Yatharth IAS Internship Assignment 2

Topic: NCERT History Class VI & VII notes

Intern: Aishwarya Patole

CLASS VI

CHAPTER 1: WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN

Habitat and Cultivation
1. Skilled gatherers are some of the earliest people who lived on the banks of the river Narmada for thousand
years.
2. They gathered food and had vast wealth of plants and forest produce as well as hunted animals.
3. They collected fruits and roots.
Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills
Location: North-west (Pakistan)
Significance: Women and men first began to grow crops such as wheat and barley.
Year: About 800 years ago.

Garo Hills
Location: North-east (Meghalaya)
Significance: Development of agriculture.

Vindhyas
Location: Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
Significance: Rice was first grown to the North of Vindhyas.

Earliest Cities
About 4700 years ago: On the banks of Indus and its tributaries
About 2500 years ago: on the banks of Ganga River and its tributaries: area to the south of Ganga- Magadha Kin-
dom with powerful rulers.

Ideas Shared

1. Livelihood
2. Merchants
3. Army men
4. Religious teachers
5. Adventure travellers
6. Stone carving, music composition, cooking
Reasons for Migration in the early period
1. Escape from natural disasters like floods and droughts.
2. For trading valuable goods from one place to another.
3. Preach religion and advice
4. Spirit of adventure.
Origin of the word “India” and “Bharat”
INDIA BHARAT
Comes from Indus (Sindhu in Sanskrit) “Bharata” was used for a group of people who
Greeks called it Indos, Hindos about 2500 years ago lived in North-west mentioned in Rigveda
Land to the east of this Indus was called India
Manuscripts
1. ‘Manu’ means hand in Latin. Manuscripts were written by hand.
2. It included religious beliefs, practices, lives of kings, medicine and science, epics, poems and plays
3. Manuscripts were written in Sanskrit and Prakrit, Tamil.
4. Prakrit was the language used by the ordinary people.
5. Written on palm leaf or bark of a tree known as birch which grows in the Himalayas.
6. Manuscripts are one of the ways to find about past events/history.
Inscriptions
Writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal.
Use: To write orders given by King or for keeping record
Example: Record of victories in battle found in Kandhahar (Afghanistan) written in Greek and Aramaic on the orders
of ruler Ashoka

CHAPTER 2: ON THE TRAIL OF EARLIEST PEOPLE

Hunter gatherers
Lived in the sub-continent around 2 million years ago.
The name comes from the way in which they got their food.
They hunted animals, fish, birds and gathered roots, fruits, nuts, seeds, leaves, stalks, eggs.
Reasons why Hunter gatherers travelled from place to place:
1. Search of food
2. Animals moved from place to place
3. Rivers, lakes are seasonal
4. Plants bear fruits which are seasonal
5. Meet friends and relatives
6. Dry areas
About 12000 years ago
Major climatic changes occurred.
Warm conditions lead to: Development of grasslands, increase in number of deer, antelope, goat, sheep and cattle
i.e animals that survived on grass.
Stone tools Uses:
1. Digging the ground to collect edible roots
2. cut meat and bone
3. stitching clothes made from animal skin
4. scrape bark
5. scrape hides (animal skin)
6. to make spears and arrows
7. chop wood for firewood
Factory sites
Places where people made tools and stone was found.
Habitation-cum-factory sites
Sometimes people lived in factory sites for a long duration, therefore called as Habitation-cum-factory sites.
Sites
Places where the remains of things such as tools, pots, buildings etc. were found.
Example: Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a best example for rock caves.
 Making of Stone tools
2 techniques:
1. Stone on stone technique: The pebble from which the tool was made (called as core) was held in one hand
and another stone which was used as hammer was held in other hand which was used to strike off flames
from the first, for the required shape.
2. Pressure flaking: Core was placed on a firm surface and the hammer was used on a piece of bone or stone
that was placed on the core to remove flakes that could be shaped into tools.
Cave paintings
Depiction of wild animals, drawn with great accuracy and skill.
Example: Paintings of wild animals have been found in Madhya Pradesh and southern Uttar Pradesh.

Kurnool Caves
Traces of fire found here which suggests that people were familiar with the use of fire.
Fire could have been used for many things, as a source of light, to cook meat, and to scare away animals.

Time periods
1. Palaeolithic period: (2 million years to 12,000 years ago)
It is the earliest period.
Origin of word: Greek words- ‘palaeo’ meaning old and ‘lithos’ meaning stone.
Divided into: Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic.
Covers 99% of human history.
Findings: Stone tools,
Ostriches found in India,
Ostrich egg shells found in Patne, Maharashtra
Palaeolithic site: Hungsi, Karnataka
Findings: Habitation-cum factory sites
Tools made from limestone

2. Mesolithic period: (12,000 to 10,000 years ago)

Environmental changes observed
Stone tools formed were generally tiny called Microliths.
Microliths were probably stuck on to handles of bone or wood to make tools such as saws and sickles.

3. Neolithic period: (about 10,000 years ago)

Tools polished to give a fine cutting edge
Mortars and pestles used for grinding grain and other plant produce.
This period witnessed the use of pots for cooking food, weaving of cloth using cotton.
Millet was grown around this period.
Example of Neolithic site: “Chirand” located in Saran district of Bihar.

CHAPTER 3: FROM GATHERING TO GROWING FOOD

Domestication
Began, 12000 years ago
Process in which people grow plants and look after animals
Plants: wheat & Barley
Animals: Sheep & Goat
First animal to be tamed: Wild ancestor of dog

Pit-houses
Found in: “Burzahom” (present day Kashmir)
Use: provided shelter in cold weather
Tribes
Two-three generations living together in small settlements or villages or in groups form a tribe.
Farmers and herders live in groups also called tribes.
Occupation: hunting, gathering, farming, herding and fishing.
Archaeological sites
1. Mehrgarh (Present day Pakistan)
Location: Fertile plain near Bolan Pass, one of the most important routes into Iran.
Significance:
1. Several burial sites found
2. Square & rectangular houses. Each with 4 compartments or more
3. Cotton grown about 7000 years ago
4. Earliest villages where women and men learnt to grow barley and wheat and rear sheep and goats for the fist
time.
5. Cattle is the most common animal
6. Megaliths used to mark burial sites

2. Inamgaon
Location: Right bank of Ghod River, Maharashtra
Archaeological findings: Seeds of Barley, Rice, Pulses, Peas, Sesame
Significance: Agrarian Village
3. Daojali Hading
Location: Hills near Brahmaputra valley close to China and Myanmar
Archaeological findings: Jadeite (stone brought from China discovered at Hading), Evidence of tools made from
“fossil wood” (ancient wood hardened into stone)

4. Burzahom
Location: Kashmir Valley of Jammu & Kashmir
Significance:
1. First Neolithic site discovered in Jammu & Kashmir.
2. Cooking heaths found inside and outside huts which suggests that depending on weather people would cook
food either indoor or outdoor.

5. Adichanallur
Location: Thoothukudi District, Tamil Nadu
Significance: 1. Megalithic site
2 Known as the “pearl city” due to prevailing pearl fishes in the past in the region.

CHAPTER 4: IN THE EARLIEST CITIES

Harappan cities
Significance:
1. Developed about 4700 years ago.
2. Cities divided into two or more parts: west part (smaller but higher known as “citadel”) east part (larger but
lower called “lower town”)
3. Walls of baked brick around these parts laid in interlocking pattern in order to make it strong.
4. Rulers planned the construction of the special buildings and sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious
stones.
5. Ornaments made of gold and silver or beads were kept for themselves by the rulers.
6. Scribes (people who knew how to write) prepared the seals and wrote on other materials.
7. Terracotta toys have been found in these cities.
8. Copper and bronze: used for making tools, weapons, ornaments, and vessels.
9. Gold and silver: used to make ornaments and vessels.
 10. Beads, weights and blades were also found.
11. Seals made of stone with animal figures carved on them
12. Pots with beautiful black designs
13. Raw materials: copper was brought from present day Rajasthan and Oman in West Asia.
Tin was mixed with copper to produce bronze brought from Afghanistan
Gold brought from present-day Karnataka
Precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran, and Afghanistan.
14. Agriculture: grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard.
Plough was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds
As the region did not receive heavy rainfall, irrigation facilities were used.
15. Harappan towns: Dholavira: Location: Khadir Beyt, Rann of Kutch
Significance: Fresh water, fertile land, cities divided into 3 parts, massive stone wall gate
ways large open area, letters found
Lothal: Location: Besides tributary of Sabarmati, close to Gulf of Kambat, Gujarat
Significance: Important centre for making objects out of stone, shell and metal, store house
in the city.

Mohenjodaro
Significance:
1. Special tank known as Great Bath was built in this region lined with bricks, coated with plaster, and made
water-tight with a layer of natural tar.
2. Water was drawn in through the well and drained out after use.
3. Important people took a dip in this tank on special occasions.
4. Pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects.

CHAPTER 5: WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US

Sanskrit part of Indo-European language
Indo-European family: Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Sindhi, English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Span-
ish, Sanskrit.
Family- because words in common.
Example: matr (Sanskrit) ----- Ma (Hindi) ------ Mother (English)
Languages in
North-east: (Family- Tibeto-Burman)
South: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Mallyalam (Family- Dravidian)
North: Jharkhand & Central India (Family- Austro-Asiatic)
Vedas: Beginning of composition of Veda: 3,500 years
1. Rigveda
a. Oldest Veda composed 3,500 years ago
b. Includes hyms (composed by Sages-Rishis) called ‘sukta’ or ‘well-said’
c. Hyms- praise the Gods and Godesses. 3 main Goddess: Agni (God of Fire), Indra (Warrior God), Soma (a
plant from which special drink was prepared)
d. Priests taught the words carefully.
e. Most of the hym compsed by men.
f. It is an old or vedic Sanskrit
g. Recited and heard rather than read.
h. Hyms also in form of dialogues. Example: sage (Vishvamitra) has written about 2 rivers (Beas & Sutlej)
i. Many prayers in Rigveda included for cattle, sons, horses.
j. Words used to describe people in terms of their work.
k. 2 groups: Brahmin (Priests)- performed rituals and Rajas- did not have capital cities or palaces or armies.
 l. People: 2 words used to describe people - Jana and Vish (word Vaishya comes from Vish)
m. People who composed hyms described themselves as Aryas and the opponents as: Dasas or dasyus (did
not perform sacrifices & spoke different languages.)
n. In Rigvedic period, people were buried with distinctive pots called Black Ware & Red Ware.

2. Samveda
a. Collection of melodies & chants called “Book of songs”. “Veda of Chants”, “Yoga of Song”
b. It is sung not recited or read
c. Basically, words of Rigveda put to music
d. Consists of 1900 verses
e. Sam: song; Veda: Knowledge
3. Yajurveda
a. Describes the way in which religious rituals and sacred ceremonies should be performed.
b. Yajus: worship; Veda: knowledge.
c. Main Vedic text for the Indian priests.
d. Divided into 2 parts
White “Yajur Veda” (Shukla) Black “Yajur Veda” (Krsna)
Deals with prayers and specific instructions Deals with instructions for sacrificial rituals
devotional sacrifices

e. Several translations of parts include formulas, explanations of prose mantras, insights into sacrificial rites.
4. Atharva Veda
a. Completely different from other 3 Vedas
b. Known as Book of spell.
c. Collection of 20 books Consisting of spells & charms prevalent at its time & portrays a clearer picture of
Vedic society.
d. Involves issues such as: Healing of illness, black magic, rituals for removing anxiety
e. Unlike other three, this Veda is not as concerned with scared rituals but addresses the daily problems of
Vedic people.
CHAPTER 6: KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC

1. Earlier “jana” chose Raja

2. Later, (3000 years ago)- men performing big sacrifices – “Raja” of “janapadas”
3. Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice
4. Varna system:
Brahmin: study & teach Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts
Kshatriyas: Fight battles and protect people. Can perform sacrifices.
Vaishyas: farmers, herders and traders. Can perform sacrifices.
Shudras: serve the other 3
5. Women and Shudras were not allowed to study Vedas.
Janapadas
1. Land where Jana set its foot and settled down
2. People lived in huts and kept cattle and other animals
3. Crops: wheat, barley, sugarcane, sesame, and mustard
4. Made earthen pots (Red & Grey colours)
5. Special pottery found in Janapadas: “Painted Grey Ware”
Mahajanapadas
1. About 2500 years ago some Janapadas became more important than others they were called as this.
2. Had a capital city
3. Fortified: Huge walls built around them which depicted protection and comparison (Rich and powerful)
4. Purana Qila was a settlement in a Janapada now in Delhi.
Taxes
As Kings were building forts and armies they needed more resources.
Instead of depending on gifts the rajas collected taxes.
Taxes on:
1. Crops: most farmers fixed 1/6th of produce called “Bhaga” or “share”
2. Craftsperson: in the form of labour. Example: weaver or smith had to work or a day every month for the king.
3. Herders: taxes levied on dependent on the animals and their produce.
4. Goods brought and sold through trade
5. Hunters and gatherers: forest produce given to Raja.
Changes in agriculture
2 major changes
1. Increase in use of ploughshares
2. Transplanting paddy
Consequences:
1. Increased production
2. Back breaking work
3. Slave men and women did this (commonly known as Dasas & Dasis)
4. Landless agricultural labourers called as “Kammakara”
Kingdoms
1. MAGADHA
a. Most important Mahajanapada.
b. Capital: Rajgriha (Rajgir) in Bihar---shifted to---Pataliputra (Patna)
c. River: Ganga and Son
d. Important for transport, water supplies, fertile land
e. Forested areas (Flourished areas)
f. Plenty of resources
g. Elephants captured and trained for army
h. Forests used for building houses
i. Rulers: BIMBISARA & AJATSATTU
j. The most powerful ruler: MAHA PADMA NANDA
k. Language spoken: Prakrit known as “Magadhi”

2. VAJJI
a. Vajji was a Sangh
b. Capital: Vaishali (Bihar)
c. Different government form: Gana (group) or Sangha (organisation)
d. Had many rulers each known as Rajas
e. Rituals were performed together
f. Women, dasas etc. did not participate in assemblies
g. Buddha & Mahavir belonged to this Sangha
h. “Digha Nakaya” is Buddhist book which contains speeches of Buddha written 2300 years ago.

3. JAINISM
a. Jaina comes from Jina (meaning conqueror)
b. Book: Vinaya Pataka contains rules for Buddhist Sangha
c. Sangha: Association of those who left their houses.
Men who joined the Sangha were called as “Bhikkus”
Women who joined the Sangha were called as “Bhikkunis”
d. Viharas: permanent shelters of the monks.

System of Ashramas
 1. Developed by Brahmins
2. 4 Ashrams:
Brahmacharya: simple life & study Vedas
Grihasthashram: householders
Vanaprasthashram: live in forest and meditate
Sanyasa: give up everything and become sanyasi
Alexander
1. 2300 years ago, a ruler who lived in Macedonia in Europe wanted to become a world conqueror.
2. He didn’t conquer all but Egypt and West Asia
3. His soldiers refused to march forward in the Indian subcontinent reaching up to the banks of River Beas
4. They refused because they had heard that the rulers in India had vast armies, chariots, foot soldiers and ele-
phants.
Athens
1. 2500 years ago, Athens set up a form of government: Democracy which lasted for 200 years.
2. All free men over 30 years of age were considered “full citizens”
3. All citizens could attend meetings of assembly.
4. Assembly meetings were held 40 times
5. Appointment for position was done through lottery
6. Women were not considered as citizens
7. Foreigners had no rights as citizens

CHAPTER 7: NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS

Ujjain: Madhya Pradesh

Vaishali: Bihar
Hastinapur: Uttar Pradesh
Panini
1. Grammarian who prepared grammar for Sanskrit.
2. Arranged vowels and consonants in special order and then used these to create formulae like in Algebra
3. Around 3000 formulas prepared
Upanishad Thinkers
1. Perspective: something permanent in the universe that would last even after death.
2. Believed “atman” & “Brahma” were ultimately one
3. Upanishad: literally meaning “approaching and sitting near” (conversation between teacher & students)
4. Famous Upanishad (female) thinker: “Gargi”
“Avesta” Book
1. Contains teachings of Iranian prophet: Zoroaster
2. This book is similar to Vedas
3. Zoroaster migrated from Iran & settled down in India were the ancestors of today’s Parsis.
4. Basic teachings: good thoughts, good words, good deeds
5. For more than 1000 years, Zoroastrians was a major religion in Iran.
6. Later migrated to coastal towns of Gujarat & Maharashtra.
 CHAPTER 8: ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO GAVE UP WAR
Mauryan empire
1. 2300 years ago, Mauryan empire was the largest empire
2. Cities of the empire: Pataliputra (capital), Taxila, Ujjain
3. Founded by: Chandragupta Maurya
4. Chandragupta’s Associate: Chanakya or Kautilya
5. Chanakya’s Book: Arthashastra
In Arthashastra, North-west was regarded important for Blankets
South India- Gold & precious stones
Some resources collected as “Tribute”
Spinning and weaving was done by: Widows & young women
6. Ruling: Pataliputra (direct control of emperor)
Officials were appointed to collect tax
Messengers & spies to keep a watch
Other areas Taxila, Ujjain were ruled from a provincial capital
Difference between Empires and Kingdoms
1. Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected
by big armies.
2. So, they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes.
Chandragupta period (reign)
1. Single & efficient system of financial administration & security
2. Covered East to West regions.
3. Defeated Macedonian Rulers
4. Encouraged agriculture & trade
Emperor Ashoka
1. He was a Famous Mauryan ruler
2. First one to give messages on Inscriptions (Prakrit)
3. Written in Brahmi script.
4. Medical arrangements, roads, houses
Kalinga War (present day Orissa coast)
1. Kalinga War occurred 8 years after Ashoka became ruler/king.
2. War was declared by Ashoka to conquer Kalinga
3. However, Ashoka was horrified to see violence and bloodshed in the war
4. Thus, decided to give up war
5. Ashoka was the only king to give up conquest after winning the war.
6. Ashoka adopted ‘Dhamma’
7. Dhamma mahatma: people who teach about “dhamma”
8. Capital of Ashoka: Sarnath
Background
1. Nanda Dynasty King: Dhana Nanda ; Location: Magadha
2. Chanakya was not accepted/dismissed by Nanda King
3. Chandragupta defeated Nanda King with help of Porus, Nepalese etc.
4. Foundation of Mauryan Empire.
5. Defeated Alexander in the West i.e Macedonians
6. Chanakya went with Chandragupta as advisor
7. Captured East, West & Central India
8. Mauryan Empire- Largest empire
 9. Last king: Brihadratha (killed by his general Pushyamitra Shunga) who was a Brahmin
10. Later, established Shunga Empire
11. After that, Mauryan Empire (collapsed 2200 years ago)
12. North-west------INDO-GREEK RULERS (100 years)

SHAKAS (defeated by GUPTA King)

KUSHANAS (issued gold coins and controlled the silk route)

13. North------General Pushyamitra Shunga

SHUNGA DYNASTY

KANVAS

14. West & Central------SHAKAS (battle) SATAVANAHAS

(after)
VATAKAS

15. South----(Between 2200-1800 years ago) CHOLAS, CHERAS, PANDYAS

Head of the 3: Muvendar (Tamil word)

Port: Kaveripattinam (Puhar)
Two centres of power: inland & outland

South----(Between 1500 years ago) PALLAVAS & CHALUKYAS

16. In all the period, developments were taking place simultaneously.
Example: agriculture, new towns, craft production, new land routes by traders to West-Asia, East Africa &
South-East Asia opened up.

CHAPTER 9: VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS

1. Agriculture started developing
2. Irrigation facilities such as tanks, wells, canals, artificial lakes etc. developed
3. Kings gave money for irrigation work.
People in Villages
SOUTH, Tamil Region:
Large landowner- Vellalar
Ordinary ploughmen- Uzhavar
Landless labourers/slaves- Kadaisiyar and adimai
Tamil Compositions- Sangam
NORTH
1. Village headman: Grama Bhojaka
(Largest landowners, had slaves & hired workers for cultivation, functioned as police, judge)

2. Independent farmers: Grihapatis

(Smaller landowners)

3. Landless Agricultural labourers: Karmakara Dasa

Associations of craft persons and merchants: Shrenis
(Served as banks and organised trade)

CHAPTER 10: TRADERS, KINGS & PILGRIMS

1. Pepper- called “Black Gold” by Roman Empire.

2. Carried goods in caravans by sea route.

Silk Route
1. First invention of technique to make silk- China (7000 years ago)
2. People of China travelled to distant lands on foot, horses etc. & carried silk with them. Therefore, path was
called “Silk Route”.
3. Ruler who controlled silk route: Kushanas
Spread of Buddhism
1. The Kushana Ruler “Kanishka” organised Buddhist Council
2. Ashvoghosha: poet who composed biography of Buddha in Sanskrit.
3. New forms of Buddhism were known as: Mahayana Buddhism
4. Old forms of Buddhism known as: Thuravada Buddhism.
5. Earlier Buddha’s presence was depicted by certain signs.
6. Now, Buddha’s presence was made in Mathura.
7. Worship of Bodhisatva (China, Nepal, Prosperous villages)
8. Spread to south-east in Sri Lanka & Myanmar and in west as well as southern regions of Asia.
9. Faxian: Pilgrim from China who was a Buddhist follower
10. Xuan Zan: Buddhist Pilgrim who translated Sanskrit manuscripts into Chinese.
11. Nalanda: Unique centre of Buddhist learning.

CHAPTER 11: NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS

Beginning of Bhakti
1. Worship of deities such as Shiva, Vishnu, Durga.
2. Worshipped through Bhakti
3. Idea of Bhakti- present in “Bhagwad Gita”
GUPTA DYNASTY
1. First ruler: Chandragupta. Later, used by Samudragupta (50 years reign) to adopt the title ‘maharaj adiraj’
2. Defeated “Shakas” in west
3. Court of learned people
4. Kalidasa-poet
5. Aryabhatta- Astronomer
PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY
1. Ruler: Harshavardhan (North to Central India)
2. Location: Thanesar (present day Haryana)
3. Harshavardhan became King after his father & elder brother died.
4. Court poet ‘Banabhatta’ wrote Harshavardhan’ biography in Sanskrit
5. Brother-in-law (Ruler of Kanauj) killed by Bengal Ruler.
6. Harsha took over Kanauj & fought against Bengal
7. Successful in invading East i.e Magadh & Bengal
8. Could not cross Narmada into the ocean.
9. Stopped by a ruler belonging to Chalukya: Pulakehin II
Pallavas, Chalukyas (South)

Pallavas Chalukyas
Capital: Kanchipuram Capital: Aihole
(Important trading centre, later developed as religious
centre)
Location: Kanchipuram to Kaveri Delta Location: Raichur Doab between Krishna & Tun-
gabhadra

Frequently raided one another’s land especially capital cities

Short-lived victories Best Ruler: Pulakeshin II

Short-lived victories

Both gave way to new dynasties

Rashtrakuta Chola
Kalidas: poet/plays
Famous play: Abhinanjana Shakuntala (love between Dushyanta king & young women)
CHAPTER 12: BUILDINGS, PAINTINGS, BOOKS
Iron pillar: Location: Mehrauli; Composition: Iron, 7.2m (high) 3 tonnes (weight)
Hindu temples
1. Vishnu, Shiva, Durga worshipped in the shrines
2. Important part- room known as “garbhagriha”-image of the chief deity placed.
3. Shikhar(tower) was built to make it as a sacred place
4. “Mandapa”- hall for assembly
5. Fine stone temples: Mahabalipuram and Aihole
6. Example: Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh (association of ivory workers)
7. Devotees came to visit the temples brought gifts-used to decorate buildings
8. Kings spent a lot of treasure to make beautiful structures.
Ajanta Paintings
1. Done in the light of torches
2. Colours vivid made of plants and minerals
Books
1. Tamil Epic: “Silappadikaram”
Composer: Ilango
Period: 1800 years ago
Story: Merchant named Kovalam had a wife named Kannagi and a lover named Madhavi (Courtesan)
Both husband-wife left for Puhar & went to Madurai. Here, he was accused of theft by Pandya king & sen-
tenced to death. Kannagi got angry with this injustice and destroyed entire city of Madurai.
2. Tamil Epic: “Manimekalai”
Composer: Sattanar
Story: About daughter of Kovalan & Madhavi
Puranas: stories about Gods & Goddesses written in Sanskrit.
Heard by everybody including women & Shudras and recited by Priests.
Mahabharat: Battle between Kauravas & Pandavas for Throne of Kurus; Capital- Hastinapur

Ramayan: Prince of Kosala- Ram

CLASS VII

CHAPTER 1: TRACING CHANGES THROUGH A THOUSAND YEARS

New and Old Terminologies

1. The term “Hindustan”, was used in the thirteenth century by Minhaj-i-Siraj, a chronicler who wrote in Per-
sian, he meant the areas of Punjab, Haryana and the lands between the Ganga and Yamuna.
2. He used the term in a political sense for lands that were a part of the dominions of the Delhi Sultan.
3. The areas included in this term shifted with the extent of the Sultanate but the term never included south In-
dia.
4. In the early sixteenth century Babur used Hindustan to describe the geography, the fauna and the culture of
the inhabitants of the subcontinent.
Historians & their sources
1. From roughly 700 to 1750 paper gradually became cheaper and more widely available.
2. People used it to write holy texts, chronicles of rulers, letters and teachings of saints, petitions and judicial re-
cords, and for registers of accounts and taxes.
3. Manuscripts were collected by wealthy people, rulers, monasteries and temples.
4. They were placed in libraries and archives.
5. These manuscripts and documents provide a lot of detailed information to historians but they are also difficult
to use. Miniature paintings were sometimes used to illustrate the texts of manuscripts.
6. Fourteenth-century chronicler Ziyauddin Barani: wrote his chronicle first in 1356 and another version two
years later.
New social and political groups
1. Between 700 and 1750, new technologies made their appearance – like the Persian wheel in irrigation, the
spinning wheel in weaving, and firearms in combat.
2. New foods and beverages arrived in the subcontinent – potatoes, corn, chillies, tea and coffee.
3. Groups of people travelled long distances in search of opportunity.
4. One group of people who became important in this period were the Rajputs, a name derived from “Ra-
japutra”, the son of a ruler.
5. Qualities of Rajput: A chivalric code of conduct – extreme valour and a great sense of loyalty.
6. Changes in their habitat forced many forest-dwellers to migrate.
7. People were grouped into jatis or sub-castes and ranked on the basis of their backgrounds and their occupa-
tions.
Jatis

1. Jatis framed their own rules and regulations to manage the conduct of their members.
2. These regulations were enforced by an assembly of elders, described in some areas as the jati panchayat.
3. But jatis were also required to follow the rules of their villages.
4. Several villages were governed by a chieftain.
5. Together they were only one small unit of a state.

Region and Empire

1. By 700 many regions already possessed distinct geographical dimensions and their own language and cultural
characteristics.
 2. When the Mughal Empire declined in the eighteenth century, it led to the re-emergence of regional states.
3. Across most of the subcontinent the regions were left with the legacies of the big and small states that had
ruled over them.
Old and new religion
1. Important changes occurred in Hinduism. These included the worship of new deities, the construction of
temples by royalty and the growing importance of Brahmanas, the priests, as dominant groups in society.
2. Many rulers were patrons of Islam and the ulama – learned theologians and jurists.
3. Islam was interpreted in a variety of ways by its followers.
Time and Historical periods
1. Middle of the nineteenth century British historians divided the history of India into three periods: “Hindu”,
“Muslim” and “British”.
2. This division was based on the idea that the religion of rulers was the only important historical change, and
that there were no other significant developments – in the economy, society or culture.
3. Such a division also ignored the rich diversity of the subcontinent.

CHAPTER 2: NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS

Emergence of New Dynasties

1. By 7th century kings often acknowledged big landlords or warrior chiefs as their subordinates or samantas.
2. They were expected to bring gifts for their kings or overlords, be present at their courts and provide them
with military support.
3. As samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara
(the great lord of a “circle” or region) and so on.
4. Example: Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. (Cave 15, Ellora showing Vishnu as Narasimha, the man-lion. It is a
work of the Rashtrakuta period.)
5. Initially Rashtrakuta were subordinate to the Chalukyas.
6. Rashtrakuta chief: Dandidurga- overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual called hiranya-
garbha (literally, the golden womb). Which represented “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he
was not one by birth.
7. Military skills to carve out kingdoms:
Example: Kadamba Mayurasharman and the GurjaraPratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who gave up
their traditional professions and took to arms, successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan
respectively.
Administration in the Kingdoms
1. Maharaja-adhiraja: great king, overlord of kings
2. Tribhuvana-chakravartin: Lord of the three worlds.
3. Resources were obtained from the producers – that is, peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans.
4. Revenue was collected from traders.
5. Inscriptions of the Cholas: 400 terms for different kinds of taxes.
6. Example of tax: Vetti: most frequently mentioned tax taken in the form of forced labour, and kadamai, or
land revenue.
7. Taxes on: thatching the house, the use of a ladder to climb palm trees, a cess on succession to family prop-
erty, etc.
Prashastis and Land Grants
1. Prashastis: contain details that may not be literally true.
Example: They tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves – as valiant, victorious warriors.
Composed by: learned Brahmanas who helped in administration.
Found in: Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, describes the exploits of Nagabhata, a Pratihara king.
 2. Kings- rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land- recorded on copper plates, which were given to those who re-
ceived the land.
Kalhana: 12th century author, composed a long Sanskrit poem containing the history of kings who ruled over Kash-
mir. He used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts and earlier histories, to
write his account. Critical about rulers and their policies.
Tripartite struggle
Conflict between Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties for control over Kanauj (situated in Ganga valley)

Wealth
1. Rulers also tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples.
2. When they attacked one another’s kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes ex-
tremely rich.
3. Example: Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan: raided the subcontinent almost every year – his targets
were wealthy temples, including that of Somnath, Gujarat.
Ruled: 997 to 1030, Control: Central Asia, Iran and the north-western part of the subcontinent.
Al-Biruni: appointed scholar by Sultan Mahmud to write an account of the subcontinent.
Book: Kitab ul-Hind

Warfare
1. Kings: Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans (Rule: Delhi and Ajmer).
Prithviraja III (1168-1192): best-known Chahamana ruler who defeated an Afghan ruler named Sultan
Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him the very next year, in 1192.
Temple and Architecture
1. The temple at Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are architectural and sculptural mar-
vels.
2. Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements which grew around them.
3. Temples were not only places of worship; they were the hub of economic, social and cultural life as well.
4. Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world.
Administration of Empire
1. The village council and the nadu performed several administrative functions including dispensing justice and
collecting taxes.
2. The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings),
araiyar (chief).
3. Associations of traders known as nagarams also occasionally performed administrative functions in towns.
4. Example: Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu.
Depict: details of the way in which the sabha was organised
Tang Dynasty
1. Power: 300 years (from the seventh to the tenth centuries)
2. Capital city: Xi’an (largest cities in the world, visited by Turks, Iranians, Indians, Japanese and Koreans.)
3. The Tang empire was administered by a bureaucracy recruited through an examination, which was open to all
who wished to appear for it.

CHAPTER 3: THE DEHI SULTANS

1. Delhi became an important city only in the twelfth century.
2. Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs, who were defeated in the middle of
the twelfth century by the Chauhans (also referred to as Chahamanas) of Ajmer.
3. Delhi became an important commercial centre: under Tomaras and Chauhans)
4. “Dehliwa”: Coins minted.
Findings about Delhi sultans
1. Although inscriptions, coins and architecture provide a lot of information, especially valuable are “histories”,
tarikh (singular)/tawarikh (plural), written in Persian, the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.
2. The authors of tawarikh were learned men and lived in cities (mainly Delhi) and hardly ever in villages.
3. They often wrote their histories for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards.
4. These authors advised rulers on the need to preserve an “ideal” social order based on birthright and gender
distinctions. Their ideas were not shared by everybody.
In, 1236:
1. Raziyya (Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter) became Sultan.
2. Minhaj-i Siraj was not comfortable at having a queen as ruler although she was more able and qualified than
all her brothers.
3. She was removed from the throne in 1240.

garrison towns: A fortified settlement, with soldiers.

Hinterland: The lands adjacent to a city or port that supply it with goods and services.
1. The Sultans seldom controlled the hinterland of the cities and were therefore dependent upon trade, tribute or
plunder for supplies.
2. Controlling garrison towns in distant Bengal and Sind from Delhi was extremely difficult.
3. Delhi’s authority was also challenged by Mongol invasions from Afghanistan and by governors who rebelled
at any sign of the Sultan’s weakness.
Administration and Consolidation under the Khaljis and Tughluqs
1. The consolidation of a kingdom as vast as the Delhi Sultanate needed reliable governors and administrators.
2. The early Delhi Sultans Iltutmish, favoured their special slaves purchased for military service, called band-
agan in Persian.
3. They were carefully trained to man some of the most important political offices in the kingdom.
4. old chieftains and landlords served the Sultanate as revenue collectors and assessors.
5. There were three types of taxes: (1) on cultivation called kharaj and amounting to about 50 per cent of the
peasant’s produce, (2) on cattle and (3) on houses.
In 1219, The Mongols under Genghis Khann, invaded Transoxiana in north-east Iran in 1219

CHAPTER 4: THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

MUGHALS
1. Mughals created an empire and accomplished what had hitherto seemed possible for only short periods of
time.
2. They imposed structures of administration and ideas of governance that outlasted their rule, leaving a political
legacy that succeeding rulers of the subcontinent could not ignore.
3. The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers:
Mother’s side Father’s side

descendants of Genghis Khan (died 1227) (successors of Timur (died 1404)

(Mongol ruler who ruled over parts of China and Central Asia) (ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey)
4. Mughals did not like to be called Mughal or Mongol because Genghis Khan’s memory was associated with
the massacre of innumerable people. It was also linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol competitors.
5. Mughals were proud of their Timurid ancestry, not least of all because their great ancestor had captured Delhi
in 1398.
6. They celebrated their genealogy pictorially, each ruler getting a picture made of Timur and himself.
Mughal Military Campaigns
1. Babur, the first Mughal emperor (1526- 1530), succeeded to the throne of Ferghana in 1494 when he was
only 12 years old.
2. He was forced to leave his ancestral throne due to the invasion of another Mongol group, the Uzbegs
3. After years of wandering he seized Kabul in 1504. In 1526 he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at
Panipat and captured Delhi and Agra.
Mughal emperors and Major Campaigns
BABUR 1526-1530
1526 – defeated Ibrahim Lodi and his Afghan supporters at Panipat.
1527 – defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies at Khanua.
1528 – defeated the Rajputs at Chanderi; Established control over Agra and Delhi before his death.
HUMAYUN 1530-1540, 1555-1556
(1) Humayun divided his inheritance according to the will of his father. His brothers were each given a province. The
ambitions of his brother Mirza Kamran weakened Humayun’s cause against Afghan competitors. Sher Khan defeated
Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540), forcing him to flee to Iran.
(2) In Iran Humayun received help from the Safavid Shah. He recaptured Delhi in 1555 but died the next year after an
accident in this building.
AKBAR 1556-1605
Akbar was 13 years old when he became emperor. His reign can be divided into three periods.
(1) 1556-1570 – Akbar became independent of the regent Bairam Khan and other members of his domestic staff.
Military campaigns were launched against the Suris and other Afghans, against the neighbouring kingdoms of Malwa
and Gondwana, and to suppress the revolt of his half-brother Mirza Hakim and the Uzbegs. In 1568 the Sisodiya cap-
ital of Chittor was seized and in 1569 Ranthambhor.
(2) 1570-1585 – military campaigns in Gujarat were followed by campaigns in the east in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
These campaigns were complicated by the 1579-1580 revolt in support of Mirza Hakim.
(3) 1585-1605 – expansion of Akbar’s empire. Campaigns were launched in the north-west. Qandahar was seized
from the Safavids, Kashmir was annexed, as also Kabul, after the death of Mirza Hakim. Campaigns in the Deccan
started and Berar, Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar were annexed. In the last years of his reign Akbar was distrac-
ted by the rebellion of Prince Salim, the future Emperor Jahangir.
Jahangir 1605-1627
1. Military campaigns started by Akbar continued.
2. The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, accepted Mughal service.
3. Less successful campaigns against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar followed.
4. Prince Khurram, the future Emperor Shah Jahan, rebelled in the last years of his reign.
5. The efforts of Nur Jahan, Jahangir’s wife, to marginalise him were unsuccessful.
Shah Jahan 1627-1658
1. Mughal campaigns continued in the Deccan under Shah Jahan.
2. The Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodi rebelled and was defeated. Campaigns were launched against Ahmad-
nagar; the Bundelas were defeated and Orchha seized.
3. In the north-west, the campaign to seize Balkh from the Uzbegs was unsuccessful and Qandahar was lost to
the Safavids.
4. In 1632 Ahmadnagar was finally annexed and the Bijapur forces sued for peace.
5. In 1657-1658, there was conflict over succession amongst Shah Jahan’s sons. Aurangzeb was victorious and
his three brothers, including Dara Shukoh, were killed. Shah Jahan was imprisoned for the rest of his life in
Agra.
Aurangzeb 1658-1707
(1) In the north-east, the Ahoms were defeated in 1663, but rebelled again in the 1680s. Campaigns in the north-west
against the Yusufzai and the Sikhs were temporarily successful. Mughal intervention in the succession and internal
politics of the Rathor Rajputs of Marwar led to their rebellion. Campaigns against the Maratha chieftain Shivaji were
initially successful. But Aurangzeb insulted Shivaji who escaped from Agra, declared himself an independent king
and resumed his campaigns against the Mughals. Prince Akbar rebelled against Aurangzeb and received support from
the Marathas and the Deccan Sultanate. He finally fled to Safavid Iran.
(2) After Akbar’s rebellion Aurangzeb sent armies against the Deccan Sultanates. Bijapur was annexed in 1685 and
Golconda in 1687. From 1698 Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathas who
started guerrilla warfare. Aurangzeb also had to face the rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis, in the
north-east of the Ahoms and in the Deccan of the Marathas. His death was followed by a succession conflict amongst
his sons.
Mughal Tradition of Succession
1. The Mughals did not believe in the rule of primogeniture, where the eldest son inherited his father’s estate.
 2. Instead, they followed the Mughal and Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance, or a division of the inher-
itance amongst all the sons.
Mughal Relations with Other Rulers
1. As the Mughals became powerful many other rulers also joined them voluntarily.
2. Many of the Rajputs married their daughters into Mughal families and received high positions.
3. Example: The mother of Jahangir was a Kachhwaha princess, daughter of the Rajput ruler of Amber (mod-
ernday Jaipur).
The mother of Shah Jahan was a Rathor princess, daughter of the Rajput ruler of Marwar (Jodhpur).
Mansabdars and Jagirdars
1. Mughals recruited diverse bodies of people which include Iranians, Indian Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs,
Marathas and other groups. Those who joined Mughal service were enrolled as mansabdars.
2. Mansabdars: an individual who holds a mansab, meaning a position or rank. It was a grading system used by
the Mughals to fix a rank (determined by a numerical value called zat), b. salary and c. military responsibilit-
ies.
Responsibility: maintain a specified number of sawar or cavalrymen.
Salaries: revenue assignments called jagirs which were somewhat like iqtas.
3. The higher the zat, the more prestigious was the noble’s position in court and the larger his salary.
4. In Akbar’s reign these jagirs were carefully assessed so that their revenues were roughly equal to the salary of
the mansabdar.
5. There was also a huge increase in the number of mansabdars, which meant a long wait before they received a
jagir. As a result, many jagirdars tried to extract as much revenue as possible while they had a jagir.
6. Thus, peasantry suffered tremendously.
Zabt and Zamindars
1. Main source of income: tax on the produce of the peasantry
2. Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mal, carried out a careful survey of crop yields, prices and areas cultivated
for a 10-year period, 1570- 1580.
3. Zabt: Revenue system in which Tax was fixed on each crop in cash. Each province was divided into revenue
circles with its own schedule of revenue rates for individual crops.
Akbar’s policies
1. Abul Fazl: Book “Akbar Nama”
Included: Features of administration
Abul Fazl explained that the empire was divided into provinces called subas, governed by a subadar who car-
ried out both political and military functions.
For the maintenance of peace and order in his province, the subadar was supported by other officers such as
the military paymaster (bakhshi), the minister in charge of religious and charitable patronage (sadr), military
commanders (faujdars) and the town police commander (kotwal).

CHAPTER 5: RULERS AND BUILDINGS

QUTUB MINAR
Built by: Qutbuddin Aybak (1199).
Features: 1. pattern created under the balcony by the small arches and geometrical designs.
2. inscriptions under the balcony in Arabic.

Structures between 8th and eighteenth centuries

1. forts, palaces, garden residences and tombs – safe, protected and grandiose places of rest in this world.
2. structures meant for public activity including temples, mosques, tanks, wells, caravanserais and bazaars.

Engineering Skills and construction

1. Between the 7th and 10th centuries: architects started adding more rooms, doors and windows to buildings
 2. Roofs, doors and windows were still made by placing a horizontal beam across two vertical columns, a style
of architecture called “trabeate” or “corbelled”
3. Between the 8th and 13th centuries: the trabeate style was used in the construction of temples, mosques, tombs
and in buildings attached to large stepped-wells (baolis).
11th century Temple construction
Kandariya Mahadeva temple
Dedicated to Shiva was constructed in 999 by the king Dhangadeva (Chandela dynasty)
Features:
1. An ornamented gateway led to an entrance, and the main hall (mahamandapa) where dances were performed.
2. The image of the chief deity was kept in the main shrine (garbhagriha). This was the place for ritual worship
where only the king, his immediate family and priests gathered.
3. The Khajuraho complex contained royal temples where commoners were not allowed entry.
4. The temples were decorated with elaborately carved sculptures.
The Rajarajeshvara temple (Thanjavur)
Features:
1. Tallest shikhara amongst temples of its time.
2. 90 tonne stone for the top of the shikhara.
3. Architects built an inclined path to the top of the temple, placed the boulder on rollers and rolled it all the way
to the top.
4. The path started more than 4 km away so that it would not be too steep.
5. This was dismantled after the temple was constructed. But the residents of the area remembered the experi-
ence of the construction of the temple for a long time.
6. Even now a village near the temple is called Charupallam, the “Village of the Incline”.
Technological and stylistic developments
1. The weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was sometimes carried by arches. This archi-
tectural form was called “arcuate”. Example: Alai Darwaza (early fourteenth century). Quwwat alIslam
mosque, Delhi.
2. Limestone cement was increasingly used in construction. This was very high-quality cement, which, when
mixed with stone chips hardened into concrete. This made construction of large structures easier and faster.
Building Temples, Mosques and Tanks
1. Temples Depicted: power, wealth and devotion of the patron. Example: Rajarajeshvara temple. (An inscrip-
tion mentions that it was built by King Rajarajadeva for the worship of his god, Rajarajeshvaram.)
2. Temples were targeted because kings built temples to demonstrate their devotion to God and their power and
wealth, it is not surprising that when they attacked one another’s kingdoms they often targeted these build-
ings.
3. Temples: hub of cultural activities
4. Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of god but Persian court chronicles described
the Sultan as the “Shadow of God”.
5. An inscription in the Quwwat al-Islam mosque explained that God chose Alauddin as a king because he had
the qualities of Moses and Solomon, the great lawgivers of the past.
6. Sultan Iltutmish won universal respect for constructing a large reservoir just outside Dehli-i-Kuhna. It was
called the Hauz-i-Sultani or the “King’s Reservoir”
Gardens, Tombs and Forts
1. Babur had interest in planning and laying out formal gardens, placed within rectangular walled enclosures
and divided into four quarters by artificial channels. gardens were called chahar bagh, (four gardens).
2. Humayun’s tomb(constructed between 1562 and 1571) was placed in the centre of a huge formal chahar bagh
and built in the tradition known as “eight paradises” or hasht bihisht – a central hall surrounded by eight
rooms.
3. Shah Jahan’s capital: Agra; adapted the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal; Only specially fa-
voured nobles – like his eldest son Dara Shukoh – were given access to the river.
Region and Empire
1. The traditions of one region were adopted by another
Example: Vijayanagara (the elephant stables of the rulers were strongly influenced by the style of architecture
found in the adjoining Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda); Vrindavan (temples were constructed in architec-
tural styles that were very similar to the Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri.)
2. Adapting regional architectural styles in the construction of their own buildings.
Example: Bengal (the local rulers had developed a roof that was designed to resemble a thatched hut.)
Gothic architecture
1. Twelfth century onwards, taller and lighter buildings.
2. Gothic: high pointed arches, the use of stained glass, often painted with scenes drawn from the Bible, and fly-
ing buttresses. Tall spires and bell towers which were visible from a distance.
3. Example of Gothic architecture: Church of Notre Dame in Paris. (12th and 13th century)

CHAPTER 6: TOWNS, TRADERS AND CRAFTSPERSONS

Administrative Centres
Thanjavur: capital of the Cholas
Perennial river Kaveri flows near this beautiful town.
Rajarajeshvara temple: built by King Rajaraja Chola has a massive Shiva linga.

Temple towns
Represent a very important pattern of urbanisation, the process by which cities develop.
Example: Thanjavur, Kanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu, Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.
Pilgrimage centres slowly developed into townships.
Example: Vrindavan (Uttar Pradesh) and Tiruvannamalai (Tamil Nadu)

Religious co-existence
Example: Ajmer (Rajasthan) was the capital of the Chauhan kings in the twelfth century and later became the suba
headquarters under the Mughals.

Network of small towns

Mandapika: Market where nearby villagers brought their produce to sell

Traders
1. Manigramam and Nanadesi: traded extensively both within the peninsula and with Southeast Asia and China.
2. Chettiars and the Marwari Oswal: principal trading groups of the country.
3. Gujarati traders, Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras: traded extensively with the ports of the Red Sea, Persian
Gulf, East Africa, Southeast Asia and China.
Sold textiles and spices in these ports and, in exchange, brought gold and ivory from Africa; and spices, tin,
Chinese blue pottery and silver from Southeast Asia and China.
4. Kabul (present-day Afghanistan): politically and commercially important from the sixteenth century onwards.
Kabul and Qandahar were linked to the celebrated Silk Route.
5. Horse Traders: Jean Baptiste Tavernier (diamond merchant)
horse trade at Kabul amounted to Rs 30,000 annually.
Hampi Achitecture
Location: Krishna-Tungabhadra basin
Founded: 1336
Features:
1. well-fortified city
2. No mortar or cementing agent used in the construction of these walls and the technique followed was to
wedge them together by interlocking.
3. Splendid arches, domes and pillared halls with niches for holding sculptures
4. Well-planned orchards and pleasure gardens with sculptural motifs such as the lotus and corbels
 5. Commercial and cultural activities on a large scale.
6. Mahanavami festival, known today as Navaratri in the south, was one of the most important festivals celeb-
rated at Hampi.
7. Fell into ruin- after the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans – the rulers of Golconda, Bi-
japur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Bidar.
Surat
1. Emporium of western trade
2. Gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz.
3. Called the gate to Mecca because many pilgrim ships set sail from here.
4. Cosmopolitan city
5. Factories and warehouses: Portuguese, Dutch and English.
6. Textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders (zari) and had a market in West Asia, Africa and
Europe.
7. Surat hundis were honoured in the far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraq and Antwerp in Belgium.
Masulipatnam/ Machlipatnam (fish port town)
1. Location: delta of the Krishna river
2. Most important port on the Andhra coast: Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control Ma-
sulipatnam.
3. Fort at Masulipatnam was built by the Dutch.

CHAPTER 7: TRIBES, NOMADS, AND SETTLED COMMUNITIES

Tribal societies
Tribes: Societies in the subcontinent who did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas.
Retained their freedom and preserved their separate culture.
Tribal people did not keep written records.
Some powerful tribes controlled large territories.
Example: 1. Khokhar tribe (in Punjab) 2. The Gakkhars 3. The Balochis (north-west.) 4. the Nagas, Ahoms
(North-east) 5. Gaddis (shepherd tribe in Himalayas. )
Maharashtra highlands and Karnataka: Home to Kolis, Berads
Western and Central India: Bhils
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh: The Gonds

Nomadic pastoralists: moved over long distances with their animals.

lived on milk and other pastoral products
exchanged wool, ghee with settled agriculturists for grain, cloth, utensils and other products.

The Banjaras: most important tradernomads.

Their caravan was called tanda.
Sultan Alauddin Khalji used the Banjaras to transport grain to the city markets.
Emperor Jahangir wrote in his memoirs that the Banjaras carried grain on their bullocks from different areas and sold
it in towns.

The Gonds
1. lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana – or “country inhabited by Gonds”
2. practised shifting cultivation.
3. Gond tribe: divided into many smaller clans (Each clan had its own raja or rai)
4. Example: Akbar Nama, a history of Akbar’s reign, mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga that had
70,000 villages
5. The kingdom was divided into garhs. (Each garh was controlled by a particular Gond clan)
6. Garh divided into units of 84 villages called chaurasi.
7. Chaurasi was subdivided into barhots which were made up of 12 villages each.
8. Garha Katanga: rich state earned much wealth by trapping and exporting wild elephants to other kingdoms.

The Ahoms
 1.migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar in the thirteenth century.
2.The Ahom state depended upon forced labour. Those forced to work for the state were called paiks
3.Ahom society was divided into clans or khels.
4.Khel: controlled several village
5.Seventeenth century: influence of Brahmanas increased-- But the Ahom kings did not completely give up
their traditional beliefs after adopting Hinduism.
6. Ahom society was very sophisticated.
7. Poets and scholars were given land grants. Theatre was encouraged.
8. Important works of Sanskrit were translated into the local language.
9. Historical works, known as buranjis, were also written – first in the Ahom language and then in Assamese.
The Mongols
1. Best-known pastoral and huntergatherer tribe in history.
2. Inhabited the grasslands (steppes) of Central Asia and the forested areas further north

CHAPTER 8: DEVOTIONAL PATHS TO THE DIVINE

1. in the early centuries of the Common Era, Shiva, Vishnu and Durga as supreme deities came to be wor-
shipped through elaborate rituals.
2. In the process, local myths and legends became a part of the Puranic stories, and methods of worship recom-
mended in the Puranas were introduced into the local cults.
3. The idea of bhakti became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas adopted these beliefs.
Nayanars and Alvars
Nayanars: 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different caste backgrounds such as potters, “untouchable” workers, peas-
ants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and chiefs. Songs compilation: Tevaram and Tiruvacakam.
Alvars: 12 Alvars, who came from equally divergent backgrounds, the best known being Periyalvar, his daughter An-
dal, Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar. Song compilation: Divya Prabandham.
1. Considered “untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars.
2. Sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salva-
tion.
3. Ideals of love and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the earliest example of Tamil literature, com-
posed during the early centuries of the Common Era) and blended them with the values of bhakti.
4. Went from place-to-place composing exquisite poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages they
visited, and set them to music.
Philosophers and Bhakti
1. Shankara (born in Kerala): doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the
Ultimate Reality.
Teachings: a. Brahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formless and without any attributes.
b. considered the world around us to be an illusion or maya, and preached renunciation of the world and ad-
option of the path of knowledge to understand the true nature of Brahman and attain salvation.
2. Ramanuja (born in Tamil Nadu): deeply influenced by the Alvars.
Teachings: a. the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.
b. propounded the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul even when united with the Su-
preme God remained distinct. Ramanuja’s doctrine greatly inspired the new strand of bhakti which developed in north
India subsequently.
Basavanna’s Virashaivism
1. The Virashaivas argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about
caste and the treatment of women.
2. They were also against all forms of ritual and idol worship.
Saints of Maharashtra
 1. Dnyaneshwar (Gyaneshwar), Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well as women like Sakhubai and the family
of Chokhamela, belonged to the “untouchable” Mahar caste.
2. Bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur, as well as on the notion of a per-
sonal god residing in the hearts of all people.
Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis
1. Criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order, using simple, logical argu-
ments.
2. Advocated: the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realisation of one-
ness with it. To achieve this they advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like yo-
gasanas, breathing exercises and meditation.
Islam and Sufism
1. Sufis: Muslim mystics
They rejected outward religiosity and emphasised love and devotion to God and compassion towards all fel-
low human beings.
Rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
Examples: Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi
2. Islam: propagated strict monotheism or submission to one God.
Developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting of a name or sacred formula), contemplation,
sama (singing), raqs (dancing), discussion of parables, breath control, etc. under the guidance of a master or
pir.
CHAPTER 9: THE MAKING OF REGIONAL CULTURES

The Cheras
1. The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the ninth century in the south-western part of the
peninsula, part of present-day Kerala.
2. The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions.
The Jagannatha Cult
1. Regional cultures grew around religious traditions.
2. Example: cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa.
3. The local tribal people make the wooden image of the deity, which suggests that the deity was originally a
local god, who was later identified with Vishnu.
The Rajputs
1. The region that constitutes most of present-day Rajasthan, was called Rajputana by the British.
2. Rajputs are often recognised as contributing to the distinctive culture of Rajasthan.
Kathak
1. The term kathak is derived from katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for story
2. The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who embellished their perform-
ances with gestures and songs.
3. The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which combined folk dance with
the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.
4. Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court, where it acquired its
present features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style.
5. Subsequently, it developed in two traditions or gharanas: one in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and the other
in Lucknow.
Pirs and Temples
Pirs: community leaders, who also functioned as teachers and adjudicators and were sometimes ascribed with super-
natural powers.
Temples: The temples began to copy the double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of the thatched
huts.
Fish as Food
1. Fishing has always been an important occupation and Bengali literature contains several references to fish.
2. Brahmanas were not allowed to eat nonvegetarian food, but the popularity of fish in the local diet made the
Brahmanical authorities relax this prohibition for the Bengal Brahmanas.
3. The Brihaddharma Purana, a thirteenth-century Sanskrit text from Bengal, permitted the local Brahmanas to
eat certain varieties of fish.

CHAPTER 10: EIGHTEEN-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS

Emergence of New States

1. Through the eighteenth century, the Mughal Empire gradually fragmented into a number of independent, re-
gional states.
2. Broadly speaking the states of the eighteenth century can be divided into three overlapping groups:
(1) States that were old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad. Although extremely powerful
and quite independent, the rulers of these states did not break their formal ties with the Mughal emperor. (2)
States that had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughals as watan jagirs. These included several
Rajput principalities.
(3) The last group included states under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like the Jats.
The Old Mughal Provinces
1. Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad were founded by members of the high Mughal nobility who had been gov-
ernors of large provinces – Sa‘adat Khan (Awadh), Murshid Quli Khan (Bengal) and Asaf Jah (Hyderabad).
2. All three had occupied high mansabdari positions and enjoyed the trust and confidence of the emperors.
Hyderabad
1. Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, the founder of Hyderabad state (1724-1748), was one of the most powerful mem-
bers at the court of the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar.
2. The state of Hyderabad was constantly engaged in a struggle against the Marathas to the west and with inde-
pendent Telugu warrior chiefs (nayakas) of the plateau.
3. The ambitions of the Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah to control the rich textile-producing areas of the Coromandel
coast in the east were checked by the British who were becoming increasingly powerful in that region
Awadh
1. Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa‘adat Khan was appointed subadar of Awadh in 1722 and founded a state which was one
of the most important to emerge out of the break-up of the Mughal Empire
2. Awadh was a prosperous region, controlling the rich alluvial Ganga plain and the main trade route between
north India and Bengal. Burhan-ul-Mulk also held the combined offices of subadari, diwani and faujdari.
Bengal
1. Bengal gradually broke away from Mughal control under Murshid Quli Khan who was appointed as the naib,
deputy to the governor of the province.
2. Mughal nobles they were highly suspicious of some of the administrative systems that they had inherited, in
particular the jagirdari system.
The Sikhs
1. The organisation of the Sikhs into a political community during the seventeenth century helped in regional
state-building in the Punjab.
2. Several battles were fought by Guru Gobind Singh against the Rajput and Mughal rulers, both before and
after the institution of the Khalsa in 1699.
 3. After his death in 1708, the Khalsa rose in revolt against the Mughal authority under Banda Bahadur’s leader-
ship, declared their sovereign rule by striking coins in the name of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh, and
established their own administration between the Sutlej and the Jamuna.
4. Banda Bahadur was captured in 1715 and executed in 1716.
The Marathas
1. Powerful regional kingdom to arise out of a sustained opposition to Mughal rule.
2. rise out of a sustained opposition to Mughal rule. Shivaji (1627-1680) carved out a stable kingdom with the
support of powerful warrior families (deshmukhs).
3. Groups of highly mobile, peasantpastoralists (kunbis) provided the backbone of the Maratha army.
4. Shivaji used these forces to challenge the Mughals in the peninsula.
5. After Shivaji’s death, effective power in the Maratha state was wielded by a family of Chitpavan Brahmanas
who served Shivaji’s successors as Peshwa (or principal minister).
6. Poona became the capital of the Maratha kingdom.
7. Maratha king was recognised as the overlord of the entire Deccan peninsula.
8. He possessed the right to levy chauth and sardeshmukhi in the entire region.
The Jats
1. The Jats were prosperous agriculturists, and towns like Panipat and Ballabhgarh became important trading
centres in the areas dominated by them.
2. Under Suraj Mal the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a strong state.
3. When Nadir Shah sacked Delhi in 1739, many of the city’s notables took refuge there.
4. His son Jawahir Shah had 30,000 troops of his own and hired another 20,000 Maratha and 15,000 Sikh troops
to fight the Mughals.
French Revolution (1789-1794)
1. The American (1776-1781) and French Revolutions challenged the social and political privileges enjoyed by
the aristocrats.
2. During the French Revolution, the middle classes, peasants and artisans fought against the special rights en-
joyed by the clergy and the nobility.
3. The philosophers of the French Revolution suggested that there be equal laws and opportunities for all.
4. Movements such as the French and American Revolutions gradually transformed subjects into citizens.
5. The ideas of citizenship, nation-state and democratic rights took root in India from the late nineteenth cen-
tury.

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