specific situations. This can include role-playing exercises or tasks designed to
elicit certain behaviors.
4. Neuroscientific Methods: Neuroscientific methods involve using brain imaging
techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), to study the neural
correlates of personality traits.
5. Projective Techniques: Projective techniques involve presenting individuals with
ambiguous stimuli, such as inkblots or incomplete sentences, and asking them to respond.
The idea is that the individual’s responses reveal unconscious aspects of their personality.
Examples include the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test.
Also Visit: Prep with Harshita
Projective techniques are a type of personality assessment that involve presenting individuals
with ambiguous stimuli, such as pictures, words, or incomplete sentences, and asking them to
respond.

Here are some examples of commonly used projective techniques in personality


assessment:
1. Rorschach Inkblot Test: This test involves presenting individuals with a series of inkblots
and asking them to describe what they see. The responses are analyzed based on various
factors, such as the content of the response, the location of the response, and the level of
detail provided.
2. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): This test involves presenting individuals with a series
of pictures and asking them to create a story based on the pictures. The responses are
analyzed based on various factors, such as the themes that emerge in the story and the
emotions expressed in the story.
3. Sentence Completion Test: This test involves presenting individuals with incomplete
sentences and asking them to complete them. The responses are analyzed based on various
factors, such as the content of the response and the level of detail provided.
4. Draw-a-Person Test: This test involves asking individuals to draw a person and then
asking them to describe the person they have drawn. The responses are analyzed based on
various factors, such as the level of detail provided and the emotions expressed in the
description.
Notes on Types and Traits Theories of Personality!
The earliest attempt to categories personality was made by
Hippocrates (400 BC).

He categorised people on the basis of four body humours and


prominent personality characteristics associated with them such as:
Recently, psychologists have attempted to study personality in their
own way. They have formulated various theories to explain
personality.

These are divided into two types, viz., types and traits theories. Both
these theories of personality focus on people’s personal
characteristics. However, ‘type’ theorists and ‘trait’ theorists differ
in the ways they use characteristics to describe people.

Type Theories:
Type theorists have explained personality on the basis of physique
and temperament. Temperament refers to emotional aspect of the
personality like changes in mood, tensions, excitement, etc. A ‘type’
is simply a class of individuals said to share a common collection of
characteristics.

Three important ‘Type theories’ of personality are


explained here:
1.CG Jung’s Classification:
CG Jung has classified personality on the basis of sociability
character as Introverts and Extraverts.

Introverts are described as people who share characteristics such as


shyness, social withdrawal, and tendency to talk less. Because of
these characteristics these people appear to be self-centered, unable
to adjust easily in social situations. They are not easily suggestible.
They are future oriented, very sensible and rigid in ideas.

Extraverts share a tendency to be outgoing, friendly, talkative, and


social in nature. They prefer social contacts, generous, sportive, and
courageous.

They are happy-go-lucky persons and show interest in present


reality than future. They express their feelings openly. Take
decisions quickly and act upon quickly. They are not affected easily
by difficulties.

Ambiverts:
There are only few people who are pure introverts or pure
extraverts. The remaining majority of people possess both the
qualities of introverts and extraverts.

Such people are called as Ambiverts. This classification was made


by psychologists who came after Jung.

2.Ernest Kretschmer’s Classification:


German psychologist Kretschmer has attempted to correlate
physique and character. From his studies on mental patients, he
found that certain body types are associated with particular types of
mental disorders. He has classified personalities into four types:

a. Pyknic type:
These are people who are short and having round body. They will
have personality traits of extraverts. These people are more prone to
suffer from a mental disorder called Manic Depressive Psychosis
(MDP).

b. Asthenic type:
These people will have a slender or slim body. They will have the
personality traits of introverts. These people are more prone to
suffer from a serious mental disorder called Schizophrenia.

c. Athletic type:
These people will have strong body. They are more energetic and
aggressive. They will be strong enough, determined, adventurous
and balanced. They are comparable with ambiverts. They are more
prone to suffer from MDP.

d. Dysplastic type:
These people will have unproportionate body and do not belong to
any of the three types mentioned above. This disproportion is due to
hormonal imbalancement. Their behaviour and personality are also
imbalanced.
3.William Sheldon’s Classification:
Sheldon has proposed a theory of personality correlating
temperament and body type. He has divided people into three
types:

a. Endomorph:
These people will have soft, fat and round body, having
predominance of abdominal region. They are sociable and relaxed
(can be compared to pyknic type).

b. Ectomorph:
These are the people who are tall, thin and flat chested, having the
skin, bones and neural structure predominantly. They are shy,
reserved and self-conscious (can be compared with asthenic type).

c. Mesomorph:
These people are well built with heavy and strong muscles appear
predominantly. They are physically active, noisy, adventurous by
nature (can be compared to athletic type).

Traits of Personality and Trait Theories:


 Traits are tendencies to behave in relatively consistent and
distinctive ways across situations.
 These are the measurable aspects of personality. The most
common way to describe people is to list these traits or
qualities possessed by them.
 For example, friendliness, social, honesty, perseverance,
submissiveness, dominance, etc.
 The groups of personality traits are known as personality
factors or dimensions of personality.
 Allport and RB Cattell are famous for their work on
personality studies using traits.

GW Allport was the first person to adopt the trait approach


against the type approach for the description of personalities.
 According to him the traits are the basic units of personality.
Every person develops a unique set of organised tendencies
called traits.
 Allport has identified three types of traits—cardinal, central
and secondary.
 Cardinal traits are primary and they cover all aspects of an
individual’s behaviour and attributes.
 Central traits represent few characteristics which can be used
to describe a person such as kindness, honesty, etc.
 Secondary traits appear in only a relatively small range of
situations. These are not strong enough like cardinal traits
and hence they are not regarded as integral parts of one’s
personality.

RB Cattell has identified two types of traits.

 They are source traits and surface traits.


 Source traits are the underlying structures or sources that
determine our behaviour. Surface traits are influenced by
source traits and are manifested in our behaviour.

Cattell, by adopting a method called factor analysis has recognised


16 ‘Source traits’ as building blocks of our personality. The ‘Sixteen
personality factor test’ developed by him includes these factors. This
test is widely used, because these personality characteristics can be
measured and described more objectively.

Development and Organisation of Personality:


As defined—the personality is a dynamic organisation of various
qualities including physical and psychological aspects. Personality is
something that grows and develops as a result of interplay of
biological, sociocultural and psychological factors. Because of the
developmental process, the personality is subjected to change. That
is why there are individual differences. What causes these
differences? The answer to this question lies in the factors
influencing the development of personality. These factors are
classified into three categories:
Biological Factors:
These are also called as physiological factors which include
endocrine glands, blood sugar and other externally imposed
biological conditions. There are many endocrine glands which are
situated in different parts of the body.

These glands produce different hormones. Normal secretion of


these hormones promotes healthy and normal personality.
Abnormalities in secretion like over or under secretions lead to im-
balancement.

In addition to the biological factors drug dependence, alcoholism


also affects personality. Dietary problems like—semi- starvation,
vitamin deficiencies, diseases which are acute as well as chronic—
like toxic and bacterial infection due to syphilis, encephalitis or such
other diseases cause very severe damage to the personality
development and functioning.

Sociocultural Factors:
The society and culture play important role in the development of
personality. Among the factors which influence the personality—
the influence of home atmosphere is very crucial. Parental
behaviour will have greater impact on children.

Parental attitude towards children, pattern of care like over


protection, over indulgence, rejection, negligence, encouragement,
discouragement, their attitude towards life, relationship with
friends and relatives all will affect the development. Number of
children in a family, order of birth, peer group, school atmosphere
also influences personality development.

Psychological Factors:
The psychological factors like intelligence level, motives, different
interests acquired by the person, attitudes developed, will and
character, thinking and reasoning abilities, perceptual ability,
emotional development and such other psychological factors also
influence the formation, development and organisation of
personality.
Theories of Personality:
There are number of theories developed by psychologists to explain
personality and its development. Each theory is unique and explains
personality development and functioning in its own way. Some of
the prominent theories are explained here under:

Psychoanalytical Theory:
This theory was developed by famous psychologist Sigmund Freud.
This theory has three major parts: (a) The personality structure
which includes Id, Ego and Super ego (b) Topography of mind and
(c) Psychosocial stages of development,

Adler’s Theory of Striving for Superiority:


Alfred Adler was the follower of Freud, but opposed his views and
established his own school of thought called Individual Psychology.
Adler stressed on the social, rather than biological determinants of
personality and on the upward drive of the self. In his view the
prime source of man’s motivation is the innate striving for
superiority by attaining perfection.

According to Adler, every child will suffer from some weakness


which results in development of inferiority. But every child will try
to compensate one weakness through some other ability. For
example, a bodily handicapped child may work hard and get a rank
in the examination.

An ugly looking girl may gain social recognition by becoming a


famous singer. Inferiority feelings are thus essential requirements
of psychological growth. Adler thought that under optimal
circumstances of development, striving for superiority take socially
constructive forms having to do with co-operative relationships with
people, identification with the group and efforts to bring about the
ideal society.

Jung’s Theory of Personality:


C.G.Jung was the follower of Freud, but due to difference of opinion
established his own school of thought called ‘Analytical Psychology’.
Jung opposed the views of Freud about psychosexual development
during childhood.
On the other hand, he stressed ‘adult adjustment’ aspect. Jung felt
that the libido is not only sexual energy but it is ‘continuous life
energy’, a striving to live and insure the survival of one’s species. He
called unconscious as ‘Collective unconscious’ and divided it as
‘personal unconscious’ and ‘racial unconscious’.

The personal unconscious is developed out of any of the individual’s


conscious experiences that had been repressed.

Collective unconscious grows out of the past experiences of the


human race. He said, collective unconscious will be stored with
primitive fundamental images, impressions or predispositions that
were common to earlier members of the human race. He called
these images, impressions or predispositions as ‘archetypes’. He
said these archetypes will cause emotion generated, behaviour.

According to Jung, the self develops as a result of harmonisation of


conscious and unconscious and leads to unique patterns of
behaviour. He called this process as individuation, i.e. every
individual is distinct from others.

Jung has also proposed two concepts to explain nature of


personality, viz., extraversion and introversion. He has also
introduced a concept called ‘complexes’ which he defined as a
‘network of ideas bound together by a common emotion or a set of
feelings’.

Karen Horney and Basic Anxiety:


Karen Horney concentrates mainly on ‘Basic anxiety’ as a prime
concept to understand human personality. Basic anxiety according
to Horney—stems from anything that causes insecurity in the child,
especially in relation to his/her parents.

That is being dominated by parents, being inconsistently treated,


being given too much or too little responsibility, being treated with
coldness or indifferences, being involved in parental conflicts and so
on.
The child tries to cope with this anxiety by various adjective and
largely irrational acts. But if the anxieties are intense and
prolonged, it develops neurotic behaviour and requires treatment.

Sullivan and Interpersonal Relations:


Harry Stack Sullivan describes personality as the relatively enduring
pattern of recurrent interpersonal situations which characterise a
human life. According to him there is no personality apart from its
relations with other people; all that is distinctly human is a product
of social interactions from birth onwards and every individual is
motivated towards achieving social and interpersonal security.

Therefore, according to Sullivan the study of personality is really the


study of the whole interpersonal situation and not an isolated
individual.

Erickson and Psychosocial Crisis:


Erik Erickson’s theory is known as Ego psychology. According to
Erickson, as the individual progresses through his developmental
stages, meets with psychosocial crises peculiar to each stage. It is
psychosocial because, society has developed social institutions
specific to each stage in an attempt to mould and socialise the
individual as he progresses through these stages.

In Erickson’s scheme, there are eight psychosocial stages extending


through the life span from infancy to old age. Each stage will
experience certain conflicts called crises.

Among all the crises the ‘search for identity’ during adolescence is
most powerful motive. Erickson also states that the individual
develops a healthy personality by mastering inner and outer crises
with positive solutions to life’s problems.

Personality: Characteristics, Factors, Roles,


Theories of Personality
Personality is a patterned body of habits, traits, attitudes,
and ideas of an individual, as these are organized
externally into roles and statuses and as they relate
internally to motivation, goals, and various aspects of
selfhood.

The term personality is derived from the Latin word “Persona”


meaning to speak through.

This Latin term was used to denote the mask and the actors used to
wear it in ancient Rome and Greece; an individual’s personality is
the combination of traits and patterns that influence their behavior,
thought, motivation, and emotion.

It drives individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in


specific ways; in essence, it is what makes each individual unique.
Over time, these patterns strongly influence personal
expectations, perceptions, values, and attitudes.

In addition to this, personality arises from within the individual and


remains fairly consistent throughout life. It is a pattern of stable
states and characteristics of a person that influence his or her
behavior toward goal achievement. Each person has unique ways of
projecting these states.

The study of personality focuses on two broad areas;

1. One is understanding individual differences in particular


personality characteristics, such as sociability or irritability.
2. The other is understanding how the various parts of a person
come together as a whole.

What is Personality?

Personality is the dynamic organization within the


individuals of those psychophysical systems that
determine their unique adjustments to their
environments.
Feist and Feist said, “personality is a pattern of relatively
permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both
consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior.”

By personality, Ogburn means “the integration of the socio-


psychological behavior of the human being, represented by habits of
action and feeling, attitudes and opinions.”

Hence personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual


reacts and interacts with others. It is individual differences in
characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. It is the
supreme realization of the innate habit of a living being.

It is an act of courage flung in the face of life, the absolute


affirmation of all that constitutes the individual, the most successful
adaptation to the universal conditions of existence, coupled with the
greatest possible freedom of self-determination.

For example- he has a very pleasant personality, or he was an


influential personality in genetic engineering.

Characteristics of Personality

The term personality is used in various senses. Generally, it is used


to indicate the external outlook of an individual. In philosophy, it
means internal quality.

But in social psychology, the term personality indicates neither the


external nor outward pattern nor the internal quality. It means an
integrated whole. In the modem world and psychology, it has come
to indicate the sum total of an individual’s characteristics and
qualities.

Various thinkers, social psychologists, and others have defined


personality in various ways. It is a sum of physical, mental, and
social qualities in an integrated manner.
Thus, personality is the sum of a person’s ideas, attitudes, and
values, which determine his role in society and form an integral part
of his character. The individual acquires personality as a result of
his participation in group life. It refers to something much more
essential and enduring about a person.

Beyond this basic point of agreement, personality has


other characteristics or features in common.

1. Personality is something that is unique in each individual


2. Personality refers particularly to the persistent qualities of an
individual.
3. Personality represents a dynamic orientation of an organism
to the environment.
4. Social interactions greatly influence personality.
5. Personality represents a unique organization of persistent
dynamic and social predisposition.
6. Consistency
7. Psychological and physiological
8. It impacts behaviors and actions.
9. Multiple expressions

Personality is something that is unique in each individual

Personality refers to internal and external qualities, some of which


are quite general. But it is unique to each individual. A person can’t
reproduce or imitate the qualities of another person’s personality.

Personality refers particularly to the persistent qualities of an


individual.

Every individual has certain feelings and other permanent traits and
qualities.

Personality is mainly composed of persistent or permanent qualities


that exhibit themselves in the form of social behavior and an
attempt to adjust to the environment.
Personality represents a dynamic orientation of an organism
to the environment.

Personality represents the process of learning. It takes place about


the environment. We do not acquire all the traits of personality at
once.

Social interactions greatly influence personality.

Personality is not an individual quality. It is a result of social-


interaction.

In other words, it means that when we come in contact with other


members of society, we acquire certain qualities while We exhibit
certain others. All these come to form personality.

Personality represents a unique organization of persistent


dynamic and social predisposition.

In personality, various qualities are not put together.

They are, in fact, integrated into one. This integration is nothing but
a result of organization which may be different from man to man.
The behavior of a person directed to one particular individual may
differ from that of another.

That is why; we put the condition of a suitable environment. This


suitability is concerned with individual specificity.

Consistency

There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors.


Essentially, people act in the same or similar ways in various
situations.
Psychological and physiological

Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that


biological processes and needs also influence it.

It impacts behaviors and actions.

Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our
environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.

Multiple expressions

Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be


seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social
interactions.

Personality is the unique combination of patterns that influence a


human’s behavior, thought, motivation, and emotion. There are
many approaches to the modem psychological study of personality,
including the psychodynamic, learning, humanistic, biological, trait,
and cultural perspectives.

It can be described as how a person affects others, how he


understands and views himself, and his pattern of inner and outer
measurable traits. It encompasses a person’s relatively stable
feelings, thoughts, and behavioral patterns.

In fact, our personality changes over long periods of time.

10 Factors of Personality

In the field of organizational behavior, personality is the aggregate


of a person’s feelings, thinking, behaviors, and responses to
different situations and people.
Our personality differentiates us from other people, and
understanding someone’s personality gives clues about
how that person is likely to act and feel in various
situations. An understanding of different employees’
personalities is helpful in effectively managing
organizational behavior.

Having this knowledge is also useful for placing people in jobs and
organizations. Having a strong personality is the key to success.
This is also a key determinant of good leadership.

A person with a positive attitude can direct his thoughts, control his
emotions and regulate his attitude. Every person has a different
personality, and there are a lot of factors that contribute to that
personality. We call them the ‘determinants of personality or the
factors of personality.

10 factors of personality are;

1. Environmental Factors
2. Physical Factors
3. Situational Factors
4. Hereditary
5. Family and Social Factors
6. Identification Process
7. Cultural Factors
8. Intelligence
9. Sex Differences
10. Psychological Factors

Environmental Factors

The factors that exert pressure on our personality formation are the
culture in which we are raised; our early conditioning; the norms
among our family, friends, and social groups; and other influences
we experience.

These environmental factors play a substantial role in shaping our


personalities.
It establishes an individual’s attitudes, values, norms, and
perceptions. Based on cultures and traditions, different senses of
right and wrong are formed in individuals.

These environmental factors also include the neighborhood a


person lives in, his school, college, university, workplace, friends,
and parents; everybody plays a role as the determinant of one’s
personality.

Physical Factors

Many physical factors will determine a person’s personality. These


physical factors include the overall physical structure of a person:
his height, weight, color, sex, beauty, body language, etc.

Physical factors are one of the major reasons for that. Most physical
structures change from time to time, and so does personality. With
exercises, cosmetics, surgeries, etc., many physical features are
changed; therefore, the individual’s personality also evolves.

Situational Factors

Situational factors can be commonly observed when a person


behaves contrastingly and exhibits different traits and
characteristics. In this way, situational factors impact a personality
in a significant way.

They often bring out the traits of a person that are not commonly
seen. Although generally stable and consistent, an individual’s
personality changes in different situations.

The different demands of situations call forth different aspects of


one’s personality. So we shouldn’t look at personality patterns in
isolation. This aspect is very important for organizational behavior
because the manager controls the situation.
Hereditary

Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception.


Physical structure, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament,
muscle composition, reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms
are generally considered to be either completely or substantially
influenced by the parents.

Hereditary predisposes certain mental, physical, and emotional


states. Research has established that those psychological
characteristics can be transmitted through heredity. However, such
conclusive proof is not available to human beings.

Family and Social Factors

Family and social groups have the most significant impact on


personality development. Parents and other family members have a
strong influence on the personality development of the child.
Parents have more effect on personality development as compared
to other members of the family.

Besides a person’s home environment and family members, there


are other influences from social factors like- friends, neighbors,
relatives, etc. These groups have their impact through socialization
and identification process.

Identification Process

The identification process occurs when a person tries to identify


himself with some person to whom he feels ideal in the family.

First, identification can be viewed as the similarity of behavior


between the child and the model.

Second identification can be looked at as the child’s motives or


desires to be like the model.
Third, it can be viewed as the process through which the child takes
on the model’s attributes.

Cultural Factors

Culture is the underlying determinant of human decision-making. It


generally determines attitude towards independence, aggression,
competition, and cooperation. Each culture expects and trains its
members to behave in a way acceptable to the group.

Intelligence

There is definitely some relationship between intelligence and


personality. Intelligence is mainly hereditary. Very intelligent
persons can make better adjustments at home, school, and society
than those persons who are less intelligent.

Sex Differences

Boys are generally more assertive, tough-minded, and vigorous.


They have a better need to succeed with regard to interests and
aptitudes. Boys show interest in machinery and outdoor activities.
They prefer adventures.

But girls are less vigorous in games. They are quieter and interested
in personal appearance. Personal, emotional, and social problems
injure them more.

Thus sex differences play a vital role in the development of an


individual’s personality.

Psychological Factors

Psychological factors play a big role in the functioning of human


behavior and the development of one’s personality. Some
psychological factors are- motives, acquired interests, attitudes,
character, intellectual capacities, etc.

Beyond the joint influence of these factors, however, the relative


contribution of each factor to personality varies with the character
or personality process involved and perhaps with the individual
concerned.

You might also like

pFad - Phonifier reborn

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.

Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.


Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy