ANCIENT INDIA

Pre-historic periods in India

According to tools-

 Paleolithic period: 2 million BC- 10,000 BC

 Mesolithic period: 10,000 BC- 8000 BC
 Neolithic period: 8000 BC- 4000 BC
 Chalcolithic period: 4000-1500 BC
 Iron age: 1500 BC- 200 BC
Paleolithic period (old stone age)
This is further divided into three:
1. Lower paleolithic age: up to 100,000 BC
2. Middle paleolithic age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC
3. Upper paleolithic age: 40,000 BC- 10,000 BC
1.Lower Paleolithic age
Life in the lower paleolithic era: -

 Historians divided the history on the basis of times and further followed by the types
of stones or we can say tools used. When humans appeared, they started
undergoing changes with time. At first they used to search and eat whatever was
available be it grass, any fruit or animals etc.
 To gather, dig, hunt and arrange for food they needed some tools. So, they used
whatever they could lay their hand on around them like stones, bark of tress, etc.
The most easiest and abundantly available material was stone.
 Initially stone was used in its raw form and used just by hand directly.
 The shape and emergence of the tool was a result of trial-and-error methodology.
 Bigger stones were reduced to smaller and more portable sizes by smashing them
together. These smashes further produced smaller pieces of rocks or flakes. Flakes
could be used to slice through meat, fruits, vegetables, roots, or wood. At times
limestone was also used and it was easy to use.
 They were mostly hunters and food gatherers so the tools used were hand axes,
choppers and cleavers.
 Earliest lower Paleolithic site found in Bori in Maharashtra.
Major sites of lower Paleolithic age
 Soan valley (in present Pakistan)
 Sites in the Thar desert
 Kashmir
 Mewar plains
 Saurashtra
 Gujarat
  Central India
1. These are habitations sites including caves and rock shelters.
2. These were declared world heritage sites in 2003.
3. An important place is Bhimbetka in M.P.
2.Middle Paleolithic age

Life: -

 As time changed human evolution was taking place so the use and shape of tools
also evolved. Though the material was of stone only the main change that took place
was in the shape of the tool.
 Tools used were blades, pointers, scrappers and borers.
 The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner.
 It is said that the Neanderthal (species of humans) whose remains are often found in
caves with evidence of use of fire belonged to this period.
Important middle Paleolithic age sites:
 Belan valley in UP
 Luni valley (Rajasthan)
 Son and Narmada rivers
 Bhimbetka
3.Upper Paleolithic age
Life: -

 With the emergence of Homo sapiens (as till the middle paleolithic there were
hominids i.e. human-like creatures and they evolved into homo sapiens over time)
the thinking also developed.
 Tool kits became extremely sophisticated, using a wider variety of raw material such
as bone and animal horns. There was a rapid emergence of different tools.
 Each of these tools was designed for a different purpose like making clothing,
engraving, sculpting, etc. finer and more sophisticated tools emerged on a need
basis.
 Trial and error was replaced by design. Now the thinking has developed.
 Lots of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, blades, fishing tools and burin tools
emerged.
Major sites of upper Paleolithic age

 Belan
 Son
 Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar)
 Maharashtra
 Upper paleolithic age- paintings at Bhimbetka.
Mesolithic period (Middle Stone Age)
Conditions: -

 It was a time of transition from Paleolithic to neolithic when climate

instability made life difficult for people. Major climate change happened.
 Climate changes during the Mesolithic included the retreat of the Pleistocene
glaciers, a steep rise in sea levels, and the extinction of large-bodied animals.
These changes were accompanied by a growth in forests and a major
redistribution of animals and plants.
 Climate became warmer and more humid.
 Along with hunting and food gathering, domestication of animals and plants
was seen for the first time around 12000 years ago.
 First animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog.
 Sheep and goat were the most common domestic animals.
 As domestication started the movement from one place to another reduced.
Which resulted in slow settlements. 1st human colonization of the Ganga
plains.
Major sites:
 Brahmagiri (Mysore)
 Narmada
 Vindhya
 Gujarat
 UP
Neolithic period (new stone age)

 As the movement became difficult with animals, people started settling in

one place. On the other hand, climate change gave rise to different species of
plants. People at that time slowly started feeding on these plants and with
time they completely shifted to growing their own crops which were around
them and hence the start of agriculture.
 Movement from nomadic life to settled life.
 Wheel was discovered. Ragi, wheat and horse gram were cultivated.
 People by this time knew how to make fire as they had already witnessed fire
originating from lightning and forest fires.
Important sites: -

 Inamgaon
 Burzahom (Kashmir)
 Mehrangarh (Pakistan)
Summary of what we have studied so far!

Factors Paleolithic Mesolithic- Neolithic

Transition phase
Food Hunted for meat, Started hunting for farming and
gathered nuts, smaller species, animal products.
 fruits, insects, and started farming,
eggs. animal products
etc.
Shelter Temporary homes, Round hut-shaped Proper settlement
caves homes of with mud houses
temporary near crops and
material like grass water bodies.
and leaves of
trees.
Clothing Made of animal Animal fur, Animal fur, woolen
fur woolen cloth cloth
Tools Hand axes, Blades, pointes, Advanced tools
cleavers sharpened tools like bow, arrows
and harpoons
Climate Cold climate, ice Slightly warm and More like today’s
age. cold climate.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 Indus civilization also called Indus valley civilization or Harappan civilization, the
earlies known urban culture of the Indus subcontinent.
 The Indus Valley Civilization was established around 3300 BC.
 This is also called Harappan civilization after the first city to be excavated was
Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan).
 Pre-Harappan civilization has been found at Mehrgarh, Pakistan which slows the first
evidence of cotton cultivation.
 It extended from Sutkagengr (in Balochistan) in the west to Alamgirpur (Western UP)
in the East, and from Mandu (Jammu) in the north to Daimabad (Ahmednagar,
Maharashtra) in the South.
 Some Indus Valley sites have also been found as far away as Afghanistan and
Turkmenistan.
 The civilization was 1st developed during an excavation campaign under Sir John
Hubert Marshell in 1921-22 at Harappa following the discovery of seals by J Fleet.
 Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and
Madho Sarup Vats.
 Mohenjodaro ruins were excavated for the 1st time by R. D. Banerjee, E. J. H. Mackey
and Marshall.
Indus valley civilization important sites:
In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda (Gujarat),
Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab)
In Pakistan: Harappa (on river Ravi), Mohenjodaro (on the Indus River in Sindh),
Chanhudaro (in Sindh)

Site Excavated by Location Important findings

 Harappa Daya Ram Shani in On the banks of  Granaries
1921 Ravi in Pakistan  Bullock cart
Mohenjodaro R. D. Banerjee in On the banks of  Great bath
(Mound of Dead) 1922 Indus in Pakistan  Bronze
dancing girl
 Seal of
Pashupati
 Steatite
statue of
bearded
man
Sutkangeodor Stein in 1929 On the banks of  Trade point
Dast river, Pakistan between
Harappa and
Babylon
Chanhudaro N. G. Majumdar in Sindh on the banks  Bead makers
1931 of Indus River shop
Kalibangan Ghose in 1953 In Rajasthan on  Fire altar
the banks of  Camel bones
Gangar.  Wooden
plough
Lothal R. Rao in 1954 Gujarat in Bhogva  First man
river made port
 Dockyard
 Rice husk
 Chess
playing
 Fire altars
Surkotada J. P. Joshi in 1964 Gujarat  Bones of
horses
 Beads
Banawali R. S. Bisht in 1974 Hisar district of  Beads
Haryana  Barley
Dholavira J O Joshi in 1967 Gujarat in Rann of  Water
Kutch harnessing
system
 Water
reservoir
CITY ARCHITECTURE: -

 The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning. It

followed the Grid system. Roads were well cut, dividing the town into large
rectangular or square blocks.
 The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan cities is remarkable, because in the
contemporary buildings of Egypt mainly dried bricks were used.
 Towns were divided into two parts- Citadel (occupied by the ruling class) & lower
town (inhabited by common people)
 Most cities had a Great Bath.
 There were also granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed
drainage lines, an excellent stormwater, and wastewater management system,
weights for measurements, toys, pots, etc.
AGRICULTURE: -

 Agriculture was the most important occupation.

 The Indus valley people were well-acquainted with the use of both cotton &
wool.
 Indus people were the 1st who produced cotton, which Greeks termed as
Sindon (derived from Sindh)
 Excavations have revealed ploughed fields at Kalibangan on which multi-
cropping was practiced.
 They produced wheat and barley on a large scale. The other crops grown
were pulses, cereals, cotton, dates, melons, pea, sesame and mustard.
 Domestication of animals, stock breeding was important in Indus culture.
 Sheep, goats, dogs, humped cattle, buffalo & elephants were certainly
domesticated.

RELIGION: -

 A seal which was named “Pasupathi Seal” has been excavated and it shows
an image of a three-eyed figure. Marshall believed this to be an early form of
Lord Shiva.
 There was prevalence of Mother Goddess (Matridevi or Shakti) known
through figurines and also evidences of the prevalence of Yoni (Female sex
organ) worship.
 The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees and animals.
 The most important of them is the one horned unicorn which may be
identified with the rhinoceros and the next important was the humped bull.
 Amulets have also been found in large numbers.
Trade: -

 A large number of seals have been discovered, which is evidence of the

existence of trade.
 The Harappan civilization had trading relations with other civilizations
including Oman and Mesopotamia.
 There have been a mention of Harappan civilization in Mesopotamia text
where it has been referred as “Melluha” and are known as “seafarers”.
 The shipping dock at Lothal supports the concept that there had been sea
route trade.
Crafts: -
  The Harappans were very well acquainted with the manufacturing and use of
Bronze.
 Textile impressions have also been found on several objects.
 The Harappans practiced boat-making, bead making and seal-making.
Terracotta manufacture was also an important craft.
 The goldsmiths made jewelry of silver, gold and precious stones.
 The potter’s wheel was in full use, and the Harappans produced their own
characteristic pottery, which was glossy and shining.

Some important Facts:

 In Mohenjodaro, a big public bath (Great Bath) has been found.

 Dholavira is the only site of the civilization.
 Chanhudaro was the only city without a citadel.
 Mohenjodaro (Sindh) is situated on the right bank of the Indus.
 Chanhudaro lies on the left bank of the Indus about 130 km south of
Mohenjodaro.
 Kalibangan (Rajasthan) was on the banks of river Ghaggar which dried up
centuries ago.
 Lothal is at the head of the Gulf of Cambay.
 Banawali (Haryana) was situated on the banks of the now extinct Saraswati
river.
 Surkotada (Gujarat) is at the head of the Rann of Kutch.
 Dholavira (Gujarat) excavated is in the Kutch district.
 Origin of the ‘Swastika’ symbol can be traced to the Indus Valley Civilization.
 Weights & measures of accuracy existed in Harappan culture (found at
Lothal).
 The weights were made of limestone, steatite, etc & were generally cubical
in shape.
 People of the civilization had developed their own kind of weighing and
measurement system which was the multiple of 16.
 Rangpur, Somnath & Balakot functioned as seaports, Sutkagendor &
Sutkakoh functioned as outlets.
 Pictograph script has not been deciphered, written from right to left in the
1st line & left to right in the second line.
 This style is called “Boustrophedon”.
Decline of the Indus valley Civilization:

 The reason behind the sudden end of the Harappan civilization is difficult to
ascertain. There are a number of theories trying to explain the end: -
a. Regular floods destroyed the area and wiped the civilization as given
by Marshal, S R Rao and Mickey.
b. According to Aurel Strein and A N Ghosh, drying up of rivers due to
climate change ended civilization.
 c. According to KVR Kennedy natural calamities like earthquakes and
epidemics wiped out the civilization.
d. Aryan invaders who destroyed the civilization as per Stuart, Piggout,
and Gordon Childe.
e. Encroachment of the surrounding desert rendering the infertile area
as per Walter Fairservis.
VEDIC CIVILIZATION
Rigveda: -

 Rig veda means the knowledge of verses/ prayers/ hymns/ religious songs.
 Rig veda is a collection of prayers to the gods, asking them for help and
benefits like health, wealth and long life. Besides hymns of praise, the
mantras contain blessings and curses.
 It is divided into 10 books or Mandalas. Books II to VII are considered the
oldest. Book I, VIII and X seem to be later additions.
 The hymns known as Sukta that were composed to be used in rituals.
 Indra is the chief deity citied in the Rig veda called as Purandhar in the Rig
Veda.
 The sky God Varuna, fire God Agni, and the sun God Surya were some of the
other chief deities who were important in the Rig veda beside older Aryan
deities.
 The God of storms and mountains Rudra, as citied in the Rig Veda, is the
origin of Lord Shiva, the Hindu God.
 Priests or Brahmins mostly performed the rituals.
 They worshipped nature. No idols were there and no temple construction. It
was simple prayers.
 The universally famous Gayatri mantra (Savitri) is also in Rig-Veda.
 The Varna system, four-fold division of society, ‘Sudra’, Gamester’s Lament,
Purusha Sukta Hymns are mentioned in the Vedic text.
 Rig veda has many things in common with Zend-Avesta (oldest text in Iranian
language).
Yajurveda:

 Stands to mean ‘Worship knowledge’, Yajurveda dates back to 1100-800 BCE;

corresponding with Samaveda.
 It compiles ritual-offering mantras/ chants.
 It is divided into Krishna (Black/ Dark) & Shukla (white/ bright).
 Krishna Yajurveda has two recensions, while Shukla Yajurveda has four.
 The oldest layer of Yajurveda has 1875 verses mostly taken up from Rigveda.
Samaveda:

 Samaveda derives its root from Saman, which means a melody. This veda is
related to public worship.
  A collection of 1603 hymns. Except 99, all others were derived from Rig Veda.
 The Samaveda is considered as the root of Indian classical music and dance.
 It is considered as the storehouse of the melodious chants.
 Samaveda Samhita is not meant to be read as a text, it is like a musical score
sheet that must be heard.
Atharva Veda:

 Stands to mean a tatpurusha compound of Atharvan, an ancient sage, and

knowledge (Atharvan+knowledge)
 It has 730 hymns/ suktas, 600 mantras, and 20 books.
 It is the latest Veda.
 Called a veda of magical formulas, it includes three primary Upanishads-
Mundaka Upanishad.
 It contains charms and spells to ward-off evil and disease.
 Its content throws light on the practices of non-Aryans.
Types of Vedic Literature:
There are broadly two types of Vedic Literature:
1. Shruti Literature: -
The word ‘Shruti’ from the term ‘Shruti literature’ means ‘to hear’ and
describes the sacred texts.
 Comprise of Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas & Upanishads.
 Shruti literature is cannoica, consisting of revelation and
unquestionable truth, and is considered eternal.
2. Smriti literature: -
Whereas, the word ‘Smriti’ literally means to be remembered and which is
supplementary and may change over time.
 Smriti literature is the entire body of the post-vedic classical Sanskrit
literature.
 Consists of vedanga, shad darshana, puranas, itihasa, upveda, tantras,
agamas, upangas.
The Vedic Literature can be classified into the following categories:

 The 4 Vedas- i.e. the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva and their Samhitas.
 The Brahmanas
 The Aryankas
 The Upanishads.
Brahmanas: They are the prose texts that explain the hymns in the Vedas.
Aranyakas: - These are called Forest Books.

Upanishads: -

 Upanishad is a Sanskrit word which means ‘sitting at the feet of’. This
is symbolic of a student receiving knowledge by sitting at the feet of a
guru.
 This consists of information and more philosophical knowledge about
principles and concepts of Hinduism.
 For eg. Atman (soul), Moksha (liberation from the cycle of
reincarnation) etc.
 The texts explain the ideas of self-realization, which can require the
practice of yoga and meditation. They also mention the concepts fo
non-violence, compassion, charity, and self-restraint as ethical
characteristics.
 There are 108 Upanishads.
 Out of 108 Upanishads, 13 are considered the major ones.
It contains philosophical ideas about the following concepts two:
1. Sacrifice
2. Body
3. Universe
Extension of Vedas: Vedas are further divided into 2 categories.
Upaveda and Vedanga: Upaveda means applied knowledge. These contains
implementation of the veda. They are as follows:

Upavedas Associated with

Ayurveda i.e. Medicine. Rig Veda
Gandharva Veda i.e. Music Sama Veda
Dhanurveda i.e. Archery Yajur Veda
Shilpa Veda/ Arthaveda Atharva Veda i.e. the science of
craft/ wealth (Vishwakarma)
 Vedanga are further limbs of Veda. There are 6 disciplines related to
Vedas.
 Vyakarana: Sanskrit Grammar
 Shiksha: how to pronounce vedic mantra
 Nirukta: it is the vedic dictionary
 Chanda: it contains poetic stanzas.
 Jyotisha: it contains information about Astrology and Astronomy.
 Kalpa Sutra: this contains rules related to performance of Vedic
religion/ rituals.
 Political structure: -

 Monarchical form of government with a king known as Rajan. He was

protector of tribe or Jana.
 Patriarchal families- Jana was the largest social unit in Rig Vedic times.
 Social grouping: Kula (family)→Grana→ Visu→ Jana.
 Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana was the tribal assemblies who
discharge the functions of deliberative, military and religious.
 Examples of tribal kingdom: Bharatas, Matasyas, yadus and Purus.
 A battle called “Dasharajnya” or “Battle of Ten Kings” forms an
internal part of the later political structure.
 This battle is mentioned in the 7th Mandala of the Rigveda, in hymns
18, 33 and 83.

Modern and Ancient names of Rivers

Vedic name Modern name

Sindhu Indus
Vitasta Jhelum
Askini Chenab
Purusni Ravi
Vipasa Beas
Shutudri Satluj
Ghumal Gomati
Kubhu Kurram
Kubha Kabul
Drishtwarti Ghaghar
Social reforms: -

 Women enjoyed a responsible position. They were allowed to take

part in Sabhas and Samhitis. There were women poets too (Apala,
Lopamudra, Viswavara and Ghosa). However
 Cattle, especially cows, became very important.
 Monogamy was practiced but polygamy was observed among royalty
and noble families.
 There was no child marriage.
 Social distinctions existed but were not rigid and hereditary.
 The term “Varna” was used 1st in Indian region after advent of Aryan
as per Rig Veda that refer to the only the Aryan or Dasa having
respectively, fair or dark complexion but never denotes to the
Brahman or Rajayanya (Kshatriya).
 The term ‘Shudra’ was mentioned for the 1st time in the ‘10th Mandala
of Rig Veda.
 The Quadrupole division of the society was the made after the coding
of the ‘Purushasukta Hymn’.
Later Vedic Period or Painted Grey Ware phase (1000 BC- 600 BC)
During this time, the Aryans moved eastwards and occupied western and
eastern UP (Kosala) and Bihar.
Political structure: -

 Kingdoms like Mahajanapadas were formed by amalgamating smaller

kingdom.
 King’s power increased and various sacrifices were performed by him
to enhance his position.
 Sacrifices were: Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Vajapeya (chariot
race) and Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice).
 The Sabha was a form of assembly during the Rig Vedic period which
consisted of mostly important members of the tribe and Samiti was
an assembly of all the members of the tribe. They were there to
discuss and make important decisions about the tribe. By the time of
the Later Vedic period these were diminished in importance. As the
importance of participation of all the people decreased. So,
assemblies have now changed format.
Social Structure:

 The Varna system of social distinction became more distinct. This

became less based on occupation and more hereditary.
 The 4 divisions of society in decreasing social ranking were:
Brahamanas (priests), Kshatriyas (rulers), Vaishyas (agriculturists,
traders and artisans), and Shudras (servers of the upper three
classes).
 Women were not permitted to attend public assemblies like Sabhas
and Samitis. Their position in society diminished.
 Child marriages became common.
 Sub-castes based on occupation also emerged. Gotras were
institutionalized.
Economic Structure: -

 Agriculture was the chief occupation.

 Industrial work like metal work, pottery and carpentry work also was
there.
 There was foreign trade with far off regions like Babylon and Sumeria.
Religion: -

 Prajapati (creator) and Vishnu (preserver) became important gods.

 Indra and Agni lost their significance.
 Importance of prayers diminished and rituals and sacrifices became
more elaborate.
  The priestly class became very powerful and they dictated the rulers
of the rites and rituals. Because of this orthodoxy, Buddhism and
Jainism emerged towards the end of this period.

Persian and Greek invasion in India: -

Persian invasion of India-

 Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire in ancient Iran invaded the
North-Western front of India in 550 BC.
 At that time, there were many small provinces like Gandhara, Kamboja,
and Madra who were constantly fighting one another.
 At that time, Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty was ruling over
Magadha.
 Punjab and Sindh were annexed by Darius I, Cyrus;s grandson.
 Son of Darius, Xerxes, could not more ahead with the further conquest of
India because of war with the Greeks. He had employed Indian cavalry
and infantry.
Effect:

 Trade between India and Iran grew.

 The Kharosthi script was brought to northwest India by the Persians.
 Some inscriptions of Ashoka were written in the Kharosthi script in
these parts.
 Kharosthi script is derived from the Aramic script and is written from
right to left.

Greek invasion of India and its impact- Alexander’s Invasion (327 BC)

 Alexander (356-323 BC) was the son of Philip of Macedonia.

 He became king in 336 BC.
 It was during the 4 century BC when Persia and Greece were fighting for
supremacy over west Asia. The Achaemenid empire (persian empire) was
defeated by Alexander of the Greek empire.
 He had annexed the whole of Persia (Babylon) by defeating Persian King
Darius III in the Battle of Arabia (330 BC).
 As Alexander was a great ruler, he not only defeated Persia but also
conquered Asia Minor, Iran and Iraq.
 According to the Greek historian Herodotus Alexander was greatly attracted
towards India because of her fabulous wealth.
 During Alexander’s invasion, north western India was divided into a number
of small principalities. Which further proved to be an advantage to conquer
India.
 He then marched into northwest India from Iran.
  Ambhi (an Indian ruler. It is said that he invited Alexander’s to avenge king
Porus) accepted Alexander’s sovereignty but Porus put up a valiant but
unsuccessful fight.
 Porus might have accepted lordship. The battle between him and Porus is
called the Battle of Hydaspes.
 Alexander was so impressed with Porus’s fight he granted him his territory
back.
After battle of Hydaspes:

 After that, Alexander’s army crossed the river Chenab and annexed the
tribes between Ravi and Chenab.
 But his army refused to cross the river Beas and revolted. They were
exhauste3d after years of battles.
 Alexander was forced to retreat in 326 BC. On his way back, he died at
Babylon in 323 BC aged 32.
 In northwest India, Alexander left four of his generals in charge of four
regions, one of them being Selecus I Nicator, who would later trade his
territories in the Indus Valley with Chandragupta Maurya.
 Eudamas was the last general of Alexander in India.
MAHAJANAPADA PERIOD (600 BC- 325 BC)
 By the end of the later Vedic age, iron was discovered. Agriculture also
increased with the help of development in tools. People started shifting and
settling towards the Gangetic plains as it provided both easy access to water
and resources. And settlements increased. The area which were in resources
were in high demand. By this time people had already settled and the areas
where they settled were called Janapada.
 The Janapada were the major kingdoms of Vedic India.
 Aryans were the most major influential tribes and were called ‘janas’. This
gave rise to to the term Janapada where means the people or Jana set their
foot and settled down became their janapada.
 By the 6th century B.C. there were approximately 22 different Janapadas. But
as it was clear that the region with maximum resources will be prosperous
like the development of Iron in UP and Bihar region. The more agriculture
the more will be taxes, the more availability of iron the more will be
manufacturing of weapons and tools to protect and expand the area. So
every Janapada started its own way to capture and rule areas rich in
resources. Eventually the rulers ruling in these regions (Magadh, Kashi)
managed to increase their power and establish supremacy. So, every
Janapada started its own way to capture and rule areas rich in resources.
Eventually the rulers ruling in these regions (Magadh, Kashi) managed to
increase their power and establish supremacy. So Janapadas became more
powerful and turned into Mahajanapadas.
 In the 6th century BCE, there was a rise in the development of the
Mahajanapada or great country. There were 16 such Mahajanapadas during
600 BCE to 325 BCE in the Indian subcontinent. There were two types of
states: Monarchial and Republican.
 Malla, Vajji, Kamboja and Kuru were republican states while Magadha,
Kosala, Vatsa, Anati, Anga, Kashi, Gandhara, Shursena, Chedi and Matsya
were monarchial in nature.
 There were 16 mahajanapadas during 600 B.C. to 325 B.C. which are
mentioned in early Buddhist (Anguttara Nikaya, Mahavastu) and jain
literature (Bhagvati Sutta), those were as follows:
Name of Capital Location
Mahajanapada
Anga Champa Included the modern
districts of Monghyr
and Bhagalpur in
Bihar.
Magadha Girivajra/ Rajagriha Covered the modern
districts of Patna,
Gaya, and parts of
Shahabad
Malla Capitals at Kusinara and Covered the modern
Pawa districts of Deoria,
Basti, Gorakhpur and
Siddharthnagar in
eastern UP
Vajji Vaishali Situated north of the
river ganga in Bihar
Kosala Shravasti (Northern), Covered modern day
Kushavati (southern) districts of Faizabada,
Gonda, Bahraich of
eastern UP.
Kashi Varanasi Located in the region
around Varanasi
(modern Banaras)
Chedi Sothiavati Covered present day
Bundelkhand region
Kuru Indraprastha Meerut and
Southeastern Haryana
Vatsa Kaushambi Covered modern
districts Allahabad,
Mirzapur
Panchala Ahichhatra (uttara Covered the area of
Panchala) present western UP up
to the east of river
Yamuna up to Kosala
Janapada
 Matsya Viratnagar Covered the areas of
Alwar, Bharatpur and
Jaipur in Rajasthan
Sursena Mathura Covered the area
around Mathura
(Western UP)
Avanti Ujjaini and mahismati Covered the western
India (modern Malwa
and MP)
Ashmaka Potana Situated in the
southern part of India
between the rivers
Narmada and
Godavari.
Kamboja Poonch Rajouri and Hajra
(Kashmir). Covered the
area of Hindukush
(modern Hazara
districts of Pakistan)
Gandhara Taxila Covered the western
part of Pakistan
(Rawalpindi) and
eastern Afghanistan.
Among them Magadha, Vatsa, Avanti and Kosala were the most prominent ones. Out of
these four, Magadha emerged as the most powerful kingdom.
The cause of Magadha’s success were as follows:

1. Availability of rich iron deposits which were used in making weapons.

2. Its location at the rich and fertile Gangetic plain.
3. Use of elephants in military warfare against its neighbours.
MAGADHA EMPIRE
Haryanka Dynasty

The first important and powerful dynasty in Magadha.

Bimbisara (558 BC- 491 BC)

 Bimbisara was the founder of the Haryanka dynasty.

 Son of Bhattiya.
 He ruled over Magadha from 544 BC to 493 BC.
 Contemporary and followers of the Buddha.
 Was also said to be an admirer of Mahavira.
 Had his capital at Girivraja (Rajgir).
 Also known as Sreniya as per the Jain texts. He was given this title because he was the
1st king to have a regular standing army and proper military power in ancient India.
  Bimbisara sent his royal physicians Jivaka to king Pradoyta of Ujjain. Jivaka cured the
Ujjain king and got praise and monetary rewards.
 He started the practice of using matrimonial alliances to strengthen his political
position.
 He had 3 wives:
1. Kosaladevi (king of Kosala’s daughter and the sister of Prasenjit)
2. Chellana (daughter of the Lichchavi chief of Vaishali)
3. Khema (daughter of the king of Modra, Punjab).
Ajatashatru (492 BC- 460 BC)

 Son of Bimbisara and Chellana.

 He killed his father and became ruler.
 Throughout his time, he followed an aggressive policy of expansion.
 Ajatshatru followed the policies of conquest and expansion. He defeated his
neighbors including the king of Kosala, his brother also occupied Kashi, which was
given to the Bimbisara as the dowry.
 This led to a war between Magadha and Kosala, Ajatshatru finally occupied Kashi
and captured the smaller kingdoms.
 The Vajji confederation was Ajatshatru’s next target of attack. This war was a
lengthy one and tradition tells us that after a long period of 16 years, he was able to
defeat the Vajji only through deceit, by sowing the seeds of discord amongst the
people of Vajji.
 The three things that played an important role to defeat the Vajji-
1. Sunidha and Vatsakar- Ajatshatru’s diplomatic minister’s who sowed the seeds
of discord amongst Vajjis.
2. Rathamusala- a kind of chariot to which a mace was attached.
3. Mahasmlakantaka- a war engine which catapulted big stones.
 In this way Kashi and Vaishali (the capital of Vajji) were added to Magadha, making
it the most powerful territorial power in the Ganges valley.
 He built the fort of Rajagriha and a watch-fort (Jaladurga) at a village called Patali on
the banks of the Ganges.
 Embraced Buddhism.
 He convened the 1st buddhist Council at Rajagriha just after the death of Buddha in
483 BC.
Udayin (460 BC- 440 BC)

 Son of Ajatsatru.
 Shifted the capital of Patliputra (Patna).
 Last of the major Haryanka rulers.
 Succeeded by 3 kings- Aniruddha, Manda and Naga-Dasaka.
 Naga- Dasaka was the last ruler of the Hayanaka dynasty. He was found unworthy to
rule by the people and was forced to abdicate his throne in favor of his minister
Shisunaga.
 SISUNAGA DYNASTY
(412 BC- 344 BC)
According to Sri Lankan chronicles, the people of Magadha revolted during the reign of
Nagadasaka and placed an amatya (minister) named Sisunaga as king.
Sisunaga-

 He was the viceroy of Kashi before becoming king of Magadha.

 Capital was at Girivajra.
 He annexed Avanti and brought an end to the long rivalry between Magadha and
Avanti.
 Later shifted the capital to Vaishali.
Kalasoka-

 Son of Sisunaga.
 Kalasoka shifted the capital to Pataliputra.
 He conducted the 2nd buddhist council at Vaishali.
 He was brutally killed by a knife thrust in his throat by a low caste man in a palace
revolution that brought the Nanda dynasty to the throne.
Nanda Dynasty (344 BC- 323 BC)

 This was the 1st non-kshatriya dynasty.

 The 1st ruler was Mahapadma Nanda who usurped the throne of the Kalashoka.
Mahapadma nanda

 He was born to Mahanandin, a king of Shishunaga dynasty and a Shura women.

Because of this all the wives and sons of Mahanandin opposed him becoming the
King. So he eliminated all of them including Kalasoka to gain the throne.
 He is called the “first historical emperor of India”.
 His reign lasted for 28 years from 367 BC- 338 BC.
 He is also called “Sarva Kashtriyanataka” (destroyer of all the kshatriyas), Ugrasena
(owener of a huge army) and “Ekrat”.
 The empire ran from the Kuru country in the north to the Godavari valley in the
South and from Magadha in the east to Narmada in the west.
 He conquested many kingdoms including Kalinga.
Dhana nanda

 He was the last nanda ruler.

 He is referred to as Agrammes or Xandrames in Greek texts.
 Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign, but he could not proceed
towards the Gangetic plains because of his army’s refusal.
 Finally, he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya along with Chanakya, which
led to the foundation of the Mauryan empire in Magadha.
Foreign invasions-
There were two major foreign invasions of the Indian sub-continent which happened in the
form of Iranian invasion in 518 BC and Macedonia invasion in 326 BC.
1. Iranian/ Persian Invasion of India
 Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenian empire in ancient Iran invaded the North-
Western front of India in 550 BC.
 At that time, there were many small provinces like Gandhara, Kamboja, and Madra
who were constantly fighting one another.
 At that time, Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty was ruling over Magadha.
 Cyrus succeeded in brining all the Indian tribes west of the Indus like Gandhara
under Persian control.
 Punjab and Sindha were annexed by Darius I, Cyrus’s grandson.
 Son of Darius, Xerxes, could not move ahead with the further conquest of India
because of war with the Greeks. He had employed Indian cavalry and infantry.
Effects of the Iranian Invasion-

 The effects of the Persian Invasion in India.

 Trade between India and Iran grew.
 The Kharoshti script was brought to northwest India by the Persians.
 Some inscriptions of Ashoka were written in the Kharosthi script in these parts.
 Kharosthi script is derived from the Aramaic script and is written from right to left.
Effects of Alexander’s invasion-

 The immediate effect of Alexander’s invasion was that it encouraged political

unification of north India under the Mauryas.
 The system of small independent states came to an end.
 Alexander’s invasion had also paved the way for direct contact between India and
Greece.
 The routes opened by him and his naval explorations increased the existing facilities
for trade between India and West Asia.
 However, his aim of annexing northwestern India to his empire was not fulfilled due
his premature death. His authority in the Indus valley was a short-lived one because
of the expansion of the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta Maurya.
RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
(600 BC-400 BC)

The 6th century BC was the period of great religious upheaval or intellectual revolution of the
various sects that emerged in this period. Jainism and Buddhism were the most prominent.
This marked the beginning of 2nd Urbanization in India, also known as the age of Buddha (6th
century BC to 4th century BC).
Story of Religious Movements-
 1. The Vedic philosophy had lost its original purity to rituals. The rites and ceremonies
were painfully elaborate and awfully expensive. The common man developed a great
dislike for these rituals.
2. The sacrifices prescribed by the Vedas had assumed a cumbrous shape. They were
very complicated and a source of wastage of time, energy and money.
3. The caste system had become rigid and brutal. Interchange of caste was impossible.
4. The Vedic religion had become very complex and degenerated into superstitions,
dogmas and rituals. The Vedic mantras were unintelligible and beyond the intellect of
the average persons.
5. The supremacy of the Brahmins created intellectual confusion and dominated every
aspect of the life of the Aryans.
6. All the religious treaties were written in Sanskrit which was the language of the elite
and not the masses, explained to the people in simple intelligible spoken Pali or
Prakrit, the language of the common man at that time.
These evils and ills lid to growing discontent among the masses who aspired for a change.
Several leading teachers raised their voice against these shortcomings.

Buddhism in India: -
Story of Buddha-

 Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha.

 Buddha was born as Prince Siddhartha at Lumbini near Kapilvastu (in present day-
Nepal) in 563 BC.
 He was the son of Suddhodhana and Mahamaya. Suddhodhana was the chief of the
Sakya clan. Due to this, Buddha was also known as ‘Sakyamuni’.
 His mother died either giving birth to him or after 7 days. Siddharatha was brought up
by his maternal aunt, Prajapati Gautami. This gave him the name ‘Gautama’.
 He was married to Yashodhara and had a son, Rahula.
 He left his home at the age of 29 to become an ascetic. This event is called
Mahabhishkramana (the great departure).
 The idea of renunciation occurred to the Buddha after he saw four different state of
man- sick, old man, corpse and ascetic.
 Buddha wandered for 6 years at the age of 35 attained enlightenment at Uruvela while
meditating under a Peepal tree (fig tree/ ficus religious) on the banks of the river
Niranjana. This tree came to the be known as “Bodhi tree” and the place became Bodh
Gaya (in Bihar).
 He was known as Gautama Buddha and Tathagata (he who attained the truth).
 He gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi. This event is called
DharmchakraPravartana/ Dhammachakkappavattana (turning of the wheel of Law) in
which he dealt with the 4 noble truths and the noble Eightfold paths, the very base of
Buddhist teaching.
 Kaundinya and 4 others became his first disciples.
  Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana (died) at Kushinagar (UP) in 483 BC at the age of
80.
 He promoted the Pali language.
 Important contemporaries of Buddha were Mahavira Jaina, Kings Prasenjit, Bimbisara
and Ajatshatru.

Buddhist Philosophy/ Teachings of the Buddha:

It teaches the Middle path renouncing extreme steps like indulgence and strict
abstinence.
Principles of Buddha: -

 Buddha never promoted extreme paths, always followed a middle path.

 He was against the rituals.
 He neither accepted nor rejected the concept of God (Agnostic).
The four noble truths (Arya Satya) in Buddhism are:

 The world is full of sorrow

 Desire is the root cause of all sorrow.
 Sorrow can be conquered by conquering desire.
 Desire can be conquered by following the eight-fold paths. (Ashtangirka Marga)
Eightfold path in Buddhism:
Here right means the path which produces the most beneficial result according to Buddha.
1. Right view
2. Right intention
3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right livelihood
6. Right effort
7. Right mindfulness
8. Right concentration
Tri Ratnas of Buddhism are: Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.

Buddha: the highest spiritual potential in everyone.

Dhamma: The teachings of Buddha (Pali for Sanskrit dharma or righteousness)
Sangha: the monastic order or community. It means to bring together people and form a
group. And here the group is of monks and nuns. To be a part of sangha one renounces the
wordly pleasures and accepts being a monk. These Sangha’s together follow the path of
Buddha, chant and meditate together.
List of Buddhist Councils
1st Buddhist council-
  Conducted under the patronage of king Ajatasatru of Hayanka dynasty.
 The council was established in order to arrive at a consensus on how the teachings of
the Buddha could be spread further.
 It was held in 483 BC just after Buddha’s demise.
 It was held at Sattapani caves (Sattaparnaguha) in Rajagriha. At this council, Ananda
composed the Sutta Pitaka (Buddha’s teaching) and Mahakassapa composed the
Vinaya Pitaka (monastic code).
2nd Buddhist council-

 Conducted under the patronage of King Kalasoka of the Sisunaga dynasty.

 It was held in 383 BC, i.e. a hundred years after the Buddha’s death.
 It was held at Vaishali.
 Sabakami presided over the council.
 The first major split happened here- two groups that would later evolve into
Theravada and Mahayana.
3rd Buddhist council-

 Conducted under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka of Maurya dynasty.

 It was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra.
 The council was presided over by Mogaliputta Tissa.
 The Abhidhamma Pitaka was composed here, making the almost completion of the
modern Pali Tipitaka.
 Buddhist missionaries were sent to other countries.
 Buddhism preached by Emperor Ashoka was Hinayana.
4th Buddhist council-

 Conducted under the patronage of King Kanishka of the Kushan dynasty.

 It was held in the 1st century AD at Kundalavana in Kashmir.
 Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha presided over this council.
 All deliberations were conducted in Sanskrit.
 Here, Abhidhamma texts were translated from Prakrit to Sanskrit.
This council resulted in the division of Buddhism into two sects, namely, Mahayana
(the Greater Vehicle) and Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle)
 the Mahayana sect believed in idol worship, rituals and Bodhisattvas. They regarded
the Buddha as God.
 the Hinayana continued the original teachings and practice of the Buddha. They
adhere to the scriptures written in Pali while the Mahayana includes Sanskrit
scriptures as well.
Buddhist Texts:
The most important sources of Buddhism are the Tripitakas/ Tipitakas written in the Pali
language. They are:
1. Sutta Pitaka: This contains the collection of all the sermons and teachings of Buddha.
2. Vinaya Pitaka: This deals with the governing rules and regulations related to the
Sangh and monks.
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka: This deals with the philosophy of Buddhism.
Dhammapada: a part of the Khudaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka. It contains a collection
of the sayings of the Buddha in verse form.
Milinda Panha: Literal meaning in Pali-Questions of Milinda. It was written around 100
BC. It contains a dialogue between the Indo-Greek King Menander I or Milinda of Bactria
and sage Nagasena where Milinda asks questions on Buddhism to the sage.
Buddhacharita: it is an epic poem composed in Sanskrit by Ashvaghosha in the early 2 nd
century AD. It is about the life of the Buddha.

Event Symbol Place

Birth of Buddha Lotus and Bull Lumbini
Mahabhinish Karman Horse -
Nirvana Bodhi tree Bodh Gaya
Dharmachakra Parivartan Wheel Deer Park, Sarnath
Mahapari nirvana Stupa Kushinagar

Council Venue year Patron Chairman Result

1st Buddhist Rajgriha, 483 Ajatshatru Mahakashyap Ananda
council BC composed the
Sutta Pitaka
(Buddha’s
teachings) and
Mahakkas apa
composed the
Vinaya Pitaka
(monastic
code)
2nd Buddhist Vaishali, 383 Kalashoka Sabakami Division into
council BC Sthavirava da
and Mahasang
hika
3rd Buddhist Patliputra, 250 Ashoka Mogaliputta Compilation of
council BC tissa Abhidham
Piataka
decision to
send
missionaries to
various parts of
the world.
4th Buddhist Kundalvan, 98 Kanishka Vasumitra Buddhism was
council AD divided into
 Hinayana and
Mahayana.
Jainism in India: -
Origin of Jainism:

 Jain means conqueror.

 There were 24 Tirthanakaras, the last of which was Vardhamana Mahavira.
 Tirthanakara is a Sanskrit word meaning “ford maker”, I.e. one who is able to ford
the river, to cross beyond the perpetual flow of earthly life Tirthanakaras were the
people who propagated Jainism. They have conquered love and desire.
 The 1st Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhnath or Rishabhadev.
 The 23rd Tirhtankara was Parshvanatha who was born in Varanasi. He may have lived
in the 8th or 7th century BC.
 All the Tirthanakaras were Kshatriyan by birth.
Story of Mahavir Jain: -

 Real founder of Jainism- Vardhamana Mahavira (540 BC-468 BC)

 Considered the last Tirthankara.
 He was born at Kundalgrama near Vaishali in 540 BC.
 His parents were Kshatriyas. Father- Siddhartha (head of Jnatrika clan); mother-
Trishala (sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka). (Chetaka’s daughter married Haryanka
King Bimbisara.
 He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter, Annojja or Priyadarshana.
 At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home and became a wandering ascetic.
 He also observed self-mortification.
 He adopted the Prakrit language to spread his teachings.
 After 12 years of penance, he attained highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala
Jnana.
 He attained this at Jimbhikagarama village under a sal tree aged 42. This is called
Kaivalya.
 Thereafter, he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses),
Nigrantha (free from all bonds), and Kevalin.
 He preached his teachings for 30 years and died at Parva (near Rajagriha) in 468 BC
aged 72.
Teachings of Jainism: -

 Mahavira rejected Vedic principles.

 He did not believe in God’s existence.
 According to him, the universe is a product of the natural phenomenon of cause and
effect.
 He believed in Karma and transmigration of the soul.
 The body dies but the soul does not.
 Starvation, nudity and self-mortification were expounded.
Two elements of the world
1. Jiva (conscious)
2. Atma (unconscious)
3 gems of Jainism
1. Right faith
2. Right knowledge
3. Right conduct (observance of five vows)
Way of life: -

1. Ahimsha (non-violence)
2. Satya (truth)
3. Asteya (no stealing)
4. Parigraha (no acquiring property)
5. Brahmacharya (abstinence)
Split in Jainism: -
During the Magadha famine in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, some Jain monks under
Bhardabahu migrated to Karnataka.

When Bhadrabahu left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the North with his followers.
Sthula Bahu changed the code of conduct and said that white clothes be worn. Thus, split
Jainism into 2 sects:
1. Svetambaras: white clad, Northerners.
2. Digambaras: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners

According to the Swetmabaras the original doctrine taught by Mahavira was containted in
14 old texts called ‘purvas’ which were passed orally for 200 years.
Jain councils
1st council

 Held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC.

 Presided by Sthulabhdra.
2nd council

 Held at Vallabhi in Guajarat in 512 CE.

 Presided by Devardhi Kshamana Ramana.
 12 angas was compiled here.

Council Venue Year Presided by result

1st Jain council Pataliputra, 3 BC Sthulabhadra 12 Angas (teachings
of Mahavira) were
compiled
 2nd Jain council Vallabhi, 512 CE Devaradhi Kshama Final compilation of
Ramana 12 Angas and 12
Upangas.
Royal patrons of Jainism:
South India

 Kadamba dynasty
 Ganga dynasty
 Amoghavarsha
 Kumarapala (Chalukaya dynasty)
North India

 Bimbisara
 Ajatasatru
 Chandrugupta Maurya
 Bindusara
 Harshvardhana
 Ama
 Bindusara
 Kharavela
MAURYAN EMPIRE- RISE OF THE MAURYAS
Reason: -

 The last of the Nanda rulers, Dhana Nanda was highly unpopular due to his
oppressive tax regime. Dhana Nanda was greedy and addicted to hoarding treasure.
So he extracted high taxes from his own people.
 Also, post- Alexander’s invasion of North-Western India, that region faced a lot of
unrest among the generals kept like Selecus by Alexander to rule after the
withdrawal and death of Alexander who later declared themselves independent.
 After Alexander’s death in 323 BC Indo Greek rulers came into rule. Bacteria came
under the control of Seleucus I Nicator, who founded the Seleucid Empire. The
Greek-Bactrian Kingdom was founded when Diodotus I, the satrap of Bactria,
withdrew from the Seleucid empire around 250 BC.
 Chandragupta with the help of an intelligent and politically astute Brahmin, Kautilya
unsurped the throne by defeating Dhana Nanda in 321 BC.

Important rulers of Mauryan empire

The Mauryan empire had rulers who were famous for their reign.
Mauryan Empires- Rulers:

 Chandragupta Maurya (322- 298 BC)

 Bindusara (297-272 BC)
 Asoka (268-232 BC)
 Founder of Mauryan Empire- Chandragupta Maurya
Life story: -

 The Hindu sources also say he was a student of Kautilya of humble birth
(probably born to a shudra woman)
 Most Buddhist sources say he was a Kshatriya.
 It is generally accepted that he was an orphaned boy born into a humble family
who was trained by Kautilya.
 Greek accounts mention him as Sandrokottas.
Conquest story of Chandragupta: -

 While expanding his empire towards the north-west he faced Seleucus Nicator who
at that time was trying to expand his empire towards the east. Chandragupta
Maurya and Seleucus Nicator fought and Seleucus lost the battle. The two rulers
reconciled with a piece treaty.
 In 305 BC, he entered into a treaty with Selecus Nicator (a general of Alexander who
ruled over northwest India) in which Chandragupta acquired Balochistan, eastern
Afghanistan and the region to the west of Indus. In return, Chandragupta sent 500
war elephants.
 He also married Seleucus Nicator’s daughter.
 Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador at Chandragupta court.
 Chandragupta led a policy of expansion and brought under one control almost the
whole present India barring a few places like Kalinga and the extreme South/
 His reign lasted from 321 BC to 297 BC.
 Chandragupta Maurya ordered the construction of Sudarshan Lake. Sudarshan Lake
is located in the middle of a hill called Girnar in Saurashtra. Then this lake was
constructed by Chandragupta governor Pushyagupta Vaishya” who was in charge of
Saurashtra.
 He went to Karnataka with Jain monk Bhadrabahu.
 He had embraced Jainism and is said to have starved himself to death according to
the Jain tradition at Shravanabelagola.
Bindusara: -

 Son of Chandragupta, ruled from 297-273 BC.

 Also called Amitraghata (Slayer of foes) or Amitrochates in Greeks sources.
According to some scholars Bindusara have conquered the Deccan upto Mysore.
Bindusara conquered 16 states comprising ‘the land between the two seas’ as
confirmed by Taranatha, the Tibetan monk. According to Sangam Literature Maurya
invaded the far south. So, he became famous as amitraghata.
 Deimachus was a Greek ambassador at his court.
 He had appointed his son, Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain.
 Bindusara is believed to have extended the Mauryan Empire to Mysore as well.
 He was a follower of the Ajivika Sect.
Ashoka:

 Son of Mauryan Emperor Bindusara and Subhadrangi.

 His other names were Devanampiya (Sanskrit Devanampriya meaning beloved the
Gods) and Piyadasi.
Story of Ashoka: -

 He was born in 304 BC.

 Ashoka sat on the throne around 268 BC. After successfully defeating his brothers. According
to a Srilankan text Ashoka is represented as “wading through a pool of blood” quoting that
he killed his 99 brothers to sit on the throne except the younger brother Tisya. There was an
interval of four years between Ashoka’s accession to the throne (273 BC) and his actual
coronation (268BC).
 His wife’s name was Devi or Vedisa who was princess of Ujjaini. His other two wives
were Asandhimitra and Karuvaki.
 Mahendra, Tivara (the only one mentioned in an inscription), Kunala and Taluka
were prominent among Ashoka’s sons.
 Two of his daughter’s Sanghamitra and Charumati were known.
 His reign lasted from 268 BC to 232 BC when he died.
 At its zenith, Ashoka’s empire stretched from Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh
in the east except present day Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and modern-day Sri Lanka.
 His capital was at Patliputra (Patna) and had provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain.
Rise to power

 In the war of succession that followed Bindusara’s death in 272 BC, Ashoka emerged
victorious aided by his father’s ministers.
 When he became the king, he was said to be bad, tempered, ruthless and very cruel.
 He even built a torture chamber to torture his prisoners to death. This earned hi the
moniker Chandrashoka (cruel Ashoka).
 Once he became the king, he started expanding his empire by conquest.
 In the 9th year of his reign, he waged a war with Kalinga (in present day Odisha).
Conversion to Buddhism

 The battle with Kalinga fought in 263 BC was personally led by Ashoka.
 The horrors of war disturbed him so much that he decided to shum violence for the
rest of his life and turned to Buddhism. Ashoka embraced Buddhism under the
influence of Buddhist monk Upagupta.
 he sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanhgamitra to Srilanka to propogate
Buddhism.
 Ashoka’s 13th rock edict describes the Kalinga war vividly.
 He now became Dharmashoka (the pious Ashoka from Chandashoka).
 In about 263 BC Ashoka converted to Buddhism.
 Mogalliputtta Tissa, a Buddhist monk, became his mentor.
  Ashoka even conducted the 3rd Buddhist Council at Patliputra in 250 BC under
Moggaliputta Tissa’s presidency.
Dhamma policy of Ashoka

 This philosophy was used to preserve the social order. The main lessons mentioned
under this were:
 Obey your parents.
 Pay respect to Brahmans and Buddhist monks.
 Show mercy to slaves and servants.
 We came to know about his Dhamma philosophy through his pillar edict VII where
he says that all sects desire self-control and purity of mind. And through the Major
rock edict XII where he directed for tolerate among different religious sects. He says
that he respects all sects both laymen and monks.
 He mostly propagated Dhamma with the use of these stone pillars.
Sources of Mauryan Dynasty:

 Kautilya’s Arthasastra: It is the most important literary source for the Mauryas. It is
a treatise on government and polity. It gives a clear and methodological analysis of
political and economic conditions of the Mauryan period.
 Megasthenese’s Indica: Megasthenes was the ambassador of Selecus Nicator in the
court of Chandragupta Maurya, Indica refers to Mauryan administration, 7-caste
system, absence of slavery and usuary in India etc.
 Visakha Datta’s ‘Mudra Rakshasa’: it was written during the Gupta period; it
describes how Chandragupta Maurya get Chanakya’s assistance to overthrow the
Nandas.
 Puranas: though they are a collection of legends interspersed with religious
teachings, they give us the chronology and lists of Mauryan kings.
 Buddhist literature: Indian Buddhist text Jatakas reveal a general picture of socio-
economic conditions of the Mauryan period.
 Dipavamasa and Mahavamsa: describes the part played by Ashoka in spreading
Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
 Divyavadana gives information about Ashoka and his efforts to spread Buddhism.
14 rock edicts of Ashoka and their content

 Edict 1: prohibits animal sacrifices

 Edict 2: depicts measures of social welfare
 Edict 3: respect for Brahmanas
 Edict 4: respect to elders
 Edict 5: appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras and their duties
 Edict 6: orders to Dhamma Mahamatras
 Edict 7: Need for tolerance among all religious sects
 Edict 8: dhamma-yatras
 Edict 9: discarding meaningless ceremonies and rituals
  Edict 10: use of Dhamma instead of war for conquest
 Edict 11: explaining dhamma-policy
 Edict 12: appeal to all religious sects for tolerance
 Edict 13: Kalinga war
 Edict 14: inspiring people to spend religious life.
Weak monarchs after Ashoka
After Ashoka, only 6 kings could rule over the kingdom for a mere 52 years.
The last Maurya king, Brihadrahta was overthrown by his own army commander,
Pushyamitra.
During the rule of Brihadratha, there was an internal revolt led by his army chief
Pushyamitra Shunga in about 185/ 186 BC. The last Mauryan king was killed by his military
general Pushyamitra, while the king was called by Pushyamitra to inspect the army. While
he was inspecting the army gathering Pushyamitra killed the king in front of his military and
established himself as the king. This ended the rule of the Mauryas over Magadha and then
started the Shunga dynasty rule.
Mauryan administration:

 It was highly centralized.

 The king was the supreme power and source od all authority.
 He was assisted by a council of ministers. It was called “Mantriparishad”. The
ministers were called ‘Mantris’.
 The council was headed by ‘Mantri parishad adhayaksha’ akin to the Prime Minister
of today.
Officers:

 Tirthas: the highest category of official in the administration or the heads of the
departments of central government. There were 18 Tirthas.
 Adhyaksha: ranked next only to Tirthas. The Central administration was conducted
by highly skilled Superintendents or Adhyakshas who looked after various
department. There were 20 Adhyakshyas. They had economic and military functions.
 Mahamatras: higher ranking officials’ role was to assist the princes along with the
council of ministers.
 Amatyas: they were some sort of administrative personnel or civil servants who
filled the highest administrative and judicial appointments. Their pay scalesm service
rules and method of payment were clearly laid down. Their role and functions were
very important, for all governmental work proceeded from them.
 Yuktas: Subordinate officers responsible for the king’s revenue.
 Rajjukas: officers in charge of land measurement and boundary-fixing who inspected
lands collected revenue also maintained law and order.
 Sanstha Adhyaksha: superintendent of mint managed the minting of coins.
 Samastha Adyaksha: superintendent of markets was to regulate the market.
  Sulka Adyaksha: superintendent of tolls was the collector of customs and tolls.
 Sita Adhyaksha: superintendent of agriculture managed income from agriculture.
 Navadhyaksha: superintendent of ships-controlled traffic and transit by waterways.
 Loh Adhyaksha: superintended of iron.
 Pauthavadyakhsa: superintendent of weights and measures.
Local administration:

 The smallest unit of administration was the village.

 Head of a village Gramika, he was assisted in village administration by the “village
elders”. Most of the disputes of the village were settled by Gramika with the help of
the village assembly.
 Villages had a lot of autonomy.
 Pradeshika was the provincial governor or district magistrate. He used to tour the
entire district every 5 years to inspect the administration of areas under his control.
A group of officials worked in each district under him.
 Sthanika: Tax collectors working under Pradeshikas were responsible for recording
the income and expenditure of people.
 Durgapal: Governor of forts. He was the head of the royal fort responsible for all the
management of it.
 Antapala: governor of frontiers. Looked after the borders of the area.
 Akshapatal: accountant general who managed the records office.
 Lipikaras: Scribes
Revenue:

 The revenue department chief was called Samharta.

 Another important official was Sannidhata (treasurer)
 Revenue was collected on land, irrigation, shops, customs, forests, ferries, mines and
pastures.
 Chief sources of income was land tax (1/4th to 1/6th) and tax levied on trade etc.
 Brahmans, children and handicapped were exempted from the taxes.
 Sita was the income from the King’s own land.
 Panna and Masika were the punch marked coins of silver and copper respectively.
Society and culture in Maurya Empire:

 There were 7 caste systems according to the Megasthenes- Philosophers, farmers,

soldiers, herdsmen, artisans, magistrates and councilors.
 Concept of Joint Family was popular. Widows had a very honorable place in society.
 The Varna system functioned as desired by the priestly class.
Art & Architecture in Maurya Empire:

 Introduced stone masonry on a wide scale.

 Ashokan pillars, four lion capital at Sarnath (later adopted as national emblem) and
Sanchi are fine specimens of Mauryan art and architecture.
  The Maurya artisans also practiced hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in.
for example- Barabar Caves at a distance of 30 km from Gaya.
 Stupas were built across the Mauryan empire to preserve the relics of Buddha.
Stupas are hemispherical shaped structures with sacred relics of the Buddha making
them religious places. The most famous Stupas are at Bharhut and Sanchi. The Great
Sanchi Stupa was originally built with brick in the 3rd century BCE by the Mauryan
emperor. Ashoka and is believed to house ashes of the Buddha. It is located at
present day Sanchi town near Bhopal in M.P.
 Sanchi Stupa was discovered in 1818 by the British General Henry Taylor. Soon after
this restoration work started in 1881 and completed in 1919 under Sir John Hubert
Marshall who was the director general of the Indian Archeological Survey.
 The Great Sanchi Stupa and Sanchi’s other Buddhist monuments were collectively
designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1989.
 He conquered another great stupa in 249 BCE at Sarnath where the Buddha gave his
1st sermon after attaining enlightenment. This stupa was rebuilt by the Gupta
Dynasty around 500 Ce. During the colonial period Colonel Cunnigham was
excavating in and around stupa. He drilled a shaft down the center of the stupa and
discovered a tablet with the word Dhamekha, which is believed to be a corrupted
form of Dharma Chakra, meaning “turning the wheel of the law”. Since then it is
known as Dhamekh Stupa.
Causes of the fall of the Maurya empire:

 Brahmanical reaction: the tolerance policy of Ashoka developed some kind of

antipathy because animals and birds sacrificed, and women derided superfluous
rituals performed that affected the income of the brahmanas. New Kingdoms like
Shungas, Kanvas etc ruled by Brahmanas arose to ruin the empire.
 Financial crisis: the enormous expenditure on the army and payment to
bureaucracy created a financial for the empire.
 On the basis of the material culture acquired from Magadha, new kingdoms could
be founded and developed. This explains the rise of the Sungas and Kanvas in
central India, of the Chetis in Kalinga, and of the Satavahanas in the Deccan.
 But, after Ashoka’s death when the Mauryan empire declined and disintegrated, the
Greeks once again aimed at India. In time, foreign tribes attacked and established
their kingdoms on Indian soil. The notable ones were the Indo-Greeks, the Sakas
and the Kushanas.
NATIVE SUCCESSOR OF MAURYA EMPIRE
Sunga dynasty (185 BC- 73 BC)
Pushyamitra Sunga:

 Pushyamitra Sunga was the Brahmin army chief of Brihadratha, the last king of the
Mauryas.
 During a military parade, he killed Brihadratha and established himself on the throne
in 185/ 186 BC.
  Pushyamitra Sunga’s capital was at Pataliputra.
 He conquered Vidrabha.
 He followed Brahminism. Some accounts portray him as a persecutor of Buddhists
and a destroyer of stupas but there has been no authoritative evidence to support
this claim.
 During his reign, the Stupas at Sanchi and Barhut were renovated. He built the
sculptured stone gateway at Sanchi.
 He successfully countered attacks from two Greek kings namely, Menander and
Demtrius.
Agnimitra: -

 He was Pushyamitra’s son who succeeded him to the throne.

 His reign lasted from about 149 BC to 141 BC.
 According to the puranas Agnimitra was the governor of Vidisha and Vidisha was a
part of the Sunga Empire.
 Agnimitra is the hero of Kalidasa’a poem, Malavikagnimitram.
Last of the Sunga kings

 Vasumitra was the son of Agnimitra. Vasumitra’s successor are not clearly known.
Different names crop up in several accounts such as Andhraka, Pulindaka, Vajramitra
and Ghosha.
 The last Sunga king was Devabhuti. He was preceded by Bhagabhadra.
 Devabhuti was killed by his own minister Vasudeva Kanva in around 73 BC. This
established the Kanva dynasty at Magadha from 73 to 28 BC.

Effects of Sunga rule

 Hinduism was revived under the Sungas. As Pushyamitra sunga followed vedic
practices. According to the Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva, he is believed to have
performed two asvamedha or horse sacrifices. There was also an increase in
construction of temples and in the temples and household worship we find the idols
of Shiva and Vishnu.
 The caste system was also revived with the rise of the Brahmanas. This is visible in
the work of Manu (Manusmiriti) wherein he reassures the position of the Brahmins
in the fourfold society at that time.
 The language of Sanskrit gained more prominence during this time. Even some
Buddhist works of this time were composed in Sanskrit.
 The Sungas patronized art & architecture. There was an increase in the usage of
human figures and symbols in art during this period.
Kanvas (73 BC- 28 BC)

 This dynasty was founded by Vasudeva Kanva. He ruled for a short period and was
succeeded by Bhumiputra.
  As per the Puranas, there were 4 kings of the Kanva dynasty namely, Vasudeva,
Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susarman.
 The Kanvas were Brahmins.
 The Magadha empire had diminished by this time considerably.
 The northwest region was under the Greeks and parts of the Gangetic plains were
under different rulers.
 The Satavarhana dynasty defeated the Kanva dynasty and established their empire.
 The last Kanva king, Susarman, was killed by the Satavahana (Andhra) king.
Chedi/ Cheti dynasty

 The Cheti or Chedi dynasty emerged in Kalinga in the 1st century BC.
 The Hathigumpha inscription situated near Bhubaneswar gives information about it.
 This inscription was engraved by king Kharavela who were the 3rd Cheti king.
 Kharvela was a follower of Jainism.
 Other names of this dynasty are Cheta or Chetavamsa, and Mahameghavahana.
SATAVHANA (60 BC- 225 AD)
Origin & Development: -

 The most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and
central India were the Satvahanas.
 The 1st king of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka.
 They are referred to as Andhars in the Puranas.
Region:
The Satvahana kingdom chiefly comprised modern day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and
Maharashtra. At times, their rule also included parts of Karnataka, Gujarat and M.P.

 Pratishthana (Paithan) and Amravati were its capitals.

 Simuka founded the dynasty.
 They were the 1st native Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of the
rulers. This practice was started by Gautamiputra Satakarni who derived the
practice from the Western Satraps after defeating them.
 The coin legends were in Prakrit language.
 They patronized Prakrit more than Sanskrit.
 They supported both Buddhism and Brahmanism.
Important rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty
Satakarni I (180-124 BC)

 Satakarni I was the 3rd Satavahana king.

 He conquered Kalinga after the death of Kharvela.
 After annexing the Godavari valley, he assumed the tile of “Lord of Dakshinapatha”.
 His queen was Nayanika who wrot the Naneghat inscription which describes the king
as Dakshinapathapati.
  He performed Ashvamedha and revived Vedic Brahminism in the Deccan.
Hala

 King Hala compiled the Gatha Saptashati called Gaha Sattasai in Prakrit; it is
collection of poems with mostly love as the theme.
 Hala’s minister Gunadhya composed Brihatkatha. Brihatkatha is a collection of
adventure stories of Kings, heroes, gods, demigods and animals.
Gautamiputra Satakarni (106-130 AD or 86-110 AD)

 His mother was Gautami Balasri and hence his name Gautamiputra (son of Gautami).
 Greatest king of the Satavahana dynasty.
 He defeated the Greeks, Phalavas (Indo-Parthians) and the Sakas.
 His kingdom ran from Krishna in the South to Malwa and Saurashtra in the North and
from Berar in the East to the Konkan in the West.
 He called himself Ekabrahmana. He believed that no one was equal to him and
claimed Brahmin ancestry.
Administration of the Satavahana dynasty

 Maharathis, who had the power of granting villages and also had the privilege of
maintaining martial relations with the ruling family.
 Maha Senapati: Army Chief
 Mahatalavara: Head Watchman
 Language used during that period was “Prakrit” which is a modern version of the
Indo-Aryan language. Political inscriptions also threw some light on the rare use of
Sanskrit literature.
Decline of the Satavahans

 Pulumavi IV is considered the last king of the main Sat vahana line.
 He ruled until 225 AD. After his death, the empire fragmented into 5 smaller
kingdoms.
Foreign successor of Mauryas
Indo-Greeks (2nd century BC)-

 After Alexander invaded the northwest part of the subcontinent, one of his generals,
Seleucus Nicator, founded the Seleucid Empire.
 After this, Megasthenes was sent to reside at Chandragupta Maurya’s court. Other
Greek residents at Mauryan courts were Deimachus and Dionysius.
 Mauryas also had departments to take care of foreigners like Yavanas (Greeks) and
Persians. Ashoka maintained diplomatic relations with neighboring countries. A fair
number of foreigners lived in Patliputra to form a special committee under the
municipal management to look after the need of the welfare of the visitors.
 In ancient Indian sources, Greeks were called Yavanas (Sanskrit) and Yonas (Pali).
Indo-Greek kingdom

 The indo-greek kingdom was ruled by over 30 Hellenistic (Greek) kings in northwest
and North India from the 2nd century BC to the beginning of the 1st century AD.
 The kingdom started when Gracco- Bacterian king Demetrius (son of Euthydemus I)
invaded India around 180 BC.
 He conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of Punjab.
 Greek influence is mostly seen in art and sculpture, particularly the Gandhara School
of Art.
 This school of art is also known as Graeco region which lies in north west region which
his present-day Afghanistan. Later this school of art spread to Taxila, Mathura and
Sarnath. This style of art chiefly concentrated on images and relics of Buddha. They
were made of either stone or stucco (plaster)
 Gandhara school of art’s had special features. Buddha was given human form on
sculpture. The images had more resemblance to Greek God Apollo with a lot of
ornaments, drapery (layer/ folds of clothing) and headdress (sort of band for head/
pagadi/ crown). The figures portrayed sat in yogic postures. There was a blend of both
the arts.
 These rulers are important in Indian history because of the large number of coins
which they issued.
 They were the 1st rulers in India to issue coins.
 There were gold, silver, copper and nickel coins. The coins had Greek legends. The
Indo-Greek coins had royal portraits on the obverse and Greek deities (Zeus, Apollo
and Athena) on the reverse.

Menander I (Reign: 155 BC or 150-130 BC)

 Menander I soter was also known as Minedra, Minadra, or Milinda (in Pali).
 He was initially a king of Bactria.
 His empire extended from the Kabul River valley in the west to the Ravi River in the
east, form Swat valley in the north to Arachosia (helmand in Afghanistan).
 It was after he had a long conversation with the buddhist monk Nagasena that
Menander converted to Buddhism and patronized the faith. The dialogue of
Menander and Nagasena takes place over a period of two days. On the first day,
Menander drives his chariot to visit nagasena, in his assembly, challenges him with a
series of questions on the nature of the world and leaves on horseback, thoroughly
convinced by Nagasena on all points. On the 2 nd day, Nagasena visits his palace and
answers a further series of questions. The text ends on the morning of the 3rd day
when Menander and Nagasena meet one last time to assure each other of their
respect and Menander converts to Buddhism.
 He died in 130 BC and was succeeded by his son Stratro I.
The Milinda panho (composed around 100 BC) records a dialogue between Milinda and
the Buddhist sage Nagasena. Originally written in Sanskrit, only the Pali version is available
 now. In the work, Milinda is describes as a wise, learned, and able king. At the end of it,
Milinda accepts Buddhism and converts.
Decline of the Indo-Greek Kingdom

 The last Indo-Greek king was Strato II.

 He ruled the Punjab region until 55 BC, some say until 10 AD.
 Their rule ended with invasions of the Indo-Scythians (Sakas)
The Saka (1st century BC- 4th Century AD)
Origin: -

 Sakas also called as Scythians were a group of Iranian nomadic pastoral tribes.
Around the 2nd century BC tribes from Central Asia dnd China invaded the region of
Sakas. This forced Sakas to move toward Bacteria (area of modern-day Afghanistan)
and Parthia (present day- north eastern Iran).
 After defeating the Parthian king, they moved towards India. Scythians who
migrated to India are known as Indo-Scythians.
 And the beginning of the Saka Era majorly in India can be related to the ascent of the
king Chashtana.
 The Sakas had an Indian kingdom larger than the Indo-Greeks.
Shakas- Rulers

Maues (Reign 80-65 BC)

 Maues, also known as Moga, was the earliest Indo-Scythian king,

 He ruled over Gandhara (present Pakistan and Afghanistan)
 His capital was at Sirakap (Punjab, Pakistan)
 The languages used in these coins were Greek and Kharosthi.
Chashtana (Reign 78-130 AD)

 He was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshaptrapas (Satraps) dynasty who ruled over
Ujjain.
 The Saka Era is believed to have started during his ascension to power in 78 AD.
 Ptolemy mentions him as “Tiasthenes” or “Testenes”.
 He was the founder of one of the two major Saka Kshatrapa dynasties in northwest
India, the Bhadramukhas.
 The other dynasty was called Kshaharatas and included the king Nahapana (who was
defeated by Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni).
Rudradaaman I (Reign 130-150 AD)

 He is considered the greatest of the Saka rulers.

 He was the grandson of Chastana.
 His kingdom included Konkam, Narmada valley, Kathiawar, other parts of Gujarat
and Malwa.
  He conducted the repair work of the Sudrashana lake at Kathiawar.
 He married a Hindu woman and had converted to Hinduism.
 He maintained martial relationships with the Satavahans. Vashishtiputra Satakarni
was his son-in-law.
 He supported Sanskrit literature and cultural arts.
 He also issued the 1st long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
 He took up the title of Maha Kshatrapa after becoming king.
 The Junagarah rock inscription says that he was chosen as a protector by all castes
and thus adopted the “Mahasatrapa” title. Maha Kshatrapa means great satraps.
 It was during Rudradaman’s reign that Yavaneshwara, the Greek writer, lived in India
and translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit. It was very important text in
astrology Yavaneshwara was the 1st to distinguish between astronomy and astrology.
His work was the 1st formal introduction of Western Astrology to India and a work
which was referred to often in the later centuries.
 The Saka empire started declining after their defeat at the hands of the Satavahana
emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni.
 In western India, their rule came to and end in the 4th century AD when the last
Western Satrap Saka ruler Rudrasimha III was defeated by Chandragupta II of the
Gupta dynasty.
 It marks the beginning of the Vikrama era that prevailed in India and Nepal. The
period is named after king Vikramaditya to mark his triumph over the Saka rulers. It
starts at 57 BC; this calendar came into focus after the 9th century. It is the official
calendar or Nepal.
 This is a calendar based on the movement of the moon and has 354 days in a year.
The Vikram Samvat has 12 months with each month divided into 2 phases:
 Shukla paksha (15 days) – begins with the new moon and ends with a full moon.
 Krishna paksha (15 days)- begins with a full moon and ends with the new moon.
The parthians (1st century BC- 1st century AD)

 Originally the Parthians (Pahlavas) lived in Iran, they replaced the Sakas in North-
Western India, but controlled an area much smaller than the Sakas.
 The most famous Parthian king was Gondaphernes, in whose reign St. Thomas is said
to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity.
Kushan empire

Origin: -

 Kushanas are considered to be one of the five branches of the Yuezhi tribe who live
in the Chinese frontier or central Asia.
 They are known as Guishuang in Chinese sources.
 They eventually acquired dominance over the other Yuezhi tribes.
 They moved eastward towards India defeating the Parthians and the Sakas in the 1st
century AD.
Kujula kadphises or Kaphises I

 Kujula Kadphises was the 1st Yuezhi chief to lay the foundation of the Kushana
empire in India.
 Region: - He established his supremacy over Kabul, Kandhar and Afghanistan.
 He was succeeded by his son Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80-95) who expanded
the empire into northwest India.
Vima Kadphises-

 An inscription found at Rabatak in Afghanistan mentions that he was the son of Vima
Taktu and the father of Kanishka.
 He has issued a large number of gold coins.
 He was a Shiva devotee as is clear from coins issued by him. His coins carry the
image of Siva “with two arms, holding tiger-skin, trident, and facing bull” and show
the king on the other side.
 A large number of Roman gold coins found from this era indicate the prosperity of
India at that time.
 The external trade of India grew by leaps and bounds. The Kushanas served like a link
between India and Central Asia. The commercial relation between the Kushan
Empire and the roman empire also became well established. India drew plenty of
Roman gold by exporting many articles such as silk, gems spices and fine rice, to the
Roman empire.
Kansihka of Kushan Dynasty –

 Consider the greatest Kushana king, it was a period of great wealth marked by
extensive mercantile activites and a flourishing of urban life and the visual arts.
 Region- his kingdom included Afghanistan, parts of Sindhu, parts of Pathia, Punjab,
Kashmir parts of Magadha (including Pataliputra), Malwa, Benaras, perhaps parts of
Bengal, Khotan, Kashgar, Yarkhand (last three in modern china)
 The scholars in his court included Parsava, Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra, Nagarajuna,
Charaka and Mathara.
 His main capital was Peshawar, then known as Purushpura.
 Kanishka convened the 4th Buddhist council at Kundalvan in Kashmir.
 The Gandhara School of art flourished under him. This school for the 1st time
depicted Buddha as a human form.
 He also propagated the Mahayana form of Buddhism and he was largely responsible
for propagation it in China.
 Ashavagosha is considered to be the 1st Sanskrit dramatist.
 It is said that the Sudraka was present in the court of Kanishka. He wrote
“Mrichchhaktika”. It is about a young man named Charudutta, a rich courtesan in the
ancient city of Ujjaini.
Decline of the Kushana empire-
  Kanishka was succeeded by his son Vasishka.
 Vasishka was followed by Huvishka and Kanishka II (son of Vasishka).
 Kanishka II was followed by Vasudeva I.
 Vasudeva I was the last great king of the Kushanas. After his death, the empire
disintegrated. He probably died in 232 Ad.
GUPTA EMPIRE
 The Gupta empire rose to prominence in 320 AD and spread to large parts of
northern India, central and small parts of Southern India.
 The founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta.
 They are thought to be either Brahmins or Vaishyas.
 The Gupta period in ancient India is referred to as the “Golden Age” because of the
numerous achievements in the field of arts, literature, science and technology. It
also brought about the political unification of the subcontinent.
Chandragupta I (320-335 AD)

 He was the son of Ghatotkacha.

 Chandragupta married Kuamaradevi, the princess of Lichchavi. In dowry he gained
political alliance and the kingdom of Magadha (Patliputra), Pragya and Saketa.
 He extended his empire and power mostly by marriage alliances. His kingdom
extended west to the present-day City of Allahabad and included Ayodhya and
southern Bihar. He had control over a large territory due to which he assumed the
title of Maharajadhiraja (Great king of kings).
 He was the 1st great king of the Gupta empire.
Samudragupta (335-380 AD)

 Son of Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi.

 The Allahabad Pillar inscription describes his bravery as composed by his court poet,
Harisena.
 His region extended from the Himalayas in the north to the Krishna and Godavari
River in the south, and from Balkh (Afghanistan) in the west to Brahmaputra River in
the east.
 Virasen was his commander-in-chief during the southern campaign.
 Vasubandhu was his minister who was a famous Buddhist scholar.
 He was a follower of Vaishanavite Hinduism. In this, the devotee worships the lord
Vishnu and his avatars.
 He gave permission to the king of Sri Lanka, Meghavarna, to build a monastery in
Bodh Gaya.
 Samudragupta was a great conqueror and military genius. He won wars and
conquered throughout the length and breadth of India thereby building the mighty
Gupta Empire.
 He was a fearless fighter who had fought a hundred battles which left scars on his
body as marks of decoration caused by different kinds of weapons of war.
  Samudragupta celebrated the Asvamedha sacrifice after he had completed
conquests. In view of his success as a conqueror, V.A. Smith has called him the
“Indian Napolean”.
 Samudragupta was not only a conqueror but also a musician, poet, scholar, and a
patron of literature. He was also called Vikram “Kaviraja” since he composed verses.
Chandragupta II (Reign: 380-418 AD)

 Son of Samudragupta and his queen Dattadevi. Before Chandragupta II, his elder
brother Ramagupta ascended the throne after the death of Samudragupta.
According to the drama Devichandraguptam of Vishakadatta, Ramagupta was badly
defeated by a Saka chieftain. To save the people of his kingdom from the Saka ruler,
he agreed to surrender his queen Druvadevi to him. Chandragupta II was against
this so he in disguise of queen Druvadevi entered the enemy’s camp and killed the
Saka king to restore the huge empire queen and the dynasty. Ramagupta is
portrayed in this drama as a Coward king. Following which Chandragupta II killed his
brother and married his widow, Druvadevi.
 Marriage alliances and conquests were one of the ways of Chandragupta II to
extend his power and kingdom.
 He formed matrimonial alliance with the nagas ways of Chandragupta II to extend
his power and kingdom.
 He gave his daughter Prabhapavatigupta in marriage to Vakataka, ruler of
Maharashtra Rudrasena II. When Rudrasena II died Chandragupta indirectly started
ruling over Vakatas.
 The Saka kingdom was a neighboring kingdom to the Vakataka. So he annexed three
Satrapa kingdoms and assumed the title Sakari (destroyer of the sakas).
 He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III thus acquiring Saurashtra and Kathiawar
following which he took the title of Vikramaditya.
 His other names (as mentioned in coins) included Vikrama, Devagupta, devaraja,
Simhavikrama, Vikramaditya Sakari etc.
 He was the 1st Gupta ruler who had started a silver coin,
 His court had 9 jewels or Navratnas.
 Kalidasa- he wrote abhijnashakuntalam
 Amarsimha- his work Amarkosha is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, homonyms and
synonyms.
 Varahmihira- he wrote 3 important books.
 He composed Pancha Siddhantika, the 5 astronomical systems.
 His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in the Sanskrit language. It deals with a
variety of subjects like astronomy, astrology, animals, marriage, architecture,
geography, weather, omens.
 His Brihat Jataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology.
 Dhanvantri- He is considered to be the father of Ayurveda.
 Ghatakarpara- An expert in sculpture and architecture.
 Shanku- an architect who wrote the Shilpa Shastra.
  Kshapanaka- an astrologer who wrote Jyotishya Shastra.
 Vararuchi- author of Prakrit Prakasha,the 1st grammar of the Prakrit language.
 Vetala Bhatta- author of Mantrashastra and a magician.
 Fa-Hein, a buddhist from China- visited India during his reign. He records the
prosperity of the Gupta empire.
Kumargupta I (415-455 AD)

 Kumaragupta I was the son and successor of Chandragupta II.

 He introduced many new types of gold coins. In one of his coins, he is seen in the act
of killing a tiger while in another he is shown killing a lion.
 He issued a unique coin where he sis shown feeding a peacock and reverse carrying
Kartikeya seated on a peacock.
 As per historians his name Kumara is synonymous with Kartikeya hence he would
have issued this coin. Elephant-rider type coins of Kumaragupta I shows him riding
on an elephant on the obverse. Elephant is also a mount of Indra (mahendra/ sakra).
 Shakra is another name of Indra or Mahendra hence Kumaragupta I is also known as
Mahendraditya or Shakraditya.
 Performed ‘Asvamedha’ sacrifices.
 Most importantly, he laid the foundation of Nalanda University which emerged as an
institution of international reputation. He also started the construction of Nalanda
Mahavira.

Skandgupta (455-467 AD)

 Adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’.

 The Junagadh/Girnar inscription of his reign reveals that his governor Parnadatta
repaired the Sudarshan lake.
Administration of Gupta empire-

 All the power was concentrated with the king. Often, an element of divinity was
attached to the kings.
 The king adopted the titles of such as- Paramveshwara, Maharajadhiraj and Parama
Bhattaraka, kingship was hereditary.
 The Gupta rulers had organized a huge army.
 The most important officers in the Gupta empire were the Kumaramatyas. The royal
seal bore the imprint of Garuda.
 A new office of Sandhivighaka was created by Samundra Gupta who was responsible
for the peace and war i.e. modern foreign minister. Harisena held this title.
Economy in Gupta Empire

 From the economical view lands were divided into 5 groups:

 Kshetra Bhoomi- Cultivatable land
 Khila- waste land
 Vastu Bhoomi- Habitable land
  Charbagh Bhoomi- Pasture land
 Aprahatta Bhoomi- forest land
 Pustapala was an officer who maintained the records of all land transactions.
 The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India, but now as pure
as that of the Kushans.
 They also issued a good number of silver coins.
 Taxes in Gupta Period.
 Bhaga: - 1/6 of Agriculture produce
 Bhoga: - periodic supplies of food, fruits, fire woods etc to king,
 Bali: - Additional tax or voluntary offering by some people to the king.
 Uparikara: - An extra tax levied on all subjects.
 Halivakara: - Halivakra was a kind of tax slab, those who cultivated and owned a
plough used to pay tax.
 Kara: - it was an irregular tax charged from villagers.
 Hiranaya: - This was the tax paid in cash (gold) [Hiranya means Gold]. This was given
on special produce.
 Shulka: - it was a custom or toll tax very much similar to Chungi/Octroi in modern
times.
Art & Architecture during the Gupta Empire: -

 Most remarkable was the Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandgupta.

 Nagara and Dravidian styles of art came during this period. There was an absence of
growth in the Gandhian style.
 During the Gupta period Metallurgy also made a wonderful impact. The craftsman
were expert in their art of casting metal statues and pillars.
 The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi is a marvellous creation of this period. It is a 7 m
long pillar and it is rust free. This is a testimony to the metallurgical skills of Indians
of that time.
 The Bronze Buddha which is 7.5 feet high and found at Sultanganj is a product of the
Gupta age.
 Dashavatra temple in Deogarh, UP is one of the earliest surviving Hindu temples. It is
a fine example of Gupta architecture.
Gupta empire Literature –

 Sanskrit Literature flourished under the Guptas.

 Kalidasa, the great poet, and playwright was in the court of Chandragupta
Vikramaditya.
 He composed great epics such as Abhijnanshakuntalam, kumarasambhava,
Malavikagnimitram, Ritusamhara, Meghadootam, Vikramovarshiyam,
Raghuvamsham.
 The celebrated Sanskrit drama Mrchchkatika was composed during this time. It is
attributed to Shudraka.
  Poet Harisena also adorned the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He wrote the
Allahabad Prashasti (inscription).
 Vishnu Sharma of Panchatantra fame lived during this era.
 Amarsimha (grammarian and poet) composed a lexicon of Sanskrit, Amarkosha.
 Vishakadutta composed Mudrarakshasa. Other grammarians who contributed to the
Sanskrit language include Vararuchi and Bhartrihari.
Sciences

 Aryabhatta, the great Indian mathematician and astronomer wrote Surya Siddhanta
and Aryabhatiya conceptualized ‘zero’.
 Gave the value of Pi.
 He postulated that the earth is not flat and it rotated around its own axis and also
that it revolved around the sun.
 He also gave the distance between earth and sun which is remarkably close to the
actual value.
 He wrote on geometry, astronomy, mathematics and trigonometry.
 The Indian number system with a base of 10 which is the present numeral system
evolved from scholars of this era.
 Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita. He was an astronomer and an astrologer.
 Dhanvantri, the great physician, is supposed to have lived during this time.
 Sushruta composed the Sushruta Samhita around 600 AD. He gave detailed surgical
procedures in this work.
 Nalanda university, a center of Buddhist and other learning, attracted students from
abroad. The Gupta patronized this ancient seat of learning.
Decline of the Gupta Empire-

 The Gupta decline started during the reign of Skandagupta, the grandson of
Chandragupta II. He was successful in retaliating against the Huns and the
Pushyamitras.
 The last recognized king of the Gupta line was Vishnugupta who reigned from 540 to
550 AD.
 Destruction of Nalanda by Bakhtiyar Khilji: Nalanda University was destroyed by
Bakhtiyar Khaliji in 1202 AD Mohammad Bhaktiyar Khalji was a Turkic invader.
 Chess originated during this time and was called as Charuanga. In Sanskrit it means
four divisions of military i.e. infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariotry.
The Sangam Age

 The Sangam Age started from the 3rd century to the 4th century BC and it is called
Sangam because this age was referred to the Sangam academies of poets and
scholars. Sangam means a group of persons or an association.
 There were 3 Sangams conducted in ancient South India called Muchchangam, Tamil
legends say.
 It is period in the history of ancient southern India which is also called Tamilakam.
Sources of Sangam Age:

 the following are the sources of Sangam Age:

1. sangam literature- it is a major source that mentions about Sangam Age.
2. The Greek authors including Megasthenes, Pliny etc. mentioned the trade contracts
between South West India and the West.
3. Tamil kingdoms are mentioned in Ashokan edicts.

Dynasties of Sangam Age

The Pandyas

 The Pandayas reigned over the southern region of modern-day Tamil Nadu. Territory
extended to the modern district of Tirunelveli, Ramnad and Madurai.
 Madurai (situated on the bank of river Vaigai) was the capital city of the kingdom.
 Mudukudumi was the earliest known ruler of the kingdom.
 Silappadikaram was a famous tamil epic composed by Ilango around 1800 years ago.
According to which there was a merchant named Kovalan who loved a courtesan
named Madhavi. When he was wrongly accused and put to death by the Pandya
king, his loving wife Kannagi took revenge by cursing the royal city of Madurai.
 According to mythology, the curse of the Kannagi, wife of Kovalan, burnt and
destroyed Madurai.
 Carp (fish) was their state emblem.
 They controlled the pearl fisheries along the south Indian coast between Sri Lanka
and India. The kingdom was famous for pearls as per Megasthenese.
 They had trade relations with the Roman Empire. This is visible by the Roman coins
found near the coastal regions issued by emperors like Augustus, Caesar, Tiberius
and Nero.
 The Pandyan port of Korkai was a great center of trade and commerce, another port
was Saliyur.
The Cholas

 The founder of the Cholas dynasty is known to Vijayala Chola who was a feudatory
of the Pallava kings. He later established his rule over Thanjavur in 850 CE thus
laying the foundation of mighty Chola empire.
 Chola kingdom is also called Cholamandalam.
 It was situated to the north-east of the Pandya, kingdom between the Pennar and
Vellar rivers.
 Kingdom was extended to the modern districts of Tanjore and Trichirapalli.
 The greatest ruler of the chola dynasty was Raja Raja Chola I (974-1014 CE) who is
said to have defeated the Cheras of Kerala, the Chalukayas of Kalyani, as well as
conquered the northern part of Sri Lanka.
 Raja Raja Chola I’s son Rajendra I also took an invasion towards Sri Lanka. After the
battle the Sri Lankan King Mahinda V fled the northern part. Cholas took over the
area.
  Initially, the capital of the Cholas was Uriayur (inland) and Kaverippattinam (port
capital). Later it was shifted to Puhar (also called Poompuhar) as an alternate royal
residence and a chief port town.
 When Rajendra I defeated Mahipala I of Bengal he celebrated it by founding
Gangaikondacholapuram city.
 Famous for cotton trading.
 Elara was one of the earliest kings who conquered Sri Lanka.
 Karikala was the great king of the kingdom who had a charred leg. He founded
Puhar and constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri River.
 Various Sangam poems mention the Battle of Venni where he defeated an alliance
of the Cheras, Pandyas and 11 smaller chieftains.
 Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by Karikala.
 Trade and commerce prospered during his rule.
 He also constructed irrigation tanks near river Kaveri to make available water for
reclaimed land from the forest for farming.
 They had a very efficient navy at that time. It was autonomous and depended on
the number of naval fleets for transportation and logistics. Rajaraja commissioned
various foreigners, the Arabs and the Chinese in his naval building program.
 They had a coast guard with the name Sungu to protect the territorial waters.
 Tiger was their state emblem.
The Cheras

 Kingdom occupied the portion of both Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

 Vanji was the capital city.
 Muziris and Tondi were the main ports.
 Roman set up two regiments at Murziris (identical with Caranganore). They also built
the temple of Augustus at Muziris.
 Udiyangeral was the earliest ruler of the kingdom.
 Senguttuvan or Red Chera was the greatest king of the kingdom who founded
Pattini cult related to worship of the Goddess of Chastity- Kannagi.
 He was the 1st to send an ambassador to China from South India.
 ‘Bow & Arrow’ was their state emblem.
King Harshavardhana (Reign: 606 AD to 647 AD)

 Harshavardhana was born in 590 AD to king Prabhakarvardhana of Staneshwar

(Thaneswar, Haryana).
 He belonged to the Pushyabhuti, also called the Vardhana dynasty.
 He was a Hindu who later embraced Mahayana Buddhism.
 He was married to Durgavat.
 King Harshvardhana’s deeds were praised by Chinese Buddhist traveler Xuanzang in
his writings.
 Harshacharita, is the biography of Harshavardhan by Banabhatta, also known as
Bana.
Harsha Ascension: -
After King Prabhakara Vardhana died, his elder son Rajyavardhana ascended to the throne
of Thaneswar. Harsha had a sister, Rajyashri, who was married to king Grahavarman of
Kannauj. Sasanka, the Gauda king, killed Grahavarman and kept Rajyashri as a prisone with
him. This prompted Rajyavardhana to fight against Sasanka. But Sasanka killed
Rajyavardhana. This led the 16-years old Harshavardhana to ascend the throne of
Thaneswar in 606 AD. He vowed to avenge his brother’s murder and also rescue his sister.
For this, he forged an alliance with Bhaskaravarman, the Kamarupa king. Harsha and
Bhaskaravarman marched against Sasanka. Ulitmately, Sasanka left for Bengal and Harsha
became the king of Kannauj.
Life in king Harshavardhana’s empire: -

 Harsha’s plans to conquer lands to the southw were hampered when the Chalukya
king, Pulakesin II defeated Harsha in 618-619 AD.
 This sealed Harsha’s southern territorial limit as the Narmada River.
 There were two types of territories under Harsha. One was directly under him and
the other type was those that were feudatories.
 Direct Territories: Central Provinces, Bengal, Kalinga, Rajputana, Gujarat.
 Feudatories: Jalandhar, Kashmir, Kamarupa, Sind, Nepal.
Art & Architecture: -

 Hiuen Tsang visited India during Harsha’s reign.

 He has given a very favourable account of king Harsha and his empire.
 He himself was an accomplished writer.
 He is credited with the Sanskrit works Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda.
 Banabhatta was his court poet and he composed the Harshacharita which gives an
account of Harsha’s life and deeds.
 Harsha generously supported Nalanda University.
 He had a good tax structure. 1//4th of all the taxes collected were used for charity
and for cultural purposes.
 Harsha was a competent military conqueror and able administration.
 Harsha was the last king to rule over a vast empire in India before the invasions by
the Muslims.
Harsha’s death
Harsha died in 647 AD after ruling for 41 years. Since, he died without any heirs, his empire
disintegrated very soon after his death.
The Pratiharas

They rulexd over western India and parts of northern India from the mid-7th century to the
11th century. They were also called Gurjara-Prathihars, because they originated from
Gurjarata or south-western Rajasthan. The Gurjaras were originally pastroalists and fighter.
The kingdom was founded by Harichandra (Brahmana) in Jodhpur (southwestern Rajasthan).
The dynasty gained importance in the 2nd quarter of the 8th century, during the rule of
nagabhata I. The UNESCO World Heritage Site at Khajuraho, is famous for the development
of the Gurjara- Pratihara style of temple building.
Importance Rulers:
Nagabhata I (c.730-760 CE)

 He successfully resisted the invasion of Arabs and defeated the Army during the
Caliphate campaigns in India.
 Ruled over the areas of Gujrat, Rajputana and Malwa.
 Dhruva the Rashtrakuta king defeated him.
Vatsraja (c.780-800 CE)

 He expanded his rule over a large part of North India. He made Kannauj (western
UP) his capital.
 A tripartite struggle was between Dharmapala (the pala king of Bengal) and Vatsarja
(Prathiharas) was there among which continued for about 30 years. However,
Pratihars exercised their control over Kannauj till end.
 Dharmpala (the Pala king) was defeated by Vatsarja and in turn, he was defeated by
Dhruv (the Rashtrakuta king) in the tripartite struggle.
Nagabhata II (c. 800-833 CE)

 Dharmapala (Palas) was again defeated by Pratiharas- Nagabhatta II, who was later
defeated by Govind (the Rashtrakuta king) in the tripartite struggle.
 He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled for a short span of time and
was succeeded by his son Mihir Bhoja.
Bhoja I/ Mihir Bhoja (c. 36-885 CE)

 He is considered to be the popular ruler of the Pratiharas and ruled for over 46
years.
 Earlier, he was defeated by the RAshtrakutas, the Palas and the Kalachuris but later,
with the help of his feudatories the Chedis and the Guhilas, he emerged successful
and won over the Rashtrakutas and the Palas.
 He had his capital at Kannauj, which was also called Mahodayas. The Barrah Copper
Plate inscription mentions a military camp at Mahodaya called Skandhavara.
 He was a great follower of Vaishnavism and assumed the title of “Adivaraha”.
 His supremacy was acknowledge by the Chandals, the Kalachuris and the Arabs of
Sindh.
 As per the Arab travellers, the Pratihara rulers had the best cavalry in India. He was
titled “king Baura” by an Arab traveller named Al-Masudi.
Mahendrapala (c. 885-910 CE)
  He made significant contributions in further extending the Pratihara empire-
reaching west to the border of Sindh, north to the Himalayas, east to Bengal and
south past the Narmada.
 He fought a battle with the king of Kashmir but had to give some of his territories in
Punjab which were won by Bhoja.
 Adopted the title of “maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta” (Great king of kings of
northern India).
 An eminent Sanskrit poet, dramatist critic named Rajashekhar was in his court. His
works include Karpuramanjari (written in Sauraseni Prakrit), Kavya Mimansa,
Balabharata, Bhrinjika, Vidhasalabhanjika, Prapanch Pandav etc.

Mahipala I (c. 913-944 CE)

 The downfall of the Prathiharas started during his reign. The Rashtrakuta king, Indra
III defeated him and destroyed the city of Kannauj.
 The Rashtrakutas took control over Gujarat as is mentioned by Al-Masudi in his
accounts- ‘the Prathihara empire had no access to the sea’.
Rajyapala (c. 960-1018CE)

 He was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III.

 Mahmud Ghazni raided Kannauj and Rajyapala had to flee from the battlefield.
Yashpala (c. 24-1036CE)

 The last ruler of the Pratihara dynasty.

 By, the Gandhavalas conquered Kannauj.
In the 11th century CE, the Ghaznavids completely wiped off the Prathiharas from the
political map and were succeded by Chauhans/Chahamanas (Rajputana), the
Paramaras/Pawar’s (Malwa) and the Solankis/Chalukyas (Gujarat).
The Rashtrakuta emperors (753-982)
1. Dantidurga (735-756)
2. Krishna I (756-774)
3. Govinda II (774-780)
4. Dhurva Dharavarsha (780-793)
5. Govinda III (793-814)
6. Amoghavarsha (814-878)
7. Krishna II (878-914)
8. Indra II (914-929)
9. Amoghavarsha (929-930)
10. Govinda IV (930-936)
11. Amoghavarsha (936-939)
12. Krishna III (936-967)
13. Khottiga Amoghavarsha (967-972)
14. Karka II (972-973)
 15. Indra IV (973-982)
Founder
Dantidurga/ Dantivarman (735-756): -

 Dantidurga was a Rashtrakuta chief in Deccan. Initially Rashtrakutas were

subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. Dantidurga, in the mid-8th century
overthrew his Chalukya overload and performed a ritual known as ‘Hiranya-Garbha’.
This means “golden egg”. And this ritual involves worshipping lord Vishnu. It was
believed that this ritual leads to the rebirth of the sacrifice as a kshatriya, even if he
was not one by birth.
 His capital was Gulbarga in present day Karnataka.
 Dantidurg occupied all territories between Godavari and Vima.
 He is said to have conquered Kalinga, Kosala, Kanchi, Srisril, Malava, Lata etc. and
occupied Maharashtra by defeating Chalukya king Kirtivarman.
Rulers
Krishna I (756-774)

 Dantidurga died without any heir so his uncle Krishna I succeeded him.
 The Kailash Temple at Ellora was built by the Rashtrakuta King Krishna I.
Krishna III (939-967)

 The last powerful and efficient king of the Rashtakutas.

 He also succeeded in conquering Tanjore and Kanchi.
 He succeeded in defeating the Tamil kings of the Chola Kingdom.
Art & Architecture:
Krishna I built the Kailash temple at Ellora and Elephanta. Also the most remarkable temple
Kailasanatha temple at Ellora was built by Krishna Pallava dynasty.
Pallava dynasty

The origin and founder of the Pallava dynasty is not clear. There are various theories and
beliefs of their origin. According to some historians they are a branch of an Iranian tribe.
According to some they are feudatories of satavhanas. But their rule began around 4th
century AD.
Region: -

 Their territories were at a great height during their rule and it extended from the
northern part of Andhra Pradesh to River Kaveri in the south.
 During the 7th century, the Cholas were reduced to a marginal state by the authority
of the Pallavas.
 Vatapi (Badami) was occupied by the Pallava king Narasimhvarman who defeated
the Chalukyas.
  The Kalabhra uprising were protesting against the numerous land grants
(Brahamadeya) to Brahmanas made by the Brahmanic rulers of the three dynasties.
Rulers of the Pallava empire
Sivaskanda Varman

 Greatest among the early rulers.

 Ruled at the beginning of the 4th century AD.
 He performed Ashwamedha and the other Vedic sacrifices for which he gained the
title Dharma Maharaja.
Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (Reign: 575 AD-600 AD)

 Was a Buddhist.
 Included Sri Lanka in his kingdom.
 Defeated for which he gained the title Dharma Maharaja.
Mahendravarman (Reign: 600 AD- 630 AD)

 Succeeded Simhavishnu who was his father.

 He was a poet and composed Vichitrachita and Mattavilasa Prahasana.
 He introduced rock-cut temple architecture.
 Though he was born as a Jain but converted to Saivism.
 During his reign Chalukya king Pulakesin II attacked his kingdom. They fought wars
and eventually Mahendravarman was able to save his capital from Pulakesin II. But
Pulakesin II managed to take over the northern part of his territory.
 Mahnedravarman died in one of the battles with the Chalukyas. He was an able and
efficient ruler.
Narasimhavarman I (630-668 AD)

 Son and successor of Mahendravarman.

 Considered the greatest king of Pallavas.
 Also called Narasimhavarman Mahamalla/Mamalla.
 He wanted to avenge his fathers defeat and regain the lost territories. Son,
Narashimhavaman I prepared his army. Narasimhavarman with his army fought with
Pulakeshin’s army and regained their lost territory. Not only this after this victory his
confidence was boosted. So he decided to take over Vatapi (Pulakeshin’s capital).
VAatapi was built at a great height and secured by forts from all sides. It was a
difficult task. But Pulakesin and his army spurred by their hunger for revenge
managed to capture his capital and killed Pulakesin II in.
 He took control of Vatapi, the Chalukya capital and assumed the title “Vatapikonda”.
 He sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka and reinstated the Sinhalese Prince
Manivarma.
 He founded the city of Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) which is named after him.
 Hieun tsang visited the Pallava kingdom during his reign in about.
Great Nayanar Saints like Appar, Tirugnanasambandar and Siruthondar lived during his
reign.
Later rulers

 After Mahendravarman II, his son Parameswara-verman became the king.

 During his rule, Kanchipuram was occupied by the Chalukyas. Nripatunga was an
important king who defeated a Pandaya king. There were a few other rulers. The last
ruler of the Pallava dynasty was Aparajitavarman who was killed in battle with the
cholas.
Pallava Architecture:
The beautiful and grand Pallava style of architecture can be divided into 4 phases or styles:

1. Mahendra style (600-625 AD)

2. Mammala style (625-674 AD)
3. Rajasimha and Nadivarman style (674-800 AD)
4. Aparajita style (early 9th century)
 The Pallava era witnessed a transition from rock-cut to free-standing temples.
 Mahendravarman was a pioneer in rock-cut architecture. Mandagapattu rock-cut
temple was the 1st rock-cut temple built by him.
 Narasimhaverman II, also known as Rajasimha, built the Kanchi Kailashnathar
Temple during the last 7th century AD.
 The shore temple at Mahabalipuram was also built by Narasimhaverman. It is the
oldest structural temple in South India. It has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site
since it is also called the 7 Pagodas.
 Pallavas built the panch rath or the 5 Rathas temple in the early 7th century AD near
the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram. This is carved out by a single cliff. Construction
was started by Mahendravarman I and continued during Narasimhaverman I’s rule.
But was left incomplete after his death.
 This was named after the Pandavas Yudhisthira, Arjuna, Bhima, Nakul, Sahadeva and
their wife Draupadi. The Draupadi Ratha is the smallest of Panch Ratha. And the
longest of 5 Raths raths is Bhima ratha, The longest, tallest and magnificent of all is
Dharmraja’s/ Yudhisthir’s Ratha.
 The Vaikunta Perumal at Kanchipuram was built by Nandivarman II.

CHALUKYA DYNASTY
 This was a dynasty which ruled over southern and central India between 6th to 12th
centuries AD. They ruled as three separate individuals in spite of being from the
same dynasty.
 They ruled from the Raichur Doab, which was situated between the River Krishna
and Tungabhadra.
Badami Chalukyas:
  The earliest Chalukyas had their capital at Aihole which was later shifter to Badami
(Vatapi) in Karnataka.
 They ruled from the mid-6th. They overthrew the Kadamba Kingdom and established
their rule.
 They declined after the death of their greatest king Pulakesin II in by the hand of
Narasimhavarman I of the Pallava dynasty.

Eastern Chalukyas:

 Emerged after the death of Pulakesin II in Eastern Deccan with its capital at Vengi.
 They ruled till the 11th century.
Western Chalukyas:

 Descendants of the Badami Chalukyas.

 They emerged in the late 10th century and ruled from Kalyani (modern day
Baavakalyan).

Chalukya rulers
Jayasimha was the 1st ruler of the Chalukyas
Pulakesin I (Reign: 543 AD- 566 AD)

 Founded the empire with its capital at Vatapi.

 They ruled over an empire that covered modern day Karnataka and some parts of
Andhra Pradesh.
 Performed Ashvamedha.
Kirtivarman I (Reign: 566 AD- 597 AD)

 Son of Pulakesin I.
 Conquered Konkan and northern Kerala.
Mangalesha (Reign: 597AD-609 AD)

 Brother of Kirtivarman.
 Conquer the Kadambas and the Ganges.
 Was killed by his nephew and son of Kirtivarman, Pulakesin II.
Pulakesin II (609- 642 AD)

 The greatest of the Chalukya kings as he extended the Chalukya rule to most parts of
the Deccan.
 His birth name was Eraya. Information about him is written on Aihole inscription.
This poetic inscription was written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language
using the Kannada script.
 Xuanzang, a buddhist monk visited his kingdom. He has praised Pulakeshin II as a
good and authoritative king.
  is famous for stopping Northern king Harsha by the Narmada river in his tracks while
he was trying to conquer southern parts of the country.
 Pulakesin Ii received a Persian mission as depicted in an Ajanta cave painting. He
maintained diplomatic relations with the king of Persia Khusru II.
 His death saw a lapse in Chalukya power.
Vikramaditya I (655-680 AD)

 Son of Pulakesin II who plundered Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas.

Kirtivarman II (746-753 AD) Great great grandson of Vikramaditya I.
Last of the Chalukya rulers was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king, Dantidurga.
Art & Architecture:

 The temples under the Chalukyas are a good example of the Vesara style of
architecture. This is also called the Deccan style or Karnataka Dravida or Chalukyan
style.
 It is a combination of Dravida (South Indian style) and Nagara (North Indian style).
There are no fixed rules followed in the design and plan of this style of construction.
 Aihole temples: ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple, Huchimalligudi
temple, Jain temple at Meguti by Ravikirti. There are 70 temples in Aihole.
 Badami temples
 Pattadakkal: is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. There are 10 temples here in Nagar
style and 6 in Dravida style. Virupakasha temple and Sangameshwara Temple are in
Dravida style. Papanatha temple in Nagara style.
Pala Empire

 The pala dynasty ruled the areas of Bihar and Bengal for about 400 years. After the
fall of Harsha unrest started in the region. All the feudal lords wanted to gain power
and were struck in a conflict cycle. Then one of these feudal lords, Gopala, managed
to gain support of other leaders and established his ruler over the region. Gopala
founded the dynasty in.
Rulers: -
Gopala (Reign: 750-770 AD)

 1st Pala king and founder of the dynasty.

 To spread the religion of Buddhism in the region he built the monastery at
Odantpuri, Bihar.
 Considered the 1st Buddhist king of Bengal.
Dharmapala (reign: 770-810 AD)

 Son and successor of Gopala.

 Expanded the kingdom.
  Was a pious Buddhist.
 He founded the Vikramashila University at Bhagalpur, Bihar. Along with Vikramshila
he also built Somapura and Mahavira university in present day Bangladesh.
 He had frequent wars with the Pratiharas (which ruled western India areas of
Rajasthan & MP) and the Rashtrakutas (ruled over Karnataka).
 The palas became the most powerful kingdom in northern and eastern India during
his rule.
Dharmapala (reign: 770-810 AD)

 Son of Dharmapala and Rannadevi, a Rashtrakuta princess.

 Extended the kingdom to Assam, Odisha, Kamarupa.
 Was a staunch Buddhist and built many monasteries and temples in Magadha.
 Defeated the Rashtrakuta rule Amoghavarsha.
Mahipala I

 Ascended the throne in.

 Recovered northern and eastern Bengal.
 Also took Bihar.
Rampala

 Mahipala II had captured his brother Rampala after taking over the throne. During
this time only a hill tribe named Kaivarta invaded Bengal and overthrew the Palas
after killing Mahipala II. Taking advantage of the situation Ramapala escaped.
Ramapala was an ambitious ruler. He wanted to regain his kingdom.
 He was the last strong Pala king.
 The kingdom disintegrated during his Kumarapala’s reign.
Madanapala (reign: 1144-1162 AD)

 The last Pala king.

 After him, the Sena dynasty replaced the Palas.
 Legacy of the Pala dynasty.
 The Pala empire was dethroned by the Hindu Sena dynasty in the 12 th century.
 The Pala period is also known as ‘Golden Era’ in Bengali history.
 1, Sri Lanka, Burma, Java.
Vakataka dynasty:

 The Vakataka dynasty ruled parts of South-Central India from to.

 They were important rulers whose power was firmly established in the Deccan just
like their contemporaries, the Guptas in the north.
 They were important successors of the Satavahanas. After the satavahanas had
collapsed and Sakas were also no longer the powerful rulers. The area was open for
new power to emerge. At this time, Vindya Shakti, a Brahmin chieftain, founded the
Vakataka empire.
Origins:

 The Vakatakas were Brahmins.

 Their origins are not clear with some claiming they are a northern family while
others claim they originated in Southern India.
 They have Sanskrit and Prakrit inscriptions which are similar to those belonging to
the southern Pallavas.
 Also, no records of the Vakatakas have been found north of the Narmada. They are
also mentioned in the Puranas.
Rulers
Vindhyashakti (reign: 250-270 AD)

 Founder of the dynasty.

Harisena

 5th generation descendant of Sarvasena.

 Patronized Buddhist art and architecture.
 Many of the Buddhist caves, Viharas and Chaityas at Ajanta were executed under his
reign. Ajanta has been UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983. They served as a
piligrimage site as well as learning center.
 The later caves at Ajanta show the high perfection and sophistication in art achieved
under the Vakataka kings, particularly Harishena.
Dynasties of North-Eastern India
About Dynasty

 The Ahom dynasty was founded by the Taj Prince Chaolung Sukapha, who entered
the Brahmaputra valley in 1228 in Assam.
 When Mughals invaded India they were invincible everywhere but could never
capture North East. From 1615 to 1682, the Mughals attacked North East 17 times.
And in one of the attack Mughals took over Guwahati whose ancient name is
Pragjyotisha as per Pruanas. Prag means ‘former’ or ‘eastern’ and Jyotisha ‘a star’,
astrology, shining. Pragjyotishpur therefore means the ‘city of Eastern Astrology’.
Battle of Saraighat

 This battle was fought to regain the lost terrirtories of Ahom kingdom and also save
it from losing any area further. Lachit Borkhupan one of the ministers of council of
Kingdom led the battle.
 British East India in the wake of helping Ahom to fight Burmese invasions joined
hands with Ahom and eventually the British East India annexed Assam by the treaty
of Yandabo in 1826.

Chhattisgarh Gaur Maria, Panthi, Rau Nacha, Pandwani,

Vedamati, Kapalik
 Gujarat Garba, Dandiya Rass, Trippani Juriun, Bhavai
Goa Tarangamel, Koli, Dekhni, Fugdi, Shigmo, Ghode,
Modni, Samayi nrutya, Jagar, Ranmale
Haryana Jhumar, Phag, Daph, Dhamal, Loor, Gugga, Khor
Himanchal Pradesh Jhora, Jhali, Chharhi, Dhaman, Chhapeli, Mahasu
Jammu & Kashmir Rauf, Hikat, Mandjas, Kud Dandi Nach
Jharkhand Alkap, Karma, Munda, Agni, Jhumar, Janani
Jhumar, Mardana Jhumar, Paika, Phagua
Karnataka Yakshagana, Huttari, Suggi, Kunitha, Karga
Kerala Ottam Thullal, Kaikottikali
Maharashtra Lavani, Nakata, Koli, Lezin, Gafa, Dahikala Dasavtar
Madhya Pradesh Jawara, Matki, Aada, Khada Nach, Phulpati, Grida
Dance, Selarki, Se-labhaddoni
Manipur Dol cholam, Thang Ta, Lai Haraoba, Pung Cholom
Meghalaya Ka shad suk mynieum, nongkrem, Laho
Mizoram Cheraw dance, khuallam, Chailam, Sawlakin,
Chawnglaizawn, Zangtalam
Nagaland Rangma, bamboo dance, Zeliang, Nusirolians,
Gethinglim
Odisha Savari, Ghumara, Painka, Munari.
Punjab Bhangra, Giddha, Daff, Dhaman, Bhandd
Rajasthan Ghumar, Chakri, Gangor, Jhulan Leela, jhuma,
suisini, ghapal
Sikkim Chu faat, sikmari, Singhi Chaam or the snow lion,
yak Chaam, Denzong Gneha, Tashi Yangku
Tamil Nādu Kumi, Kolattam, Kavadi
Tripura Hojagiri
Uttar Pradesh Nautanki, Raslila, Kajri, Jhora, Chappeli
Uttarakhand Garhwali, Kumayuni, Kajari, Jhora, Raslila

Festivals and Melas of India

India si knowna s a land of colors and full of diverse cultures. There are various fairs and
festivals celebrated with high spirit in each and every town of India.

State Indian Festivals

Andhra Pradesh Dasara, Ugadi, Deccan festival,
Brahmostsavan
Arunachal Pradesh Reh, Boori boot, Myoko, Dree, Pongtu,
Losar, Murung, solang, Mopin, Monpa
festival
Assam Ambubachi, Bhogali Bihu, Baishagu,
Dehing Patkai
Bihar Chhath puja, Bihula, Sonepur Fair
Chhattisgarh Maghi Purnima, Bastar Dusshera
Goa Sunburn festival, Ladain, Mando
 Gujarat Navratri, Janmasthmi, Kutch Utsav,
Uttranaya
Himanchal Pradesh Rakhadumni, Gochi festival
Haryana Baisakhi
Jammu & Kashmir Har Navami, Chhari, Bahu Mela,
Dosmoche
Jharkhand Karam utsav, Holi, Rohini, Tusu
Karnataka Mysore Dasara, Ugadi
Kerala Onam (snake boat race), Vishu
Madhya Pradesh Lok-rang Utsav, Tejaji, Khajuraho festival
Meghalaya Nongkrem festival, Khasis festival,
Wangla, Sajibu Cheiraoba
Maharashtra Ganesh utsav, gudi parwa
Manipur Yaoshang, Porag, chavang Kut
Mizoram Chapchar kut
Nagaland Hornbill, Moastsu festival
Odisha Rath Yatra, Raja Parba, Nukahai
Punjab Lohri, Baisakhi
Rajasthan Gangaur, teej, Bundi, Makar Sankranti,
Nagaur Fair, Pushkar fair
Sikkim Losar, Saga Dawa
Tamil Nadu Pongal, Thaipusam, Natyanjali festival
Telangana Bonalu, Bathukamma
Tripura Kharchi Puja
West Bengal Durga puja
Uttaranchal Ganga Dusshera
Uttar Pradesh Ram navmi, Ganga Mahotsav, Navratri,
Khichdi.

Festivals of Nepal
1. Mahashivaratri: Lord Shiva is worshipped in the celebration.
2. Fagun Purnima or Holi also called Chir.
3. Bisket Jatra- the chariot festival of Bhaktapur.
4. Buddha Jayanti: the birth of Lord Buddha.
5. Janai Purnima: the celebration of love and purity of brother and sister.
6. Gai Jatra: an unconventional festival where cows are worshipped as it is believed
that cows help the deceased members of the family to reach Lord Yama (Lord of
Death).
7. Indra Jatra: worship for good harvest
8. Teej: the woman only festival in Nepal worship Lord Shiva on this day.
9. Dashain: the biggest festival of Nepal where victory of Goddess Durga is celebrated
over Mahishausra.
10. Tihar: the shining festival of Nepal also known as festival of light. Celebrated for 5
days and on the first two days crows and dogs are worshipped.
 11. Lhosar: the most vibrant festival in Nepal. This is Tibetan new year.
Festivals of Bangladesh:
Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Adha, Durga Puja, Buddha Purnima, Christmas, Pohela Biashakh (Bengali
New year), Pohela Falgun (1st day of spring), Nabanna (harvest fetival), Nouka Baich (boat
race), Shakrain (Kite festival), Ekushey Boi Mela (book fair).
Festivals of Pakistan:

Shab-e-barat, Eid-ul-fitr, Bassant, Eid-ul-Azha, mela Chiraghan and Ramadan are some of the
major festivals.

Paintings and Painters (School of Paintings & arts forms)

 Rajasthani school of painting Rajput were the ruling clan of Rajasthan and were the
main supporters of the Rajasthani School of painting. It is said that the Rajasthani
paintings were influenced by the Mughals artists and the artists of the deccan
sultanate.
 Mewar school of painting: The unique painting of this school were the ones that
depicted the passionate relationship between Radha and Krishna. The most famous
painting is Bani Thani by Nihal Chand.
 Bundi school of painting: Bundi and Kota were the twin cities whose rulers were
devotees of Lord Krishna. Their Krishna bhakti plays an important role in this school
of paintings. Also local vegetation is in great detail. Human faces were round with
pointed noses in the paintings. Color of sky is painted in different colors and a red
ribbon is visible in the sky. Shaykh hasan, Shaykh Ali and Shaykh Hatim, Mir Sayyid Ali
and Khwaja Abddus Samad were the artist of this time.
 Jodhpur school of paintings: the painting here depicted a trend for documentary
painting through portraiture and depiction of court life. Stories of Krishna, Rama and
others, and get depicted in paintings. One of the earliest sets painted in pali is a
Ragamala set by artist Virji in.
 Bikaner school of paintings: Mughal art is seen heavily in the work of the artist.
Earlier paintings of Bikaner were made by the “Patshahi chitrakars” i.e. artists who
were influenced by Mughal traditions. Notable artists of this time were Ustad Ali
Raza, Rukunddin, Ibrahim, Nathu, Sahibdin and Isa.
 Pals school of painting: the painting dating back to 8th century AD belongs to this
school. This school emphasized on the symbolic use of colours and the themes were
often taken from the Buddhist Tantric rituals. Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita is the
most notable work in the form of a manuscript made during Pala King Rampala’s
reign at Nalanda.
 Jaina school of painting: this school of miniature painting gained prominence in the
11th century AD. The paintings often displayed male figures and goddesses of the
Tirthankara with the use of colors like green, red, blue, gold.
 Pahari style of painting: these paintings were found in Himanchal Pradesh and near
by areas. Pahari painting had 2 types: Jammu or Dogra school (North series) and
 Kangara school (South Series). The themes ranged from mythology to literature. Two
of the greatest painters in this school were Nainsukh and Manaku.
 Miniatures in south India: the difference between North India & South paintings was
the heavy use of gold in Southern paintings. The artists focused on painting gods and
goddesses instead of rulers.
 Tanjore paintings: these were supported by the Marathas in the 18th century. The
artists here used gold leaf and brilliant colors for painting. They were glass paintings
with gemstones. The Raju community of Thanjavur and Trichy were best known for
creating great masterpieces like C. Kondiah Raju.
 Mysore paintings: these were supported during the rule of Mysore kings’ sand later
the British. The major theme was Hindu gods and goddesses.
 The use of gesso paste- a mixture of zinc oxide and Arabic gum as a base for the
painting makes it unique. It was under the rule of Raja Krishna Raja Wodeyar that
the popularity of the Mysore School of painting reached its highest point. Late Shri Y.
Subramanya Raju also contributed to this beautiful art form.
Modern painting
 Company paintings: under British rule, company paintings emerged in India. It
merged British and European elements with Indian elements. Use of water color,
linear perspective and shading made them unique. Among the famous artists of the
genre were Sewak Ram who worked in Patna, and members of the Ghulam ‘Ali khan
family of Delhi’.
 Bazar paintings: this style was supported by British rulers. The art was inspired by
Greco-Roman elements. Paintings were made of Greek and roman statue. Paintings
were also of every day bazaars or markets in India. Religious paintings were allowed
but not with the figures having unnatural features like multiple arms, legs and animal
heads.
Modern painters:
 Raja Ravi Verma: he combined features of Western painting with South Indian art.
He was also known as “Raphael of the East” fondly due to his brilliant brush strokes
and life-like images.
Folk painting in India
 Madhubani (Mithila) paintins: these paintings are made mostly by women around
Madhubani town. The painting have a Hindu religious element and also symbolic
figures. This art has received the G. I. tag.
 Pattachitra: originated in Odisha. The paintings are from the Vaishnav or Shaiva cult.
They are drawn using brushed on canvas of cloth or palm leaves.
 Warli art: the paintings are drawn by the tribe Warli which lives in Gujarat,
Maharashtra border. The paintings bear a close resemblance to the Bhimbetka
paintings. Paintings are done using white paint and mostly drawn on walls.
 Handicrafts and Geographical Indication (G.I) in India.

State Art Remarks

 Kerala Aranmula Kannadi, Hand made mirror
coconut shell craft
Karnataka Channapatna toys, Wooden toys and dolls
Bidriware Handicrafts, and metal handicrafts
Mysore Rosewood Inlay
Andhra Pradesh Kondapalli toys/ Lepakshi Wooden toys
Handicapped
Tamil Nadu Thanjavur dolls Bobble head dolls
Rajasthan Kathputali, Jaipur blue String puppets
pottery, ravana hast
veena
Chhattisgarh Dhokra, bastar iron and Wax metal casting
wooden craft, Patravali
Telangana Nirmal toys and crafts, Soft wood toys and
Karimnagar silver filigree, paintings
Pembarthi metal art
Assam Cane and bamboo crafts, Objects made with
Kamrupi crafts, terracotta bamboo
work
Gujarat Sankheda furniture, rogan Colorful painted furniture
painting
Uttar Pradesh Khurja pottery, Agr4a
marble art
Odisha Konark stone carving, Custom carved stone
pipli applique work work
Manipur Longpi coiled pottery
Andaman Sea shell craft
Punjab Jutti, kohlapuri
Maharashtra Kolhapuri chappal
Assam Cane and bamboo crafts, Objects made with
Kamrupi crafts, terracotta bamboo
work
Gujarat Sankheda furniture, rogan Colorful painted furniture
painting

Ajanta caves:

 Ajanta is a series of rock-cut caves in the Sahyadri ranges (Western Ghats) on Waghora
river near Aurangabad in Maharashtra developed around to.
 There are a total 29 caves out of which 25 were used by Buddhist to stay and the other
4 to pray.
 These caves have paintings which are said to have been painted during the Vakataka
rule.
 These paintings are done using water-based colors on the wall. Paintings are around
the theme of Buddhism.
  The caves were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Ellora Caves:

 These caves are located away form Ajanta caves in the Sahyadri range of Maharashtra.
 There are a total of 34 caves out of which come are based on Jains, some on Buddhism
and some on Brahminism.
 The most remarkable of the cave temples is Kailasa (Kailasanatha: cave 16, named for
the mountain in the Kailasa range of the Himalayas where the Hindu god Shiva
resides).
 This was declared a UNESCO World Heritage site.
UNESCO HERTIAGE CULTRUAL SITES IN INDIA
Site State
Agra fort (1983) UP
Ajanta caves (1983) Maharashtra
Ellora caves (1983) Maharashtra
Taj Mahal (1983) UP
Group of monuments at Mahabalipuram (1984) Tamil Nadu
Sun temple, Konark (1984) Odisha
Churches and convents of Goa (1986) Goa
Fatehpur Sikri (1986) U.P.
Group of Monuments at Hampi (1986) Karnataka
Khajuraho, group of temples (1986) M.P.
Elephanta caves (1987) Maharashtra
Great living Chola temples at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
Gangaikondacholapuram and Darasuram (1987 &
2004)
Group of monuments at Pattadakal (1987) Karnataka
Buddhist monuments at Sanchi (1989) M.P.
Humanyun’s tomb (1993) Delhi
Qutub minar and its monuments, Delhi (1993) Delhi
Rock shelters of Bhimbetka (2003) Madhya Pradesh
Champaner- Pvagadh Archaeological Park (2004) Gujarat
Red fort complex, Delhi (2007) Delhi
Hill forts of Rajasthan Rajasthan
Khumhalgarh, Jaisalmer and Ranthambore, Amber
and Gagron forts (2013)
Amber and Gagron forts are
Under protection of Rajasthan State Archaeology and
museums
Rani-ki-vav (The Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan (2014) Gujarat
Archaeological site of Nalanda Mahavira (Nalanda Bihar
University) at Nalanda (2016)

UNESCO HERITAGE NATURAL SITES IN INDIA

Site State
 Kazirnga national park (1985) Assam
Keoladeo national park (1985) Rajasthan
Manas wildlife Sanctuary (1985) Assam
Sundarbans national park (1987) West Bengal
Nanda Devi and valley of flowers Uttarakhand
national parks (1988, 2005)
Western Ghats (2012) Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu
Great Himalayan national park (2014) Himanchal Pradesh

LANGUAGES OF INDIA
India is home to several hundred languages. Language in its literary meaning means
a system of communication through speech, a collection of sounds that a group of
people understand to have the same meaning.
The Indian Constitution, in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official
language of the union. And English is used for all official purposes.
Language State
Assamese Assam, Arunachal Pradesh
Bengali West Bengal, Tripura
Bodo Assam
Dogri Official language of Jammu & Kashmir
Gujarati Dadra and Nagar haveli and daman and diu, Gujarat
Hindi Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bihar, Dadra & Nagar haveli and
daman and diu, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himanchal
Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir,
Mizoram, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand and West Bengal
Kannada Karnataka
Kashmiri Jammu and Kashmir
Konkani Dadra and Nagar haveli and daman and diu, Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka and Kerala (the Konkan coast)
Maithili Bihar, Jharkhand
Malayalam Kerala, Lakshadweep, Puducherry
Manipuri Manipur
Marathi Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra and Nagar haveli and daman and diu
Nepali Sikkim & W. Bengal
Odia Orissa
Punjabi Official language of Punjab and Chandigarh, 2 nd official language of
Delhi and Haryana
Sanskrit Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
Santali Jharkhand as well as in the states of Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
Mizoram, Odisha, Tripura, West Bengal
Sindhi Gujarat and Maharashtra, especially Ulhasnagar
Tamil Tamil Nadu, Puducherry
Temples of India State Features and fact
Lord Venkateshwara Andhra Also known as Tirupati Balaji
temple Pradesh temple, temple of 7 hills.
Mahabodhi Temple Bihar It is a Buddhist temple and has the
oldest brick structures. The
brickwork depicts the life of
Buddha. It is a UNESCO world
heritage site.
Somnath Temple Gujarat It is also known as Deo Patan. It is
one of the 12 jyotirlinga shrines of
Lord Shiva. There is no land
between seashores from Somnath
temple to Antarctica.
Dwarkadhish temple Gujarat It is also known as Jagat Mandir. It is
one of the 4 Hindu Pilgrimages
(Char Dham). The original structure
was destroyed by Mahmud Brgada
Vaishno devi temple Jammu & It is 5200 above sea level a top
Kashmir Trikutta hills. It is a cave temple.
Amarnath temple Jammu & A cave temple situated at an
Kashmir altitude of 3888 mt. it is one of the
52 Shakti Peeth. It is believed that
Bhrigu Muni (a great sage) was the
1st to have discovered Amarnath.
Virupaksha temple Karnataka Built by Lakkana Dandesha, a
chieftain under the ruler Deva Rai II
of the Vijayanagar Empire. It forms
a part of group of monuments at
Hampi that is designated as a
UNESCO site.
Gomateswara temple Karnataka It is also known as Bahubali temple.
The tallest mopothic statue (of
Gomateswhara) in the world carved
out of a single block of granite. It is
a Jain temple that is 57 feet high.
Bahubali statue is one of the largest
free-standing statues in the world
depicting the prolonged meditation
of Bahubali.
Padmanabhaswamy Kerala The architecture is the fusion of
temple Chera and Dravidian stayles.
Khajuraho temple Madhya They are a group of temples built by
pradesh the rulers of Chandela Dynasty.
There were 85 temples scattered
over an area of 9 square miles, of
which only 25 temples are
remaining. Famous for nagara style
 architecture and known for
extensive erotic sculptures.
Siddhivinayak temple Maharashtra It is one of the richest temples in
India. It was constructed by Laxman
Vithu & Dubai Patil in 1801.
Konark temple Odisha Built in the 13th century by King
Narsimhadeva I (AD 1238-1264)
during the Ganga Empire. It is
conceived as a gigantic chariot of
the Sun God built in Kalinga
architecture (Odisha style of
Architecture)
Jagannath temple Odisha It is also called Yamanika Tirtha. This
temple is in Puri is famous for its
annual chariot festival, Rath Yatra.
The 1st Jagannath, balabhadra and
Subhadra are a trio of deities
worshipped at the temple.
Golden temple Punjab It is a gurudwara, built in the 15th
Century. It is also known as
Harmandir Sahib. Temple was
plated in Gold in 1980 from the
wealth and material donated by
Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
Ramanathaswamy Tamil Nadu One of the 12 Jyotrilinga temples
Temple built in the 12th century. It has the
longest corridor among all Hindu
temples in India. It is built in the
Dravidian style of architecture.
Creators-Pandayas & Jaffna kings
there are 64 Tirthas i.e holy water
bodies in and around the island of
Rameswaram. It is also one of the
Char Dhams.
Meenakshi Temple Tamil Nadu It has Dravidian Architecture and
over 40 inscriptions. There are 985
richly carved pillars that depict
scenes from the wedding of
Meenaskhi (Parvati) and
Sundareswarar (Shiva). It is famous
for its 3 storied Gopuram at the
main entrance.
Ranganathswamy Temple Tamil Nadu One of the most important of 108
(Divya Desam) Vishnu Temple. It is
built in Dravidian style, constructed
in Vijayanagar period. It is located
on the island formed by the twin
 river- Cauvery & Coleroon. 1st
temple to be awarded by the UN
body for protecting and conserving
cultural heritage. Its Gopuram is the
biggest Gopuram in Asia. Also, it is
the largest functioning Hindu
temple in the world.
Brihadeswar temple Tamil Nadu Also known as Raja Rajeshwara
Temple located at Thanjavur. This
Dravidian style temple was built by
the chola emperor Raja Raja Chola I.
it is also called Dakshin Meru and is
situated on the bank of the Cauvery
River. It is a part of UNESCO world
heritage site.
Rajagopalaswamy Temple Tamil Nadu It is credited in Dravidian style, it is
also known as Dakshina Dwaraka. It
has one of the largest temple tanks
in India called Haridra Nadh.
Nataraja temple Tamil Nadu The temple wall carving display al
lthe 108 Karana from the Natya
Shastra by Bharata Muni; these
postures form the foundation of
Bharatanatyam, a classical Indian
dance. It is one of the oldest
surviving active temple complexes
in South India.
Kashi Vishwanath Temple Uttar Pradesh The original Vishwanath temple was
destroyed by the army of Qutb-
Uddin Aibak in 1194 CE when he
defeated the Raja of Kannauj. There
is a small well in the temple called
the Jnana Vapi also spelt as Gyaan
Vapi. In 1669 CE, Emperor
Aurangzeb destroyed the temple
and built the Gyanavapi mosque in
its place. In 1780 Malhar Rao’s
daughter-in-law Ahilyabai Holkar
constructed the present temple
adjacent to the mosque. It is one of
the 12 jyotirlinga.
Badrinath Temple Uttarakhand It is located in Garhwal hill along the
river Alaknanda. It is at an
eleveation of 3133 metres i.e.
10,279 ft above the mean sea level.
The temple is mentioned in ancient
 religious texts like Vishnu Purana
and Skanda Purana.
Yamunotri Temple Uttarakhand Situated at an altitude of 3291mt.
i.e. 10,797ft. it is located on the
backdrop of Bandarpuch it is
dedicated to goddess Yamuna.
Gangotri Temple Uttarakhand It is located on the banks of the
river Bhagirathi at an altitude of
3415 mt, i.e. 11,204 ft.

Cultural Symbol of States of India

India i.e. Bharat is a union of 28 states and 8 U.T. rather than a federation of the
states and UTs. All Indian states and union territories have their symbols like state
animal, state bird, state flower etc. Here is the list of Indian state and their symbols
with their common name and scientific name.
List of Indian States and their Symbols
1. Andaman Nicobar Islands
Animals: Dugon,
Flower: Adman Pyinma
Tree: Andaman Padauk,
Flower: Adman Puyrinma
2. Andhra Pradesh
Animal: black buk (Antelope cervicapra),
Bird: Indian roller (Coacias benghalensisi benghalensis)
Tree: neem (Azadiarchta indica)
Flower: water lily (Nymphaeaceae)
3. Arunachal Pradesh
Animal: mithun (bos frontalis)
Bird: hornbill (Buceros bicornis)
Tree: hollong (dipterocarpus macrocarpus)
Flower: foxtail orchid (rhynchostylis retusa)
4. Assam
Animal: Indian Rhinoceros (rhinoceros unicornis)
Bird: white wing duck (Asarcornis scutulata)
Tree: hollong (Dipterocarpus macrocarpus)
Flower: foxtail orchid (Rhynchostylis retusa)
5. Bihar
Animal: gaur (bos gaurus)
Bird: house sparrow (phanera varegata)
Tree: orchid tree (phaneera variegata)
Flower: kachnar (phanera variegata)
6. Chandigarh
Animal: Indian grey mongoose,
Bird: Indian grey hornbill
 Tree: mango tree
Flower: dhak flower
7. Chhattisgarh
Animal: wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
Bird: hill myna (Gracula religiosa)
Tree: Sal (shorea Robusta)
8. Dadra & Nagar Haveli
Animal: not designated
Bird: not designated
Tree: not designated
Flower: not designated
9. Daman & Diu
Animal: not designated
Bird: not designated
Tree: not designated
Flower: not designated
10. National capital of Territory of Delhi
Animal: nilgai (boselaphus tragocamelus)
Bird: house sparrow (passer domesticus)
11. Goa
Animal: Gaur (bos gaurus)
Bird: ruby throated yellow bulbul (Pycnonotus gularis)
Tree: matti (terminalia elliptica)
12. Gujarat
Animal: Asiatic lion (panthera leo Persica)
Bird: greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus)
Tree: banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis)
Flower: marigold (Tagetes)
13. Haryana
Animal: black buck antelope (Antilope cericapra)
Bird: black francolin (francolinus francolinus)
Tree: pipal (ficus religiosa)
Flower: lotus (nelumbo nucifera)
14. Himanchal Pradesh
Animal: snow leopard (uncia uncia)
Bird: western tragopan (tragopan melancephalus)
Tree: deodar cedar (cedrus dodara)
Flower: pink rhododendron
15. Jammu & Kashmir
Animal: hangul (cervus elaphus hangul)
Bird: black necked crane (Grus nigricollis)
Tree: chinar tree (Platanus oritentalis)
Flower: lotus (nelumbo nucifera)
16. Jharkhand
Animal: Asian elephant (elephas maximus)
Bird: Asian koel (Eudynamys scolopaceus)
Tree: Sal (Shorea robusta)
Flower: palash (butea monosprema)
17. Karnataka
Animal: Asian elephant
Bird: Indian roller
Tree: sandal wood
Flower: lotus
18. Kerala
Animal: Indian elephant (elephas maximus indicus)
Bird: great hornbill (Buceros bicornis)
Tree: coconut tree (cocos nucifera)
Flower: kanikonna (Cassia fistula)
19. Lakshadweep
Animal: butterfly fish (chaetodon falcula)
Bird: noddy tern (Anous stolidus)
Tree: breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa)
20. Madhya Pradesh
Animal: barasingha
Bird: Indian paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi)
Tree: banyan (ficus benghalensis)
21. Maharashtra
Animal: Indian giant squirrel
Bird: yellow-footed green pigeon
Tree: mango (magnifera indica)
Flower: pride of India (lagerstroemia speciosa)
22. Manipur
Animal: sangai (Rucervus eldii)
Bird: nongyeen (Syrmaticus humiae)
Tree: uningthou (phoebe hainesiana)
Flower: siroi lily (lilium mackliniae)
23. Meghalaya
Animal: clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)
Bird: hill myna (Gracula religiosa)
Tree: gamhar (Gmelina arborea)
Flower: lady’s slipper orchid (paphiopedilum insigne)
24. Mizoram
Animal: serow
Bird: mrs. Hume’s pheasant (Syrmaticus Humiae)
Tree: Indian rose chestnut (Mesua ferra)
Flower: red vanda (Rennathaera imschootiana)
25. Nagaland
 Animal: methun,
Bird: Blyth’s tragopan (tragopan blythii)
Tree: alder (alnus nepalensis)
Flower: tree rhododendron
26. Odisha
Animal: sambar deer (cervus unicolor)
Bird: blue jay
Tree: aswatha (ficus religiosa)
Flower: Ashoka (saraca asoca)
27. Puducherry
Animal: Indian palm squirrel (Funambulus palmarum)
Bird: koel (Eudynamys scolopaceus)
Tree: bael fruit tree (aegle amrmelos)
Flower: cannonball (Couropita guianensia)
28. Punjab
Animal: blackbuck (antilope cervicapra)
Bird: Baj (Accipiter gentilis)
Tree: Sheesham (Dalbergia sissoo)
29. Rajasthan
Animal: camel and chinkara
Bird: Indian bustard (Ardetois nigriceps)
Tree: kherjri (prosopis cineraria)
Flower: rohida (Tecomella undulata)
30. Sikkim
Animal: red panda (Ailurus fulgens)
Bird: blood pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus)
Tree: rhododendron (Rhododendron niveum)
Flower: noble dendrobium
31. Tamil Nadu
Animal: niligiri tahr (Nilgiritrasgus hylocrius)
Bird: emerald dove (chalcophaps indica)
Tree: palm tree (Borassus flabellifer)
Flower: gloriosa lily (Gloriosa superba)
32. Telangana
Animal: spotted deer (jinka) Axis axis
Bird: (Indian roller) Paala Pitta (Coracias indica)
Tree: Jammi Chettu (Prosopis cineraria)
Flower: Tangidi Puvvu (Senna auriculata)
33. Tripura
Animal: Phayre’s leaf monkdy (Tracheypithecus phayrei)
Bird: green imperial pigeon (Ducula aenea)
Tree: agarwood
Flower: Indian rose chestnut (Mesua ferrea)
34. Uttar Pradesh
 Animal: Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii)
Bird: sarus crane (Grus Antigone)
Tree: Ashoka (Saraca asoca)
Flower: Palash (butea monosperma)
35. Uttarakhand
Animal: alpine musk deer (Moshus chrysogaster)
Bird: Himalayan mondal (Lophophorus impejanus)
Tree: burans (Rhododendron arboretum)
Flower: Brahma kamal (Saussurea obvallata)
36. West Bengal
Animal: fishing cat
Bird: white-throated kingfisher
Tree: chatim tree (Alstonia scholaris)
Flower: night-flowering jasmine (Nyctanthes arbor-tristis)
Books Author
Mudra rakshasa Visakhadutta
Rajtarangini Kalhana
Kathasaritsagara Somdeva
Kamasutra Vatsayana
Prashnottara Ratnamalika, Amoghavarsha
Kaviranjamarga
Swapnavasavadattam Bhasa
Buddha charita Asvaghosa
Natyashastra Bharata
Abhigyan Shakuntalam Kalidasa
Vikramorvashi
Raghuvansham
Amarkosha Amarsimha
Panchasiddhanatika Varahamihira
Brihat Samhita
Surya Sidhanta Aryabhata
Aryabhatta
Panchtantra Vishnu sharma
Nitisara Kamandaka
Aihole prasasti Ravi kirti
Indica Meghasthenes
Charaka Samhita Charaka
Lilawati Bhaskara II
Harshcharita Harsha vardhan
Kadambari
Nagananda
Ratnavali
Gatha saptashati Hala
Nitisara Kamandaka
Astadhyayi Panini
 Mahabhasya Patanjali
Naishadha charita Sri Harsha
Mrichhkatika Sudraka
Gita govinda Jayadeva
Navratna Virsena
Rajatarangini Kalhana

Classical music instruments and musicians

String instruments and Indian musicians
1. Santoor: pt. shiv kumar Sharma, Bhajan Sopori
2. Sarod: Allaudin khan, Ali akbar khan, Amjad Ali khan, Buddhadev Dasgupta,
Bahadur Khan, Sharan Rani, Zarin S Sharma
3. Sitar: Pt Ravi Shankar, Shahid Parvez Khan, Budhaditya Mukherjee, Anushkha
Shankar, hara shankar bhattacharya, Nikhil Banerjee, vilayet khan, Mustaq ali
khan.
4. Surbahar: Annapurna devi, Sajjad Hussain
5. Been: Asad Ali Khan, Zia Moin-ud-din Khan
6. Veena: Zia Mohiuddin Dagar, Ayyagari Syamasundaram, Doriaswamy Iyengar,
Chittibabu, Emami Sankara Shashtri, Dhanammal, K R Kumaraswamy,
Sundaram Balachandrer
7. Rudra Veena; Asad Ali Khan
8. Mohan Veena: pt. Vishwa mohan bhatt (inventor of mohan veena)
9. Sarangi: Shakoor khan, Pt Ram Narayan, Ramesh Mishra, Sultan khan, ustad
Binda khan
10. Violin: MS Gopalakrishnan, Smt M Rajam, NR Muralidharan, M
Chandrashekaran, VG Jog, Lalgudi Jayaraman.
11. Guitar: Braj Bhusan kabra
12. Mandolin: U Srinivas
Wind instruments and Indian musicians
13. Shehnai: Bismillah Khan, Krishna Ram Chaudhary, Ali Ahmad Hussain.
14. Flute: hari prasad chaurasia, Pannalal Ghosh, TR Mahalingam, N Ramani
15. Nadaswaram: Shiek chinna Moula, Neeruswany pillai, Rajaratanam Pillai
Percussion instruments (played by striking) & Indian musicians who play
them
16. Tabla: Zakir Hussain, Allah Rakha, Sabir Khan, Pt. Kishan Maharaj, Pt. Jnana
Prakash Ghosh, Sandeep Das
17. Pakhawaj: totaram sharma, pt Ayodhya prasad, gopal das, babu ram
shanakar pagaldas
18. Mridangam: KV Prasad, SV Rajarao, Umalayapuram Sivaraman, Palaghat
Mani Iyer, Karaikudi R Mani, Palaghat Raghu.
19. Ghatam: TH Vinayakram, EM Subramaniam.
20. Kanjra: Pudukkotai Dakshinamurthi Pillai
Indian music
Natya Shastra of Bharata Muni has several chapters which forms the base of Indian music.
Till 13th century there was only 1 type later around the end of 13th century. It was divided
into two musical systems. The Hindustani music.

 Hindustani music originated in North India in the 13th and 14th century. Hindustani
music has elements of ancient Hindu tradition, Vedic philosophy and Persian
tradition as well.
 It is based on the Raga system. The Raga is a melodic scale composed of 7 basic
notes.
 Hindustani music is vocal-centric.
 The major vocal forms associated with Hindustani classical music are the Khayal,
Ghazal, Dhrupad, Dhammar, Tarana and Thumri.
Hindustani classical music forms

 Dhurpad: Its oldest form of music. Developed most in the 13thg century bt reached
its zenith during the period of emperor Akbar. Best known Dhrupad singers like Baba
gopal das, Swami Haridas and Tansen were during his time.
 Khayal: the origin of this style can be traced to Amir Khushro. This style is popular
among the singers as it offers greater scope for improvisation. The usual theme of
Khayal is romantic in nature. Famous singers include Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Chajju
khan, Nazeer khan.
 Thumri: the composition in this are either romantic or devotional in nature. This was
inspired by the Bhakti movement. Begum Akhtar, Pt. LK Pandit, Malini Rajurkar are
famous singers who specialize in this style of singing.
 Tappa: this style originated from folk songs of North East India but under Mughal
ruler Mahmood Shah it became semi classical. Some of the very few singer of this
style are Mian Sodi, Pandit Laxman Rao and Shanno Khurana.
 Tarana: this style of music is sung in a very fast tempo; this requires special skill to
bring the rhythmic variation. The most famous singer of this style includes Pt. Rattan
Mohan Sharma. He holds the records of being the world’s fastest singer of Tarana.
 Ghazal: it is poetic in nature. The origin is said to be in Iran around thw 10th century
AD. And it spread in in India with the Mughal invasion. Amir khusro is said to be one
of the 1st supporters of Ghazals, some noteworthy Ghazal singers are Ghulam Ali,
Pankaj udas, Rahat Fateh Ali Khan etc.
The Carnatic music

 Carnatic music is a form of classical Indian music from south India. It is one of the
important cultural heritage of India. It has a rich history and has developed over
centruries.
 The present form of Carnatic music evolved during the 18th century. The period saw
the emergence of the most popular musicians in Carnatic music like Thyagaraja,
 Shamashashtri, Muthuswami Dikshitar who compiled various compositions in this
period.
 The structure of Carnatic music is very complex. It is based on the Ragam and
Thalam.
 Raga is bascilaly the scale and the 7 notes where Thalam is the rhythmic foundation
of Carnatic music.
 Some important singers included Dr Balamurali Krishna, M.S. Subbalakshmi.
Tomars of Delhi

 The Tomars were the feudatories of the Pratiharas.

 They founded the city of Delhi in 736 AD.
 Mahipal Tomar captured Thaneswar, Hansi and Nagarkot in 1043 AD.
 Chahuans captured Delhi in the middle of the 12 th century and the Tomars became
their feudatories.
Chauhans of Delhi & Ajmer

 The Chauhans declared their independence in the 1101 century at Ajmer and they
were the feudatories of the Pratiharas.
 They captured Ujjain from the Paramaras of Malwa and Delhi in the early part of the
12th century.
 They shifted their capital to Delhi.
 Prithvi raj Chauhan was the most important ruler of this dynasty.
BATTLE OF TARAIN
1ST Battle of Tarain

 The 1st battle of Tarain was fought in 1191 between the Ghurids, a Turkish tribe, led
by Muhammad Ghori and the Rajputs led by Prithvi Raj Chauhan and his allies.
 Following the decline of the Ghaznavid empire in the 12th century led to a power
vacuum in which various tribes fought for control of the empire. Among these, the
Ghurids emerged victoriously and managed to sack the erstwhile city of Ghazni by
1149. The Ghurid empire would be led by two brothers Mohd. Ghori (known as
Mu’izz al-Din) and Ghiyas-al-Din.
 Soon they looked towards expanding their empire east into India.
 Muhammad Ghori sent an envoy to the court of Prithvi Raj Chauhan first to come to
a settlement. The term included conversion to Islam and accepting the suzerainty of
the Ghurids. Prithvi Raj refused.
 Muhamad Ghori marched his army to the kingdom of the Chalukyas in 1178.
 Marching his forces into India, Muhammad Ghori proceeded to capture the
important fort of Bhatinda. The fall of Bhatinda galvanized the Delhi forces into
action. PR Chauhan gathered his allies and led his army to face Muhammad Ghori in
battle.
 The two armies faced each other on the fields of Tarain, 150 km north of Delhi in.
 The battle ended in victory for the Rajput forces.
2nd Battle of Tarain

 Following his defeat at the hands of PR Chauhan during the 1st battle of Tarrain in
1191, Mohd. Ghori returned to Ghazni.
 In the summer of 1192, Mohd. Ghori marched with an army of 52,000 cavalries.
 Mohd. Ghori recaptured the fort at Bathinda. When barely a month had passed since
it fell to the Rajput forces.
 Once again Mohd. Ghori sent a demand to PR Chauhan to accept him as suzerain
and just like last time it was refused.
 PRC marched out to meet Mohd. Ghori once again.
 Facing each other once more on the fields of Tarain, PRC sent a message to Mohd.
Ghori that he was willing to let the Ghurid khan return to his homeland without a
fight but should he continue his endeavour, he would destroy him.
 Mohd. Ghori used was deception techniques, pretend to accept the message.
 And attacked Rajput’s in night-time.
 Rajput army was unaware of this unethical war tactic, and the war ended the defeat
the Rajputs, opening north India to future invasions and domination by Turkic tribes.
Rathore of Kannauj (1090-1194 AD)

 The Rathors established themselves on the throne of Kanauj from 1090 to 1194 AD.
 Jaichand was the last great ruler of this dynasty.
 He was killed in the battle of Chandawar in 1194 AD by Mohd. Ghori.
Chandelas of Bundelkhand

 Established them in the 9th century.

 Mahoba was the capital of Chandella during the period of Chief Yasovarman.
 Kalinjar was their important fort.
 The Chandellas built the most famous Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho.
 Paramal the last Chandella ruler was defeated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1203 AD.
Guhallas or Sisodiyas of Mewar

 The Rajput ruler Bapa Rawat was the founder of the Guhila or the Sisodiya dynasty
and Chittor was its capital.
 During the period of Rana Ratan Singh of Mewar.
 In 1307 AD Ala-ud-din Khilji invaded his territory and defeated him.
 The vijay stambha is an imposing victory monument located within Chittor fort in
Chittorgarh, Rajasthan dedicated to Vishnu. The tower was constructed by the
Mewar king, Rana Kumbha, in 1448. It is to commemorate his victory over the
combined armies of Malwa and Gujarat led by Mahmud Khilji.
 Rana Sanga and Maharana Pratap the Sisodia rulers gave a tough fight to the Mughal
rulers of India.
Paramaras of Malwa
  The Paramaras were also the feudatories of Prathihars.
 They declared their independence in the 10th century and Dhara was their capital.
Raja Bhoja (1018-1069)

 He was the most famous ruler of this period.

 He constructed a beautiful lake more than 250 sq. miles near Bhopal.
 He set up a college at Dhara for the study of Sanskrit Literature.
 The reign of the Paramaras came to an end with the invasion of Ala-ud-din Khilji.
Nature of the Rajputs

 The Rajputs were great warriors and chivalrous by nature.

 They believed in protecting the women and the weak.
Literature: -

 Kalhana’s Rajatarnagini
 Jayadeva’s Gita Govindam
 Somadeva’s Kathasaritsagar
 Chand Bardoi: the court poet of P R Chauhan, wrote Prithvi Raj Raso in which he
refers to the military exploits of P R Chauhan.
 Bhaskaracharya wrote Siddanata Siromani, a book on astronomy.
 Rajasekhara.
 The court poet of Mahendrapala and Mahipala.
 His best-known works were Karpu Ramanjari Bala, Ramayana.
Art & Architecture:
During this period Mural paintings and Miniature paintings were popular.

 Temples at Khajuraho
 Linga raja temple at Bhubaneshwar
 The sun temple at Konark
 The dilwara temple at Mount Abu
End of the Rajput Power
There was no strong military power during the Rajput period to keep the warring princes in
check and to coordinate their activities foreign invasions.
Some popular terms

 Jauhar: Amass suicide of women in order to escape defilement at the hands of

foreign victors.
 Gita Govindam: song of the cowherd
 Rajataranagini: river of the kings
 Kathasaritsagara: ocean of tales
Arrival of Muslim Rule: -
After pirates plunder an Arab ship near the mouth of the Indus River (Pakistan), Umayyad
Arabs under Muhammad bin Qasim invade India with 10,000 men and 6,000 horses
establishing a sultanate tin Sindh followed by Turkish invader Md Ghaznavi and Md Gauri till
Muhammad Bin Qasim

 Al-Hajjaji, the Governor of Iraq sen Muhammad-bin-Qasim to India in the year.

 He conquered Sindh with the permission of Caliph Walid.
 Battle of Rewar
1. Fought between Mohd-Bin-Qasim and Dahir the ruler of Sind.
2. Dahir was defeated.
3. Sindh and Multan were captured.
 Muhammad-bin-Qasim called Multan as “The city of Gold”.
 Sind and multan were divided into number of Iqtas or districts by Muhammad-bin-
Qasim and Arab military officers headed the iqtas.
 The sub-divisions of the districts were administered by the local Hindu Officers.
 Jizya was imposed on non-muslims.
 Caliph walid was succeeded by Caliph Sulaiman.
 He was an enemy of Al-Hajjaj, the governor of Iraq.
 Muharrimand-bin Qasim was the son-in-law of Al-hajjaj, so he dismissed him and
sent to Mesopotamia as a prisoner where he was tortured to death.
Mahmud Ghaznavi
Mahmud Ghaznavi was the king of Ghazni who ruled from 971 to 1030 AD. He was the son
of Subuktgeen. Attracted by India’s wealth, Gahazani attacked India several times. In fact,
Ghaznavi attacked India 17 times. The main objective of his attacks was to plunder the
wealth of Ghaznavi.

 Mahmud of Ghazni for the 1st time attacked modern Afghanistan & Pakistan in 1000
AD. He defeated Hindu ruler Jaya Pala, who committed suicide himself later and was
successful by his son Anadpala.
 Ghazni invaded Bhatia in 1005 AD.
 Ghazni invaded Multan in 1006 AD. During this time, Ananda pala attacked him.
 Mahmud of Ghazni attacked and crushe3d Sukha Pala ruler of Bathinda in 1007 AD.
 Ghazni attacked Nagarkot in the Punjab hills in 1011 AD.
 Mahmud attacked the shahi kingdom under Ananda Pala and defeated him in the
Battle of Waihind, the Hind shahi capital near Peshawar in 1013 AD.
 Mahmud of Ghazni captured Thaneswar in 1014 AD.
 Mahmud of Ghazni attacked Kashmir in 1015 AD.
 He attacked Mathura in 1018 AD and defeated a coalition of rulers, including a ruler
called Chandra Pala.
 Mahmud conquered Kannauj in 1021 AD by defeating Kannauj King Chandella
Gauda.
  Gwalior was invaded and conquered by Mahmud Ghazni attacked Gwalior and
conquered in 1023 AD.
 Mahmud Ghazanavi died in 1030 AD due to Malaria during his last invasion.
Muhammad of Ghori

 He was the 3rd muslim ruler who invaded India.

 He became the ruler of Ghori.
 He 1st invaded India in 1175 AD.
1st battle of Tarain (1191AD)

 He seized the fortress of Bhatinda in 1189 AD. And then progressed into the kingdom
of Prithvi raj Chauhan.
 Muhamad ghori was defeted by Prithvi Raj Chauhan in the 1st battle of Tarain in 1191
AD and recovered Bhatinda.

2nd battle of Tarain (1192AD)

 In the 2nd battle of Tarain, the joined forces of the Rajput rulers under Prithvi Raj
were defeated by Md. Ghori.
 Prithvi Raj was held as a prisoner and later put to death.
 the Trukish rule began for the 1st time in Indian history with the end of the 2nd battle
of Tarain.
 Qutb-ud-din Aibak was appointed as the commander by Md. Ghori.
 Qutb-ud-din Aibak defeated many Rajputs and brought many regions under his
control.
 Md. Ghori made Delhi as the capital.
 Md. Ghori defeated Jaichandra, the greatest Rajput ruler of Kannauj and killed him in
the battle of Chandawar of 1194.
 Md.-bin-Bakityar Khilji, one of the commanders of Md. Ghori destroyed Vikramshila
in 1202 and Nalanda universities in 1203 AD.
 Muhamad of Ghori he was assassinated on 25th March 1206 AD in central Asia by
some Shia rebels and Khokhars.
 He is considered to be the real founder of the Turkish empire in in India because of
his various invasions and subjugations of the Rajput territories in North India.

Delhi Sultanate: 1206-1526 AD

 1st Sutlan- Mohd. Gauri

 Mohd Gauri was the 1st muslim king who minted the coin of Hindu lord. Qutubuddin
Aibak was his slave. The real establisher of Delhi Sultanate is Iltutmish.
Slave dynasty/ Ghulam Dynasty/ Mamluk Dynasty 1206-1289 AD
1. Qutubuddin Aibak 1206-1210
2. Iltutmish 1210-1236
3. Ruknuddin Firozshah (1236) 1month
 4. Razia Sultan 1236-1240
5. Baharam Shah 1240-42
6. Alauddin masud Shah 1242-46
7. Nasiruddin Mahumud Shah 1246-66
8. Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266-1287
9. Kaikubad 1287-1289

Qutubuddin Aibak- 1206-1210

 He called himself SIPAH-E-SALAR.

 Never assumed himself a sultan, for his generosity he was called as Lakh Baksh.
 He Turkish slave by origin, he was purchased by Md. Ghori who later made him
governor.
 After the death of Ghori, Aibak became the master of Hindustan and founded the
Slave dynasty.
 He died in 1210 while playing while Chaugan or polo.
 Aibak was great patron of learning and patronized writers like Hasan-un-Nizami,
author of Taj-ul-Maasir & Fakhrurddin, author of Tairkh-i-Mubarak Shah’.
Architecture:
1. Qutub-minar: in Mehrauli in the memory of his Sufi saint Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
Later on it was completed by Iltutmish and 2 floors by Feroz Shah.
2. Quwwat-ul-islam Mosque
3. Adhai din ka Jhopra in Ajmer.
Unusual death: in 1210, he died when he was playing chogan (polo) then his
brother-in-law & Gulam Iltutmish became sultan.

Shamsuddin Iltutmish: 1211-1236

 He was a slave of Qutubddin Aibak and occupied the throne of Delhi in 1211 after
deposing Aram Baksh.
 He was a very capable ruler and is regarded as the real founder of the Delhi.
 He made Delhi the capital in place of Lahore.
 He called himself Sultan.
 He saved the Delhi Sultanate from the wrath of Chengiz khan, the Mongol leader by
refusing shelter to Khwarizm shah, whom Chengiz was chasing.
4 kinds of taxes

1. Jizya- imposed on non-Muslims.

2. Zakat- it was imposed on muslims for the poor muslims.
3. Khums- it was the war body sultan (1/5) soldiers (4/5)
4. Kharaj- land tax revenue.
 He started the iqta system- land which was given in the place of cash salary.
 He reformed civil administration and army which was now centrally paid and
recruited.
  He founded Turkan-e-chahalgani (Chalisa) 40 Turkish nobles.
 He completed the construction of Qutb minar which was started by Aibek.
 In 1236 Iltutmish died.
Razia Sultan (1236-1240)

 Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Razia as the successor, and the nobles placed
Ruknuddin Firoj on the throne. However, Razia got rid of Ruknuddin and ascended
the throne.
 She was the ‘1st and only Muslim lady who ever ruled India’.
 She was popular among the people but she was not acceptable to the nobles and
theologians.
 She further offended the nobles by her preference for an Abyssian slave Yakut. Soon
after her accession, the governors of Multan, Badaun, Hansi & Lahore openly
revolted against her.
 There was a serious rebellion in Bhattinda, Altunia, governor of Bhatinda refused to
accept the suzerainty of Razia. Razia accompanied by Yakut marched against Altunia.
However, Altunia got Yakut murdered and imprisoned Razia.
 Subsequently, Razia married Altunia and both of them marched towards Delhi.
 In 1240 AD, Razia became the victim of a conspiracy and was assassinated near
Kaithal (Haryana).
Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87)

 Balban ascended the throne in 1266.

 He broke the power of Chalisa and restored the prestige of the Crown. That was his
greatest contribution towards the stability of the Sultanate.
 To keep him well-informed he appointed spies department Diwn-e-Barid.
 He created a strong centralized army to deal with internal disturbances and to
control Mongols who were posing a serious danger to the Delhi Sultanate.
 He established the military department Diwan-i-Ariz.
 Blood & iron policy: through this policy he punished his enemies.
 The Persian Court model influenced Balban’s conception of Kingship.
 He took up the title of Zil-i-illahi (Shadow of God)
 He introduced Sijda & Paibos.
 He destroyed Mewati Rajputana brigandage in the doab, where forests were cut and
forts built.
 He developed Qila-e-khori city and Qila-e-khori fort in Delhi.
 He introduced the Persian festival Navroz.
 In his last days he overlooked Sultanate affairs due to death of his eldest and most
loving son, Muhammad, and rebellion by his closed and most loved slave, Tughril.
 Muhammad died fighting Mongolians in 1285 and Tughril was captured and
beheaded.
 In 1287 he died.
Kaikubad (1287-87)

 Kaikubad, Grandson of Balban, was established on the throne by Fakruddin, the

Kotwal of Delhi who assumed high political authority during the last days of Balban.
 He gave Ariz-e-mumalik little to Jalaluddin Khilji later on Kaikubad was killed by
Jalaluddin Khilji and he founded Khilji dynasty.
Khilji Dynasty: 1290-1320 AD

The Khilis were Turks who had a for a long time settled in the region of Afghanistan, called
Khalji had adopted Afghan manners and customs. Therefore, their coming to the throne of
Delhi is called Khalji, revolution. Also because it is the end of the monopoly of the Ghulam
dynasty. It was the start of imperialism in India.
Jalaluddin Khilji: 1290-1296 AD

 Jalaluddin Khilji founded the Khilji dynasty.

 He followed mild and generous policies because he became the king at the age of 70
years.
 The generous policy of the Sultan affected his foreign policy as well.
 In 1290, he invaded the fort of Ranthambore.
 In 1294, Ala-ud-din, nephew of Jalaluddin, invaded Ramchandra, the ruler of
Devagiri in the south.
 It was the 1st Muslim attack in South India. Ramachandra was defeated and ala-dud-
din returned with an immense booty.
 He was murdered by Alauddin Khilji in the year 1296.
Allah-u-din Khilji: 1296-1316

 He was a nephew and son-in-law of Jalaluddin Khilji. Alauddin Khilji killed him and
succeeded to the throen of in 1296.
 His real name was Ali Gurshasp, he took the title of Sikandar-e-Sani.
 He was the 1st Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. He
proclaimed ‘Kingship knows no Kingship’.
 Alauddin’s imperialism: Alauddin annexed Gujarat (1298), Ranthambore (1301),
Mewar (1303), Malwa (1305), Jalore (1311).
 He renamed Chittorgarh as Khizrabad on the name of his son Khizir Khan.
 He built Hauz Khas, Sir fort, Jamaat-e-Khana Mosque, mahal Hazaar Satoon etc.
 In Deccan, Alauddin’s army led by Malik Kafur defeated Ram Chandradev, Pratap
Rudradev, Vir Ballal III and Vir Pandya.
 The most important experiment undertaken by Alauddin was the attempt to control
the markets.
 Alauddin sought to control the prices of all commodities, from food grains to horse,
and from cattle and slave to costly imported cloth.
Economic reforms:
  Introduction of Dagh or branding of horses and Chehra.
 Confiscation of the religious endowments and free grants of lands.
 Creation of new department viz Diwan—Mustakhraj to enquire into the revenue
arreas and to collect them.
 Establishment of separate markets for food grains cloth, horses, fruits. Etc.
Administration reforms ordinance:

 Reorganized the Spy system.

 Prohibition on use of wine in Delhi.
 Nobles should not intermarry without his permission.
 Confiscated the properties of Noble classes.
Military Reforms:

 Introduced the 1st standing army of India.

 Abolition of iqtas of royal troppers and the payment of their salaries in cash.
 Regular master of the army.
 He changed the value of Khums (4/5 Sultan, 1/5 Sainik).
In 1316, he died because Malik Kafur gave him poison then his hon became the king.
Shihab Ud Din Omar

 He ascended the throne as a minor with the death of his father Alauddin Khilji in
1316.
 He became Sultan with the help of Malik Kafur, the Military commander. After the
assassination of Kafur, his brother Qutb-ud-din Muabarak became Sultan.
Mubarak khan (1316-1320)

 After the death of Kafur, Mubarak Khan was freed from prison and was appointed as
regent for Shab-ud-din.
 He captured the throne at the 1st opportunity he got, but could rule only for 4 years
as he sank into debauchery and could not give up his dissipated lifestyle.
 He assumed himself Khalifa.
 He awarded his lover Hassan authority over the army and place guards, and the
latter soon obtained full control over the Sultan’s palace.
 Hasan was given the title Khusarau Khan by the Sultan and within months Khasrau
killed Muabarak Khan and then assumed the title Nasi-ud-din in 1320.
Contemporary personality: -

Nizamuddin Auliya: - saw the rise and fall of 7 kings

Amir Khusro: -
1. Contemporary of Alauddin Khilji
2. Known as parrot of India (tota-e-hind)
3. He introduced Khadi boli of hindi.
 4. He also introduced Tabla and sitar.
5. He used Urdu language.
Khusro Khan: -

 Khusro khan was killed by Ghazni khan, governor of Dipalpur when he tried to
oppose a rebellion by Ghazni malik and his on Fakruddin Jaima.
 This marked the need of the Khilji dynasty and the rise of Tughlaq dynasty at the
throne of the Delhi.

TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1413)

Important rulers of Tughlaq Dynasty
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik (1320-1325 AD)

 Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty.
 He rose from a humble origin. He was governor during the reign of Alauddin Khilji.
 Ghiasuddin Tughlaq founded the dynasty after killing Khuzru Khan in 1320.
 He built the Tughlaqabad fort in Delhi, the 3rd city of Delhi to the east of Qutub
complex.
 Ghiassudin Tughlaq was the 1st Sultan to start irrigation works.
Domestic and foreign policies:

 Ghiyas-ud-din reinstated order in his empire.

 He gave more importance to postal arrangments, judicial, irrigation, agriculture,
police.
 He brought Bengal, Utakala or Orissa and Warangal under his control.
 The mongol leaders who invaded North India were seized and confined by him.
End of Ghiyas-us-din Tughalq rule

 In 1325 AD Ghiyas-ud-din was crushed to dealt while attending an event for his
victories in Bengal.
 Juna khan, the crown prince succeeded him.
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-1351 AD):

 Giyas-ud-din tughalq was succeded by his son Jauna khan, popularly known as
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (MBT).
 MBT is considered as the single most responsible person for the decline of Delhi
Sultanate.
 MBT was known as a mixture of opposites, wisest fool, Pagal padushah, unfortunate
idelaogue and the predecessor of Akbar in intellectual and religious matters.
 Ibn Batuta called him “an illustrate Idealist”.
 He shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daultabad) in 1327.
 MBT stood for the administrative stood for the administrative and political unity of
India.
  In 1327 AD he captured Warangal.
 In 1330 he introduced the token currency of bronze and copper.
 Moroccan Traveller, Ibn Batuta visited India during his period.
 Edward Thanas described him as prince of Moneyers.
Firoz Tughlaq (1351-1388 AD):

 MBT was succeeded by his elderly cousin, Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

 Firoz Shah Tughlaq was the 1st sultan of Delhi to impose Jijazya.
 It was a religious tax for the freedom of worship.
 He imposed it only upon Brahmins.
 He built the city of Firozabad in Delhi. The Firoz Shah Kotla was also built by him. The
gateway of Feroz is Khooni Darwaza, or blood strained gate. It was constructed by
Sher Shah Suri.
 He transplanted two Ashokan pillars to Firozabad.
 After Firojshah Tughlaq Muhmmad Shah Tughlaq or Naziruddin Muhammed came to
the throne.
 It was during the period of his reign that Timur the Lame or Tamerlain, a Turkiish
conqueror of Tartar tribe Samarkand attacked India in 1398. Timur, appointed Khizr
Khan, the governor of Multan, his authority in India.

Administrative Reforms:

 He withdrew all Taquavi (agricultural) loans granted by MBT. He raised the salary of
the revenue officers.
 He brought an end to all unlawful and unjust taxes.
 He collected 4 important taxes which are:
 Kharaj- 1/10 of the produce of the land.
 Khams- 1/5 of the war body.
 Zakat- tax on muslims for specific religious purposes.
 He constructed 150 wells, 100 bridges, 50 dams and also dug many irrigation canals.
 He constructed towns like Firozabad, Hisar, Jaunpur and Fatehabad.
 Fatehabad town (in present-day south-western part of Haryana) was founded by
Firoj Shah Tughlaq in 14th century, who named it after his son Fateh Khan Firoz
banned all kinds of damages and torture.
 He levied Jizya on the Brahmins.
 He established hospitals (Dar-ul-safa), marriage bureau (Diwan-i-khairat), an
employment Bureau.
 He also established diwn-i-istibqaq to give financial aid to the poor.
Foreign policy:

 Firoz Shah Tughlaq surrounded Bengal in 1353 AD and 1359 AD.

 He seized Jaynagar.
 He devasted the Jagannnath Temple at Puri.
Importance of Firoz-Tughlaq:

 His generous measures and contribution to affluence of the people.

 Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi is an autobiography of Firoz Tughlaq.
 He patronized scholar Zia-ud-din Barani.
 During his reign, a number of Sanskrit books on medicine, science and arts were
translated into Persian.
 Kutab-Feroz Shahi- a book which a deal with Physics.
Ibn-Battuta

 The full name of Ibn Battuta was Muhammad Ibn Battuta. He was born on February
25,1304.
 By profession he was a Geographer, Jurist, Judge and an explorer.
 He came to India as a traveler from Morocco.
 In 1334, Ibn Battuta arrived in India all the way through the mountains of
Afghanistan, during time when the Tughlaq dynasty was at its height.
 Ibn Battuta, on meeting with Muhammad bin Tughlaq, presented him with arrows,
camels, 30 horses, slaves and some other goods.
 In return MBT responded him with a welcoming gift of 2,000 silver dinars, a
furnished house and the job of a judge with an annual salary of 5000 silver dinars.
 Later on, he has become the chief Qazi of Delhi he wrote one book Rihla in Arabic
language, Later on he was sent to the china as an ambassador.

Later Tughlaqs:
Successors of Firoz

 Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq Shah II.

 Abu Bakr Singh
 Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Tughlaq.
End of Tughlaq Dyansty:

 The successors of Firoz were not very strong or competent.

 By the end of the 14th century, most of the territories became independent.
 Only Punjab, and Delhi remained under the Tughlaqs.
 Timur’s invasion took place during the Tughlaq period.
Timur’s invasion (1398 AD)

 The fabulous wealth of India attracted Timur the ruler of Samarkand.

 During the period of Nasir-ud-din Mohammad Tughlaq, he invaded India.
 In 1398 AD, Timur captured Delhi and caused the annihilation of the Tughlaq dynasty
by pillaging and slaughtering people.
REGIONAL STATES
[A] Vijay Nagar empire
By the end of the Sultanate period, Multan and Bengal were the 1st territories to break away
from Delhi and declared independent and many other territories in the Deccan region rose
to power.
The Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1672 AD)
Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagar city in 1336 AD, on the southern banks of
Tungabhadra. When they set up this principality, MBT was the sultan in Delhi. They made
Hampi the capital city. At present Hampi is a UNESCO world heritage site near Hospet town
in Karnataka state, India. It is located on the banks of Tungabhadra River. Stone Chariot is
Vittala Temple in Hampi, central Karnataka.
They served under Veera Balllala III, the Hoysala king Vijayanagar Empire was ruled by 4
important dynasties and they are:
1. Sangama
2. Saluva
3. Tuluva
4. Aravidu

Sangam Dynasty:

 Harihar and Bukka were son of Sangama of Warrangal.

 The Hoysala kingdom was conquered and hence, the Vijayanagar empire was
extended under Harihara.
 Bukka, then succeeded his brother and became the king.
 He destroyed the Madurai Sultans and extended the empire to the whole of the
South India.
 Sayana and Madhava were learned commentators on the Vedas, and were ministers
under Bukka.
 The conflict between Vijaynagar and Bahamani kingdoms was a long lasting one.
 The bone of contention was the Raichur Doab between river Krishna and
Tungabhadra and Krishna Godavari delta.
 The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty was Deva Raya II.
 During his reign, Abdur Razzak the envoy of shah rukh visited the Vijayanagar
kingdom.
Saluva Dynasty

 Saluva Narasimha was the founder of Saluva dynasty.

 He silenced the rebellions and kept the kingdom intact.
 Immadi Narsimha succeeded him.
 He was a weak ruler and hence the control of the state fell into the hands of Narsa
Nayaka.
 Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut during his time.
Tuluva Dynasty:
The son of Narasa Nayaka, Vira Narasimha was the founder of Tuluva dynasty. He was
succeeded by his half-brother, Krishnadeva Raya.
Krishnadeva rai

 At the time of K.D rai accession to the throne, the condition of the empire was
unstable, as he had to deal with rebellious subordinates and aggression of the
Gajapathis of Orissa and the Muslim kingdoms in the north.
 KD Rai won the Gajapati kingdom in present day Orissa and extended the
Vijayanagar empire to that region, as well.
 K.D.Rai defeated the deccan sultans in the battle of Diwani.
 He then invaded Raichur Doab (between Tungabhadra & Krishna River, known for its
fertile soil) confronting Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah.
 He also captured bidar.
 He helped the Portuguese to conquer Goa from the Bijapur rulers in 1510 and
maintained friendly relations with them.
 This relationship also helped him obtained high bred Arabian horses and expansion
of overseas trade of the empire.
 Portuguese travelers Domingo Piasa and Durate Barbosa visited his court and have
left accounts.
 He is also known as “Andhra Bhoja”, for his patronage of art & literature.
 He built Vijaya Mahal, Hazara Ramaswamy temple and Vitthal Swami empire at
Vijayanagar.
 He also founded a new city called Nagalapuram.
 After the death of K D Rai the successor were very weak and they were unable to
control the empire the last ruler was Rama Raya and he was defeated in the year
1565 at the battle of Talikota also known as the Battle of Rakshasa Tangadi and
thereafter, the city of Vijayanagar was destroyed and looted.
Administration:

 He built large tanks and canals for irrigation.

 He developed naval power understanding the vital role of overseas trade.
 He maintained friendly relationships with the Portuguese and Arab traders.
 He patronized art & architecture.
 The king was head of all powers in the state.
 Council of ministers: to assist the king in the work of administration.
 Ashtadiggajas: a group of 8 scholars adorned his court and they were:
1. Allasani Peddana- the author of Manu Charita, he was also known as Andhra
Kavita Pitamha.
2. Nandi thimmana- the author of Parijatapaharanam.
3. Madayyagari mallana
4. Dhurjati
5. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi
6. Pingali Surana
 7. Ramaraja Bhushana
8. Tenali Ramakrishna
 The empire was divided into 6 provinces.
 Naik- a governor who administered each province.
 The provinces were divided into districts and the districts were further divided into
smaller units namely villages.
 The village was administered by hereditary officers like accountants, watchmen, the
weights men, and officers in charge of forced labor.
 Mahanayakacharya: he is an officer and contact between the villages and the
Central administration.
 Literature: -
 K D Rai was a great scholar.
 K D rai wrote Amuktyamalyada in Telugu and Usha Parinayam & Jambavati
Kalyanam in Sanskrit.
 Sayana wrote commentaries on Vedas.
Battle of Talikota (1565 AD)

 The successor of KD Rai were weak.

 The combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Bidar declared war on
Vijayanagar during the rule of Ramarya.
 Ramaraya was defeated.
Status of Women: -

 Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the political, social and
literary life of the empire.
 They were educated and trained in wrestling, in the use of various weapons of
offence and defence in music and fine arts.
 Some women also received education of high order.
 Nuniz writes that the kings had women astrologers, clerks, accountants, guards and
wrestlers.

Society: -

 The Hazara Ramasami temple and Vittalaswami temple was built during this period.
 the bronze image of K D rai is a masterpiece.
 Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada literature were developed.
Aravidu Dynasty (1570-1650 AD)

 Tirumala Raya was the founder of the Aravidu dynasty but he ruled in the name of
Sadashiva raya.
 He failed to control Vijayanagar and shifted to the new capital at Pnugonda and then
to Chandragiri.
 The last ruler of Vijayanagar was Sri Ranga III.
Foreign visitors of Vijayanagar Kingdom
Ibn Battuta (1333-1347 AD)

Moroccan traveller, who visited India during reign of Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq. He came to

Vijayanagar during the reign of Harihar I.

Nicolo Conti (1420-1421 AD)

Venetian traveller, who gave a comprehensive account of the Hindu kingdom of
Vijayanagar.
Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516 AD)
Portuguese traveller, who has given a valuable narrative of the government and the people
of the Vijayanagar empire.
Domingo Paes (1520-1522 AD)
Portuguese traveller, who visited the court of K D Rai.

Fernao Nuniz (1534-1537 AD)

Portuguese merchant, who wrote the history of the empire from its earliest days to the
closing years of Achyuta Deva Raya’s reign.
[B] The Bahmani Kingdom (1347-1526 AD)
The Bahamani Kingdom was one of the most powerful Muslim ki9ngdoms in India.
Political history:

 Hasan Gangu Bahamani was the ofunder of the Bhamani kingdom. He was a Turkish
officer of Devagiri.
 In 1347 AD, he established the independent Bahamani kingdom.
 His kingdom stretched form the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, included the
whole of Deccan up to the river krishna with its capital at Gulbarga.
Rulers of the Bahamani kingdom
The details about the different rulers of the Bahamani Kingdom are given below:

Muhammad Shah- I (1358-1377 AD)

 He was the next ruler of the Bahamani Kingdom.

 He was an able general and administrator.
 He defeated Kapaya Nayaka of Warangal and the Vijayanagar ruler Bukka-I.
Muhammad Shah- II (1378-1397 AD)

 In 1378 AD, Muhammad Shah-II ascended the throne.

 He was a peace lover and developed friendly relations with his neighbours.
  He built many mosques, madrasas (a place of learning) and hospitals.
Feroz Shah Bahamani (1397-1422 AD)

 He was a great general.

 He defeated the Vijayanagar ruler Deva Raya I.
Ahmad Shah (1422-1435 AD)

 Ahmad Shah succeeded Feroz Shah Bahamani.

 He was an unkind and heartless ruler.
 He conquered the kingdom of Warangal.
 He changed his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
 He died in 1435 AD.
Muhammad Shah-III (1463-1482 AD)

 In 1463 AD, Muhammad Shah- III became the Sultan at the age of nine.
 Muhammad Gawan became the regent of the infant ruler.
 Under Muhammad Gawan’s able leadership the Bahmani kingdom became very
powerful.
 Muhammad Gawan defeated the rulers of Konkan, Orissa, Sangameshwar,
Vijayanagar.
5 Muslim Dynasties
Muhammad Shah- III died in 1482.
His successor were weak and the Bahamani kingdom disintegrated into 5 kingdoms namely:

1. Bijapur
2. Ahmednagar
3. Bera
4. Golconda
5. Bidar
The Adil Shahi Dynasty (1490-14 AD)

 Bijapur Sultanate known as the Adil Shah dynasty.

 This was founded b Yusuf Adil Shah in 1490 AD. He was governor of Bahamani
province before creating the independent kingdom.
 Adil shah was the grandson of Yusuf Adil Shah.
 Bijapur Sultanate was situated in the south-western part of India with its capital
located in Bijapur and later conquered Bidar in 1619 AD.
 Later in 1686 AD Aurangzeb annexed the Bijapur Sultanate.
Administration:
The Sultans followed a Feudal type of administration.
  Tarafs- the kingdom was divided into many provinces called Tarafs.
 Tarafdar or Amir- Governor who controlled the Taraf.
Gul Gumbaz in Bijapur is called the whispering gallery when because one whispers, the
lingering echo of the whisper is heard in the opposite corner. Because when one whispers in
one corner, a lingering echo is heard the opposite corner. It was designed by architect Yaqut
of Dabul in 1656.
Contribution to education

 The Bahmani Sultans gave great attention to education.

 They encouraged Arabic and Persian learning.
 Urdu also flourished during this period.
Art & Architecture:

Numerous mosques, madrassas and libraries were built.

 The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga the Golconda Fort.

 The Golgumbaz at Bijapur.
 The Madrasas of Muhammad Gawan.
Decline of Bahmani kingdom

 There was a constant war between the Bahmani and Vijayanagar rulers.
 Inefficient and weak successors after Muhammad Shah III.
 The rivalry between the Bahmani rulers and foreign nobles.

THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1451 AD)

Khizr khan (1414-1421 AD)

 He was the founder of Sayyid Dynasty.

 He did not swear any royal title.
 He was the Governor of Multan.
 He took advantage of the disordered situations in India after Timur’s invasion. In
1414 AD he occupied the throne of Delhi.
 He brought parts of Surat, Dilapur, Punjab under his control.
Mubarak Khan (1421-1434 AD)

 Mubarak Khan crushed the local chiefs of the Doab region and the Khokhars.
 He is the 1st Sultan ruler to appoint Hindu nobles in the court of Delhi.
 He constructed “Mubarakbad” City on the banks of river Jamuna.
 Muhammad Shah Mubarak’s nephew succeeded him.
Muhammad Shah (1434-1445 AD)

 He defeated the ruler of Malwa with the help of Bahlol Lodhi, the governor of
Lahore.
  He conferred Bahlol Lodhi with the title Khan-i-Khana for helping in defeating the
ruler of Malwa.
 Later Ala-ud-din Shah succeeded him.
Ala-ud-din Shah (1445-1457 AD)

 He was a weak ruler.

 In 1457 AD Bahlol Lodhi the governor of Lahore captured Delhi and made Ala-ud-din
Shah to steep down from the throne and sent him to Badaun.
 In 1478 AD, Ala-ud-din Shah died in Badaun.

Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)

Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489 AD)

 Bahlol Lodi was the founder of the Lodi dynasty.

 The Lodi dynasty is the last ruling dynasty of the Sultanate period.
 He was a wise statesman who knew his limits.
 He took various measures to gratify his nobles.
 He conquered Etawa, Gwalior, Mewat, Sakit, Santhal.
 He died in 1489 AD.
 Bahlol Lodi was a wise ruler, he never sat on the throne and he used to sit on the
carpet in front of the throne with his nobles to gain their recognition and support.

Sikandar Shahi (1489-1517 AD)

 Sikandar Shahi was the son of Bahlul Lodi.

 He swore the title of Sikandar Shah and ascended the throne.
 He set up a well-organized spy system.
 He developed agriculture and industry.
 He was an orthodox Muslim.
 He put severe restrictions on the Hindus.
 Sikandar Shah enjoyed “Shehani” music.
 A work on music named “Lahjati-sikandar Shahi” was created during his reign.
End of Lodhi Dynasty (1517-1526 AD)

 Ibrahim Lodi succeeded Sikandar Lodhi.

 He was an intolerant and adamant ruler.
 He had humiliated many nobles and killed some nobles cruelly.
 He also treated his son Dilwar Khan Lodhi cruelly.
 Daulat Khan, the most powerful noble of Punjab, who was discontented with
Ibrahim Lodi, invited Babur the ruler of Kabul to invade India.
 Babur invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the 1st battle of Panipat in 1526
AD.
MUGHAL EMPIRE
Who were Mughals and who was Babur?
 Mughals belonged to a branch of the Turks called Chagati, which is named after the
2nd son of Genghis khan, the famous Mongol Leader.
Babur- Zahiruddin Muhammad (1526-1530)

 Babur is the founder of the Mughal empire in India.

 He was descendant of Timur (on his father’s side) and Genghis Khan (on his mother
side).
 His original name was Zahiruddin Muhammad.
 In 1494 at the age of 11, Babur became the ruler of Farghana (at present in Chinese
Turkestan) succeeding Umar Shaikh Mirza, his father.
 Daulat Khan, the most powerful noble of Punjab, who was discontented with
Ibrahim Lodi, invited Babur to invade India.
 He undertook four expeditions to India in order to conqueror it between the years
1519 & 1523.
Babur’s military conquests

 In 1504, Babur occupied Kabul.

 In 1524, Babur occupied Lahore but had to retreat to Kabul after Daulat Khan turned
against him.
 In November 1525, Babur attacked and occupied Punjab again.
 On 21st April 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the 1st battle of Panipat and
quickly occupied Delhi and Despite of vast and superior troop, Ibrahim Lodi lost in
the battle due to Babur’s superior strategy and use of artillery.
 The 1st Battle of Panipat marked the foundation of Mughal dominion in India.
 Babur conquered Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra.
 Babur announced himself as “Emperor of Hindustan”.
Rana Sanga & Babur
Battle of Khanwa: 1527

 Rana Sanga of Mewar was a great Rajput warrior.

 He gave the toughest resistance to Babur’s expansion plans.
 On march 16, 1527 Rana Sangha, along with rulers of Marwar, Amber, Gwalior,
Ajmer and Chanderi and Sultan Mahmud Lodi (whom Rana Sangha had acknowledge
as ruler of Delhi) met Babur in a decisive contest at Kanhwa, a village near Agra.
 The aim was to prevent the impoisition of another foreign repression on Babur and
succeeded over them by using similar tactics as in the Battle of Panipat.
 The, he took on the title of “Ghazi”.
Battle of Chanderi:

 In the year 1528, Chanderi was captured by Babur from Rajput king Medini rai.
  On may 6, 1529, babur met the allied Afghans of Bihar and Bengal on the banks of
Gogra, near Patna and defeated them. With this battle, Babur occupied a
considerable portion of northern India.
 Babur met the allied Afghans of Bihar and Bengal on the banks of Gogra, near Patna,
and inflicted a crushing defeat on them.
 The following year, Babur vanquished the Afghans in the battle of Gogra in Bihar.
 On Dec 26, 1530, Babur died at Agra aged 40. His body was first laid at Arambagh in
Agra, but was later taken to Kabul, where it was buried.
Estimate of Babur

 He was an eminent scholar in Arabic and Persian.

 His mother tongue was Chagatai Turkic.
 He was said to be a statesman.
 He wrote his memories, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki language.
HUMAYUN (1530-1540 & 1555-56)
Life of Humayun

 Humayun was the eldest son of Babur.

 He was lacking wisdom, discretion, and strong determination and diligence of his.
Thus, as a king he was a failure. Humayun means “Fortune” but he remained the
most unfortunate ruler of the Mughal empire.
 6 months after his succession, Humayun besieged the fortress of Kalinjar in
Bundelkhand, gained a decisive victory over Afghans at Douha and drove out Sultan
Mahmood Lodhi from Jaunpur, and even defeated Bahahdur Shah of Gujarat.
 His victories, however were short-lived due to the weakness of his character.
 Humayun had 3 brothers- Kamran, Askari and Hindal.
 Humayun divided the empire among his brothers but his proved to be a great
blunder on his part.
 Kamran was given Kabul & Kandhar.
 Sambhal and Alwar were given to Askari and Hindal.
Battles fought:

 Humayun captured Gujarat from Bahadaur shah and appointed Askari as its
governor.
 But soon Bahadur Shah recovered Gujarat from Askari who fled from there.
 In the east, Sher Khan became powerful.
 Humayun marched against him and in the battle of Chausa, held in 1539, Sher Khan
destroyed the Mughal army and Humayun escaped from there.
 The autobiographay of Humayun is known as Humayunama and it was written by his
sister Gulbadan Begum.
 Humayun reached Agra to negotiate with his brothers.
  In 1540, in the battle of Bilrgram or Ganges also knowsn as Battle of Kannauj.
Humayun was forced to fight with Sher Khan alone and after losing his kingdom,
Humayun became an exile for the next 15 years.
 In 1952, during his wanderings in deserts of Sindh, Humayun married Hamida Bano
Begum, daughter of Shiekh Ali Amber Jaini, who had been a preceptor of Humayun’s
brother Hindal.
 On November 23, 1542 Humayun’s wife gave birth to Akbar.
 Amarkot’s Hindu chief Rana prasad promised Humayun to help him to conquer
Thatta.
 However, Humayun could not conquer Bhakker or secure. Thus, he left India and
lived under the generosity of Shah Tahmashp of Persia.
 Shah of Persia agreed to help Humayun & lend him a force of 14,000 men on a
conditions to confirm to Shia creed, to have the Shah’s name proclaimed in hi
Khutba and to give away Kandhar to him on his success.
 In 1545, with Persia help, Humayun captured Kandhar and Kabul but refused to cede
Kandhar to Persia.
 Humayun sought help from the Iran ruler.
 Later, he defeated his brothers Kamran and Askari.
 In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans and recovered the Mughal throne.
 After 6 months, he died in 1556 due to his fall from the staircase of his library.
 Humayun was kind and generous, though he was not a good General and warrior.
 Humayun’s widow Hamida Banu Begam, also known as Haji Begam, commenced the
construction of his tomb in 1569, 14 years after his death. It is the 1st district
example of proper Mughal style, which was inspired by Persian architecture. The
tomb was constructed at a cost of 15 lakh rupees (1.5 million). Mirak Mirza Ghiyath,
a Persian, was the architect employed by Haji Begam for this tomb.
 He also loved painting and wrote poetry in the Persian language.
SUR DYNASTY (1540-55)
Sher Shah Suri
Life: -

 Founder of Sur Dynasty.

 His original name was Farid.
 He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar.
 He was given the title Sher Khan for his bravery under the Afghan rule of Bihar.
 Sher Shah Suri’s conquests included Bundelkhand, Malwa, Multan, Punjab and Sindh.
 His empire occupied the whole of north India except Assam, Gujarat, Kashmir, Nepal.
 Though his rule lasted for only 5 years, he has originated an excellent administrative.
Successor of Sher Shah Suri

 The Sur empire founded by Sher Shah Suri did not last long as his successors were
inefficient rulers.
  Sher Shah was succeeded by his 2nd son Jalal Khan under the title of Islam Shah or
Salim Shah who ruled from 1545 to 1553.
 After Islam Shah’s death, his cousin Nizam ascended the throne under the title of
Muhammad Adil Shah. He ruled for only 4 years from 1153-1557.
 Although Muhammada adil Shah ruled for 4 years, he lost his throne of Delhi to a
usurper named Ibrahim khan sur, a nephew of Sher Shah and had to rule from
Chunar where he made his new headquarters.
 Nephew of Sher Shah, Sikander Shah occupied Punjab.
 Muhammad Adil Shah made Hemu his Chief Minister entrusting him with all the
administrative responsibilities.
 A civil war also started among Muhammad Adil Shah, Ibrahim Khan Sur and Sikander
Shah.
 Humayun defeated the Afghan army under Sikander Shah at Machhiwara on the
bank of the river Sutlej.
 Punjab was occupied and Akbar, son of Humayun, was made its governor.
 He entered Delhi on July 23, 1555 and became the emperor of India once again after
an interval of 15 years.
Administration:

 The king was aided by 4 important ministers.

1. Diwan-i-Wizarat or Wazir- in charge of Revenue and Finance.
2. Diwan-i-Ariz- in charge of Army
3. Diwan-i-Risalat- Foreign minister
4. Diwan-i-insha- minister for communications.

Sher Shah’s empire was divided into 47 Sarkars

Each Sarkar was further divided into various Paraganas and in charge of various officers.

 Shiqdar: military officer

 Amin: land revenue
 Fotedar: treasurer
 Karkuns: accountants
 Iqtas: various administrative units
Agriculture: -

 All cultivable lands were classified into 3 classes- good, middle, bad.
 The state’s share was 1/3rd of the average production and it was paid in cash or crop.
 Police were competently restricted and crime was less during his regime.
 Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding of horses from Alauddin Khilji. Sher
Shah had also developed the communications by laying 4 important highways.
1. Sonargaon to Sindh
2. Agra to Berhampur
3. Jodhpur to Chittor
 4. Lahore to Multan
Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called “Dam” and they were in circulation till
1835.
Estimate of Sher Shah

 Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religious.
 He also employed Hindus in important offices.
 The old fort called Purana Qila and its mosque was built during his period.
 He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the
masterpieces of Indian architecture.
 The famous Hindi work Padmavat by malik Muhammad Jayasi was written during his
reign.
 In 1545, Sher Shah died and his successor ruled till 1555 later when Humayun
reconquered India.

Akbar (1556-1605)
Life: -

 Akbar’s position was in danger when succeeded his father Humayun in Delhi was
seized by the Afghans.
 In 1556, in the 2nd battle of Panipat, Akbar defeated Hemu and the army of Hemu
fled which made the victory of Mughal decisive.
 During the 1st 5 years of Akbar’s reign, Bairam Khan acted as his regent.
 Later, Akbar removed Bairam Khan and sent him to Mecca but Bairam Khan was
killed by an Afghan on his way.
 The military conquests of Akbar were extensive.
 Ralph Fitch visited Akbar’s court at Fatehpur Sikri in 1585.
Akbar’s Relation with Rajputs

 Akbar married the Rajput Princess, the daughter of Raja Bharmal.

 For 4-generation, the Rajputs served the Mughals and many served in the positions
of military generals as well.
 Akbar appointed Raja Man Singh and raja Bhagwan Das in the senior position of
military generals as well.
 Though the majority of the Rajput states surrendered to Akbar, the Ranas of Mewar
continued to confront each other even though they were defeated several times.
 In 1576, the Mughals Army defeated Rana Pratap Singh in the battle of Haldighati,
following the defeat of Mewar, other leading Rajput leaders surrendered to Akbar
and accepted him.
 Akbar’s policy towards Rajput was combined with broad religious toleration.
 He abolished the pilgrim tax and later the Jizya.
 Akbar’s love for culture made him collects his “9 Jewels of Naurattans” who excelled
in their fields of art & knowledge, they were as following:
 1. Birbal (Mahesh Das) the court Jester.
2. Miyan Tansen (Tanna Mishra) the court singer.
3. Abul Fazl (the chronologist) who wrote A in I Akbari.
4. Faizi (the court poet)
5. Maharaja man singh (Army consultant)
6. Fakir aziao din (sufi singer)
7. Mulla do-pyaza (depicted as Birbal’s Muslim counterpart)
8. Todar Mal (Finance consultant)
9. Abdul Rahim khan I khana (writer of hindi coupltes)
A time line of Akbar’s Reign

 Akbar became the king at the age of 13 years in 1556 by defeating Hemu at the 2 nd
battle of Panipat with the help of his general bairam khan.
 Akbar became an independent ruler at the age of 18 in 1560, after dismissing Bairam
Khan. Later, he married Bairam Khan’s widow Salima Begam.
 In 1561 he defeated married Harka Bal who was a Rajput Baz Bahadur.
 In 1562 Akbar married Harka Bai who was a Rajput princess she was later known as
Mariam uz Zamani.
 In 1564, he abolished the religious tax Jizya, which was imposed for the 1st time by
Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
 In 1572, he captured Gujarat and in memory of that he built a new capital city
Fatehpur Sikri (city of victory) near Agra.
 Buland Darwaja was the gateway of Fatehpur Sikri, built by Akbar.
 In 1575 Akbar constructed a prayer house in Fatehpur Sikri known as Ibadatkhana.
 He started a new revenue system in India known as Todarmal Bandobast.
 He started the famous Mansabdari system in 1571.
 In 1580, the 1st Jesuit missionaries arrived at the court of Akbar.
 In 1585, Ralph Fitch, the 1st English man to reach India, reached Akbar’s court. Ralph
Fitch is known as a pioneer English man or torch bearers Englishmen.
 In 1582 Akbar founded a new religion for universal peace and monotheism known as
‘Din-illahi’ which means divine earth.
 In 1576 Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap of Mewar in the battle of Haldighati.
 Akbar was the Mughal emperor when the English East India Company was being
founded in.
 Akbar built Agra fort, Lahore fort and Allahabad fort.
 Akbar started the translation department of Sanskrit into Persian.
 Akbar died in 1605 and he was buried at Sikandra near Agra.
 The biography of Akbar is known as Ain I Akbari or Akbarnama and it was written by
Abul Fazl as Akbar was completely Illiterate.

Akbar’s Religious policy

 Its Akbar’s religious policy that made his name in the history pages.
 He abolished the pilgrimage tax.
  In 1562, he abolished jizya.
 He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods.
 In 1575, Akbar built ibadat Khana (house of worship) at his new capital Fatehpur Sikri
and invited scholars from all religious like Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism and
Zoroastrianism.
 he did not like the intrusion of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters.
 In 1579, he delivered the “Infallibility Decree” and proclaimed his religious powers.
 In 1582, he propagated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Earth.
About Din Ilahi-

 The new religion believed in one God.

 It had all the good points of every religion.
 Its foundation was balanced.
 It didn’t endorse any philosophy.
 It aimed at bridging the gap that separated different religious.
 The new religion proved to be a failure, after Akbar’s death.
Land revenue Administration
With the help of Raja Todar Mal, Akbar experimented on the land revenue administration,
which was completed in 1580.

 The land revenue system was called Zabti or Bandobast system or Dahsala System.
 The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land measured on the basis of the
previous 10 years.
The land was divided into 4 categories:

1. Polaj (cultivated every year)

2. Parauti (once in 2 years)
3. Chachar (once in 3 or 4 years)
4. Banjar (once in 5 or more years). Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.
Mansabdari System:

 Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration.

 Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (Mansab).
 Lowest rank was 10 & the highest was 5000 for the nobles.
 Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks.
 The ranks were divided into 2-Zat and Sawar.
 Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person.
 Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was required to
maintain.
 Every sawar had to maintain at least 2 horses. All appointments, promotions &
dismissals were directly made by the emperor.
Jahangir (1605-27)
  Early name of Jahangir was Salim. Akbar called him Shelkha Baba. In 1605, Prince
Salim succeeded with the title of Jahangir (Conqueror of World) after the death of
Akbar.
 Jahangir was the son of Akbar and Harka bai.
 He married Mehrunnisa, an Afghan widow in 1611 later he gave her titles, Noor
Mahal (light of the palace) Noor Jahan (light of the world) and Padsha Begum.
 He defeated and imprisoned Son Khusrau.
 In 1606, Jahangir executed 5th Sikh Guru Arjan Dev, because he helped Jahangir’s son
Prince Khusrau to rebel against him.
 In 1608-09, Jahangir received William Hawkins, an envoy of King James I of England,
who reached India to start trading in India.
 In 1615, sir Thomas Roe visited his court as an ambassador of King James I of
England.
 Period of Jahangir is considered as the Golden Age of Mughal Painting. Jahangir
himself was a painter. Ustad Mansur and Abul Hassan were famous painters in the
court of Jahangir.
 Jahangir built Shalimar and Nishant Gardens in Srinagar.
 Jahangir suspended a chain of justice known as Zndiri Adal in front of his court.
 Jahangir defeated Maharaja Amar Singh who was the son of Maharana Pratap in
India.
 Jahangir prohibited the tobacco in India.
 Jahangir made Lahore as its capital city.
 Famous Italian traveller Pietra Velle came during the period of Jahangir.
 Jahangir wrote his autobiography Tuzukh-i-Jahangiri in Persian language.
 Jahangir died in 1627 and was cremated at Shahdara at Lahore.
Nur Jahan

 In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (light of world).
 Asaf Khan, elder brother of Nur Jahan was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post
reserved for the nobles.
 In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Bano Begam (later known as Mumtaz),
married Jahangir’s third son, Prince Khurram (after Shah Jahan).
Shah Jahan (1627-1658)

 Shah Jahan was born in 1593 at Lahore.

 His childhood name was Khurram.
 He married anjuman Bano Begam. In 1612 she was the daughter of Asaf Khan,
brother of Noor Jahan. She later came to be known as Mumtaz Mahal which means
beloved of the palace.
 Shahjahan destroyed the Portuguese settlements at Hubli 1631.
 Shah Jahan’s period is considered as the Golden age of Mughal Architecture and
Shah Jahan is known as he prince of builders.
  In 1631 he started the construction of Taj Mahal in memory of his wife and
completed in.
 In 1638 Shah Jahan built his new capital ShahJahanabad in Delhi and shifted the
capital from Agra to there.
 In 1639 he started the construction of Red fort in Delhi on the model of Agra fort
built by Akbar.
 Its construction was completed in 1648.
 The Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas and the moti masjid are situated inside the Red fort.
 The moti masjid in Agra was constructed by Shah Jahan.
 He also built the famous Jama Masjid.
 He built the famous peacock throne on which the Kohinoor Diamond was mounted.
 The Portuguese introduced European painting in India during the reign of Shah
Jahan.
 In 1658, Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb and he died in 1666, after
8 years his daughter Jahan Ara was also kept in prison along with him at the Agra
Fort.
 French traveller Bernier and Tavernier and Italian travellor Manucci visited India
during Shahjahan’s period.
 Jean Baptist Travernier, a diamon merchant, visited his court.
 Shah Jahan launched a continued war in the northwest frontier to recover Kandahar
and other ancestral lands.
 His deccan policy was more successful. He defeated the forces of Ahmednagar, and
seized it. Both Bijapur and Golconda signed a treaty with the emperor.
 Shah Jahan engraved four Mughal provinces in the Deccan khandesh, Berar,
Telungana and Daultabad.
War of Succession: -
The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were clouded by a bitter war of succession among his 4
sons.

 Dara Shikoh (crown prince)

 Shuja (governor of Bengal)
 Aurangzeb (governor of Deccan)
 Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa & Gujarat)
Aurangzeb emerged victorious in this struggle.

 He entered the Agra fort after defeating Dara Shikoh.

 He forced Shah Jahan to surrender.
 Shah Jahan was confined to the female apartments in the Agra fort and strictly put
under watch.
 Shah Jahan lived for 8 longs years lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara.
Aurangazeb (1658-1707)
  Aurangzeb imprisoned his father and made himself the Padushah in 1658 by
defeating and killing his elder brother Dara Shikoh at the Battle of Samudragupta in
1658.
 But his actual coronation was conducted in 1659.
 Alamgir was the name adopted by Aurangzeb when he became the Padusha.
 Aurangazeb is known as ‘Zinda peer’ or living saint because of his simple life.
 He banned music and dance.
 he ousted all the artists from his courts. At the same time he was an acocomplished
Veena player.
 In 1675 he executed 9th Sikh Guru Guru Tej Bahadur because of his reluctance ot
accept Islam.
 The Bahadur was executed at the Chandni chowk.
 He reimposed Jaziya upon all the non-muslims, which was earlier abolished by Akbar.
 He also abolished the Sati practice.
 Aurangzeb called Shivaji a mountain rat and gave him the title Raja because of his
guerilla tactics.
 In 1660, he entrusted Shaista Khan to defeat Shivaji.
 Later in 1665 the treaty of Purandar was signed between Maharaja Jaisingh of
Amber & Shivaji Aurangzeb built the famous pearl mosque inside the red fort in
Delhi.
 Aurangzeb was one of the ablest kings of the Mughal. Aurangzeb was the only
Mughal emperor who was not a drunkard.
 Aurangazeb is considered as religiously fanatic. He was also a temple breaker. He
persecuted the Hindus and imposed prohibition against the free exercise of Holi &
Diwali.
 Gemelli-Careri, the Italian Physician who visited India during the reign of Aurangzeb,
saw him in 1695, when he was 77 years old.
 Aurangzeb died in 1707 Feb 20, at Ahmednagar. Aurangzeb’s tomb is situated at
Daultabad in Maharashtra.
Religious Policy

 His ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state.

 He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a high-powered
officer called Mushtasib.
 Drinking was prohibited. Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned.
 Aurangzeb forbade music in the Mughal court.
 He discontinued the practice of Jhaorkha Darshan.
 He also discontinued the celebration of Dasara and royal astronomers and
astrologers were also dismissed from service.
 When he began a policy of destroying Hindu temples.
 The celebrated temples at Mathura and Benaras were reduced to ruins. In 1679, he
reimposed jizya and pilgrim tax.
 The celebration of Muharram was stopped.
  His invasions against the Deccan sultanates were partly due to his hatred of the Shia
faith.
 He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the 9th Sikh Guru Teg Bhadur.
 His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, the Marathas and Sikhs
into the enemies of Mughal empire.
 It had also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis of
Mewar.
 Therefore, Aurangzeb was held responsible of the decline of the Mughal Empire.
 Personality & character of Aurangzeb.
 Aurangzeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim.
Art & literature: -

 He was very simple in food and dress.

 He earned money for his personal expenses by copying the Quran and selling those
copies.
 He did not consume wine. He was proficient in Arabic and Persian languages.
 He was devoted to his religion and conducted prayers 5 times in a day.
 He strictly observed the Ramzan fasting.
 He misunderstood the true nature of the Maratha movement and provoked them.
 Also, he failed to solve the Maratha problem and left an open sore.
 His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates also proved to be wrong.
 His antagonistic policies towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the muslims
to his side and strengthen political enemies of the Mughal Empire.

Cause for the Downfall of the Mughals:

 The Mughals empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangzeb.

 Taking this advantage, in 1739 Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal Emperor and
looted Delhi.
 The religious and Deccan policies of Aurangzeb contributed to its decline.
 The weak successors & demoralization of the Mughal army were also the reasons for
the decline. The financial difficulties due to the continuous wars led to the decline.
The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals was felt when the Europeans began to
settle in India. Further, the invasion of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened
the Mughal state.
The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu: -
6th century
 Alvars- those who are “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu.
 Nayanars- leaders who were devotees of Shiva.
 They travelled from place-to-place singing hymns in Tamil Nadu praising their gods.
 The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system,
against dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system.
Supported, by the fact that bhaktas or disciples hailed from diverse social
 backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from
castes considered “Untouchable”.
 Nalayira Divyaprabandham (4000 sacred compositions)- one of the major
anthologies of compositions of 12th Alvars compiled by the 10th century.
 it was frequently described as the Tamil Veda.
 From a composition of an Alvar named Tondaradippodi a Brahamana mentions
Chaturvedins.
 Tevaram- a collection compiled and classified in the 10th century on the basis of the
music of the songs of Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar.
Women Devotees of Bhakti Movement:
Andal:

 A woman Alvar the compositions of Andal were widely sung (and continue to be
sung to date).
 Andal saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu.
 Her versus express her love for the deity Karaikkal Ammaiyar.
 Another woman, Karikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted the path of
extreme asceticism in order to attain her goal.
IMPORTANT BHAKTI MOVEMENT:
SAINTS
Sankara

 A Hindu revivalist movement giving a new placement to Hinduism was started by

Sankara.
 Kaladi in Kerala in his birth place.
 His doctrine of monoism or Advaita was too abstract to appeal to the common
people.
 The Advaita Concept of Nirgunabrahman (god without attributes) received a
contradictory, reaction with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman (God with
attributes).
Ramanuja

 He was born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai.

 He preached Visistadvaita in the 12th century.
 According to him, God is Sanguna Brahman.
 Prabattimarga or path of self-surrender to God.
Madhava

 Madhava is from Kannada region whose preaching prevailed in the 13th century.
 He spread the Deviator dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma.
 His philosophy was that the world is nto an illusion, but a reality. God, soul, matter is
unique in nature.
Nimbarka & Vallabhacharya
Nimbarka & Vallabhacharya were also other preachers of Vaishnavite.
Bhakti in the Telangana region

Surdas

 He was the disciple of Vallabhacharya.

 He popularized Krishna cult in the northern part of India.
Mirabai

 She became popular in Rajasthan for her bhajans.

 She was a great devotee of Krishna.
Tulsidas

 He was a worshipper of Rama.

 He composed the famous Ramacharitmanas, the Hindi version of Ramayana.
Ramananda

 He was born at Allahabad.

 Initially he was a follower of Ramanuja.
 Later he founded his own sect and preached his principles in Hindi at Banaras and
Agra.
 Ramananada was the 1st to employ the vernacular medium to spread his ideas. He
opposed the caste system and chose his disciples from all sections of society
irrespective of caste.

Ramananda’s disciples were:

1. Kabir
2. Raidasa, he was a cobbler
3. Sena, he was a barber
4. Sadhana
5. Dhanna, he was from a Jat farmer
6. Naraharai, he was a goldsmith.
7. Pipa, he was a Rajput prince.
Kabir

 Kabir was the most famous disciples of Ramananda.

 He was brought up by a Muslim couple who were weavers by profession.
 He had a curious mind in learning new things and he learnt much about Hinduism in
Benaras.
 Kabir’s aim was to reunite Hindus and Muslims and form harmony between them.
 He is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints.
  His followers are called Kabirpanths. They aided the common people to shed age-old
superstitious and attain salvation through Bhakti or pure devotion.
Sufi movement:

 Sufi followed system of Pir (Guru) and Murid (Shishya)

 Living place of Sufis is called Khargah.
The Sufi orders are broadly divided into two:

 Ba-shara- those who followed the Islamic law

 Be-shara- those who were not bound by the Islamic law.
Methods of music:

 The Sufi saints made themselves popular by adopting musical relations called
“Sama” to create a mood of nearness to God.
 Qawwali is the form of sufi devotional music popular in South Asia
 Ghazal is the form of Qawwali.
The four main Sufi orders:
1. Chisti
2. Qadiriyya
3. Suharwardiyya
4. Naqshbandi order
Chisti order: -

 The saints of Chisti order lived in poverty and lead a hermit life.
 They did not accept State service.
 Follower: - Afghanistan & Indian subcontinent.
 Founder: Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti in 1192, shortly after the death of Prithvi Raj
Chauhan.
 He died in 1236.
 Contemporary: his tomb in Ajmer was constructed by Ghiasuddin Khilji of Malwa.
MBT visited the tomb. Later it came under State Management during Mughal Ruler
Akbar’s reign.
Sufi saints of chisti order: -
1. One of the other notable Sufi saints was Khwaja Qutbuddin Bhaktiyar Kaki who
organized work in Delhi and the contemporary Delhi Sultanate Ruler was Illtutmish
who was deeply devoted to the Chisti order.
2. Another famous Sufi saint was Nizamuddin Auliya and he adopted yogic breathing
exercises, so much so that yogic called him Sidh or Perfect.
3. Auliya’s famous disciple was Amir Khusrow who is called as “father of Qawwali” and
“Parrot of India” and introduce ed the Ghazal style to India.
 4. After the death of Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Delhi in the 14th century, the chishtis order
declined.
Suharwardi Order: -
It entered India at the same time as the Chishtis
Areas: - Punjab & Multan

Founder: this order was established in India by Bahauddin Zakariya.

Sufi saints of Suhrawardi order: -
1. The most well-known saints were Shaikh Shihabuddin Suharwardi and Hamid ud-din
-Nagori.
2. Another Saint Shaikh Fakhruddin Ibarahim Iraqi composed a treatise called Hamat
which is a commentary on the unity of being (Wahdat-al-wujud) and he was highly
respected by the Delhi Sultans from Alauddin Khilji to Mohd. Bin Tughlaq.
Unlike the Chishti’s, the Suhrawardy saints did not believe in leading a life of poverty.
they accepted the service of the state and held important posts mainly under Delhi
Sultanate ruler Iltutmish.
Qadri order

 Founder: this order was established in India by Niyammad-ulla-Qadiri.

 Introduced in India over the Babur period.
 A great follower of Qadri order was Dara Shikho, who was the eldest son of the
Mughal emperor Shahjahan.
 During Aurangzeb’s reign, the Qadri order lost its patronage.
Naqshbandi order

 Founder: this order was founded by Bahibillah and the followers were very orthodox
compared to all other orders.
 This order was popularized in India by Babur who was deeply devoted to
Naqsbandiyya leader khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar.
 One of the disciples of Khwaja was Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi who opposed all those
practices and beliefs of Akbar and demanded re-imposition of Jizyah.
 Later he was imprisoned by Jahangir for claiming a status beyond that of the
Prophet.
Famous sufi saints

 Baba farid
 Nizamuddin Auliya
 Amin Khusro
 Salim Chisti
Sikhim in India:
Sikh Gurus
The era of the 10 gurus of Sikhism spans from the birth of Nanak dev in 1469, through the
life of Guru Gobind Singh.
At the time of Guru Gobind Singh’s death in 1708, he passed the title of Guru to the Sikh
scripture, Guru Granth.
1. Guru Nanak Dev- Guru from 1469 to 1539
 founded the Sikh faith, introducing the concept of one God.
 He started the institution of Guru Ka Langar.
 Langar is the term in the Sikh religion refers to the common kitchen where food is
served to everyone without any discrimination.
 He emphasized the equality the equality of women and rejected the path of
renunciation and he rejected the authority of Vedas.
 Contemporary- of Mughal emperor- Babur.
2. Guru Angad Dev- Guru from 1539-1552.
 Invented and introduced the Gurmukhi (written form of Punjab) script.
 He compiled the writings of Nanak dev in Guru Granth Sahib in Gurumukhi script.
 Popularized and expanded the institution of Guru ka Langar which was started by
Guru Nanak Dev.
3. Guru Amardas Sahib- Guru from 1552-1574
 Guru Amardas introduced the Anand Karaj marriage ceremony for the Sikhs,
replacing the Hindu form.
 He established the Manji & Piri system of religious missions for men & women.
 He strengthened the tradition of Guru ka Langar.
 He also completely abolished amongst the Sikhs, the customs of Sati and Purdah
system.
 Contemporary of Mughal emperor- Akbar.
4. Guru Ram Das- Guru from 1547-1581
 Founded the city of Amritsar.
 He started the construction of the famous Golden temple at Amritsar, the holy city
of sikhs.
 He requested the Muslim Sufi, Mian Mir to lay the cornerstone of the Harmandir
Sahib.
5. Guru Arjan Dev- Guru from 1581 to 1606
 He compiled the Adi Granth, the scriptures of the Sikhs.
 He completed construction of Sri Darbar Sahib also known as Golden temple in
Amritsar.
 He founded the town of Tarn Taran Sahib neard Goindwal Sahib.
 He became the 1st great martyr in Sikh history when Emperor Jahangir ordered his
execution. Thus, he was hailed as Shaheedan-de-Sartaj (the crown of martyrs).
6. Guru Hargobind Sahib- Guru from 1606-1644
 He was the son of Guru Arjan Dev and was known as a “soldier saint”.
  He organized a small army and became the 1st Guru to take up arms to defend
the Earth.
 Contemporary- Mughal rulers Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
7. Guru Har Rai Sahib – 1644-1661
Though he was a man of peace, he never disbanded the armed sikh warriors who
were earlier maintained by Guru Har Gobind.
Contemporary:
a. He gave shelter to Dara Shikhoh, the eldest son of Mughal Ruler Shah Jahan,
who was later persecuted by Aurangzeb.
b. He cautiously avoided conflict with emperor Aurangzeb and devoted his efforts
to missionary work.
8. Guru Har Krishan Sahib- 1661-1664
 Guru Har Krishan was the youngest of the Gurus.
 He was installed as Guru at the age of 5.
 Contemporary of Aurangzeb and summoned to Delhi by him under framed charges
of anto-islamic blasphemy.
9. Guru Teg Bahadur Sahib- Guru from 1665-1675
 He established the town of Anadpur.
 He opposed the forced conversion of the Hindu Kashmiri Pandits by Mughal ruler
Aurangzeb and he was consequently persecuted for this.
10. Guru Gobind Singh Sahib- 1675-1708
 He became Guru after the martyrdom of his father Guru Tegh Bahadur.
 He created the Khalsa in 1699, changing the Sikhs into a saint-soldier order for
protecting themselves.
 Last Sikh Guru in human form and he passed the Guruship of the Sikhs to the Guru
Granth Sahib.
11. Guru Granth Sahib
 Guru Granth Sahib (also known as the Adi Granth) is the scripture of the Sikhs.
 The Granths was written in Gurumukhi script and it contains the actual words and
verses as uttered by the Sikh Gurus.
 It is considered the Supreme Spiritual Authority and head of the Sikh religion, rather
than any living person.
LATER MUGHALS
(1707-1857 AD)
1. Bahadur Shah
2. Jahandar Shah (1712-13)
3. Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719)
4. Muhammad Shah (1719-48)
5. Ahmad Shah (1748-54)
6. Alamgir II (1754-59)
7. Shah Jahan III (1759-60)
8. Shah Alam II (1759-1806)
9. Akbar Shah II (1806-1837)
 10. Bahadur Shah II (1837-57 A.D.)
Bahadur Shah I (1707-12): -
a. 1st and last of the later Mughal rulers to exercise real authority.
b. He followed a conciliatory policy towards the Rajput’s and Marathas but a strict
policy toward the Sikhs.

Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

Administration:

 Jahandar Shah was a weak ruler and came to the throne chiefly with the help of
Zulfikar Khan, Friendly policy towards the Rajput’s, Marathas and the Hindu
chieftains.
 Abolished the jizah.
 Gave the title of Mirza Raja Sawai to Jai singh of Amber and appointed him the
governor of Malwa.
 Introduced the evil practice of revenue-farming
 Ljarah: government established contact with the revenue farmers and middlemen
who paid the government a fixed amount while they were free to collect.
 Death: 1713
Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719):

 Power with the help of Sayyid brothers Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan Barha-
the kingmakers. They were given the office of the wazir and mirbakshi respectively.
 Banda Bahadur the Sikh chief was captured and killed.
 Efforts of the emperor to overthrow the brothers failed repeatedly. Finally, Farukh
was deposed and killed in 1719.
Muhammad Shah (1719-48)
His original name was Roshan Akhtar.
Sayyid brothers administration: - As successors, Sayyid brothers quickly raised 2 young
princes, Rafi-ud-darjat and Rafi-ud-daula (shah Jahan II) who died within 2 months.
Alliance was made with Churaman Jat & placated Shahu by granting him Shivaji’s
Sardeshmukhi in 6 provinces of the deccan. Abdullah khan died in 1722 after he was
defeated at Agra.
This ended the rule of Sayyid brothers in the Mughal Empire.
Personal life:

 Most pleasure-loving ruler of loose morals and is therefore called Muhammad Shah
Rangila.
 Persian monarch Nadir Shah invaded India in 1738-39.
 He carried away with him the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond and the jewel studded
peacock throne of Shahjahan.
Ahmad Shah (1748-54 A.D.)

 Born of Udham Bai, a public dancing girl.

 Ahmad Shah Abdali, who invaded India twice in 1749 and 1752, when he marched
up to Delhi. The emperor, with a view to buy peace and save Delhi from
devastation, ceded Punjab and Multan to Abdali.
Alamgir II (1754-59 A.D.): -

 Real name: Azizuddin, Jahandar Shah’s son on the throne.

 Administration: Style himself after Aurangzeb as Alamgir II. The military and financial
position of the empire during this period became worse.
 Example: emperor’s household troops carried off the articles from the houses of the
wazirs and nobles and sold them into the market.
 Third time raid by Ahmhad Shah Abdali invaded Delhi in 1757.
Shah Jahan III (1759-60 A.D.): -

 Real name: Muhi-ul-millat the grandson of Kam Baksh was placed on the throne as
Shah Jahan III by Imad-ul-Mulk.
 He was deposed by the Marathas who captured Delhi in 1760.
Shah Alam II (1759-1806 A.D.): -
Personal life: -

 Ali Gauahr, the son of Alamgir II.

 Although he was declared the Mughal Emperor, he did not proceed to Delhi for 12
years.
 Ultimately in Jan 1772, Shah Alam II was reinstated at Delhi by the Marathas.
 Ghulam Qadri (Grandson of Najib & son of Zabita Khan Rohilla) occupied Delhi in
1788, blinded Shah Alam II and deposed him.
Rise of British: -

 In 1803, Delhi was captured by the English after Lord Lake defeated the Marathas
and Shah Alam became the British pensioner.
 David Ochterlony became the 1st resident.
Akbar Shah II (1806-1837 A.D.): -

 Akbar sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to England to seek a raise in pension- the
presentation of Nazrs (gifts involving sovereign status) was ended by Lord Hastings in
1813.
Bahadur Shah II (1837-57 A.D.): -

 He was fond of poetry.

 Had the title of Zafar.
 He took part in the “Revolt of 1857.”.
  He was captured and tried by the British.
 Bahadur Shah II was deported to Rangoon where he died.
 Thus, ended the Mughal Dynasty.
MODERN INDIA
Successor of Mughal Empire
The death of Aurangzeb led the foundation of decline of the Mughal Emperor and it
happened due to prolonged war of succession between his 3 sons- Muazzam, Azam and
Kam Baksh.
Muazzam ‘Bahadaur Shah I’ (AD 1707-1712)

 He was popularly known as Shah Alam I and called Shahi-i-Bekhabar by Khafi Khan
due to his appeasement parties by grants of title and rewards.
 He ascended to throne in 1707 after killing his two brothers, and defeating Kam
Baksh in the Battle of Jajau.
 He was the last Mughal who enjoyed all the authority in real term.
 A fresh war of succession had started after the death of Muazzam, between his sons-
Jahander Shah, Azim-us Shah, Rafi-us Shah and Jahan Shah.
Jahander Shah (AD 1712-13)

 He was ascended himself on the throne after killing his 3 brothers with the help of
Zulfikar Khan who was the leader of Irani party in Mughals Court. Zulfikar khans acts
as the defacto ruler which led the foundation of the concept of king makers.
 He gave the title of “Mirza Raja” to Jai singh of Malwa & “Maharaja” to Ajit Singh of
Marwar.
 He encouraged Ijara system (the revenue farming/ contract farming) and abolished
Jazia.
 He was the 1st Mughal ruler who was killed by Sayyid brothers- Abdullah Khan and
Hussain ali.
Farrukhsiyar (AD 1713-19)

 He was known as “Sahid-i-mazlum” and son of Azim-us-Shah.

 He assigned the duty of Deccan’s governor to Chin Quilch Khan who was better
known ‘Nizam-ul-Mulk’, later who laid the foundation of the independent state of
Hyderabad.
 Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath visited his court to take a grant for collecting Chauth and
Sardesh Mukhi on Maratha land.
 Banda Bahadur was captured and put to death in 1715 during his reign.
 In 1717, he issued The Farman to the East India Company, which was proved the
Magna carta for the British establishment in India.
Rafi-ud-Darajat (1719 AD)
  He was one of the Mughal rulers who ruled for a very short period of merely a few
months.
Rafi-ud-Daula (1719 AD)

 He was popularly known as “Shah Jahan II”.

Muhammad Shah (1719-48 AD)

 His name was Roshan Akhtar.

 Due to his pleasure-loving attitude, he was also called Rangila.
 During his reign, Maratha under Baji Rao for the 1 st in the Mughal history raided in
Delhi.
 Nadir Shah of Persia invaded with the help of Sadat Khan who defeated Mughal
army at the Battle of Karnal (1739) during reign. He raided Delhi and took away the
Peacock throne.
Ahmed Shah (1748-1754 AD)

 Ahmad Shah Abdali, the former general of Nadir Shah who invaded India 5 times
during reign.
Alamgir (1754-1759 AD)

 He was called “Azizuddin”.

 During his reign, the Battle of Plassey took place.
Shah Alam II (1759-1806 AD)

 He was popularly known as “Ali Gauhar” who was defeated in the battle of Buxar in
1764.
 During his reign, the 3rd battle of Panipat took place.
 He was the 1st Mughal ruler who became an East India Company Pensioner.
Akbar II (1806-1837 AD)

 He was the 1st Mughal ruler who was under the British protection.
 During his tenure, Mughal empire shrinks to Red Fort only.
Bahadur Shah (1837-1862 AD)

 He was the son of Akbar II and Rajput princess Lal Bai and also was the last ruler
Mughal Empire.
 During his reign, the 1857 revolt took place, he was deported to Rangoon as a
captive where he died in 1862.
 He was a very good Urdu poet and his pen name was Zafar.
Causes of Mughal’s Decline
The decline of Mughal empire was not a sudden but gradual process of fused administrative
action. The following were the main cause of decline:
  The Vastness of the empire: It was not possible to rule over an area without any
cooperative federalism. Hence, the Empire began to sink due to its own reason.
 Centralized administration: the vast empire cannot be ruled without
decentralization and their coordination.
 Responsibility of Aurangzeb: his religious policy, Rajput policy, and Deccan policy led
disappointments to his subjects who made way of disintegration.
 Wars of succession: prolong war of succession fractured the administrative unit of
Mughal’s.
 Weakness of the Nobility: Mughal’s nobles were well known for their loyalty but
war of successor degenerated the nobility.
Emergence of New Kingdoms

Though the 18th century, the Mughal Empire gradually fragmented into a number of
independent, regional states. It can be divided into 3 overlapping groups:

 States that were old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad. Although
extremely powerful and quite independent, the rulers of these states did not break
their formal ties with the Mughal emperor.
 States that had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughals as watan
jagirs. These included several Rajput principalities.
 States under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like the Jats. They all had
seized their independence from the Mughals after a long-drawn armed struggle.
Bengal
With the decline of Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb, Bengal became an
independent viceroyalty for all practical purposes under Murshid Quli khan.
Murshid Quli Khan

 He was appointed as the Diwan of Bengal by Aurangzeb.

 Governor Murshid Quli Khan (1717-1727 AD) transferred the capital from Dacca to
Murshidabad.
 He tried to save the interest of his province by preventing the collection of revenue
by the East India Company.
Shujauddin Khan

 He was son-in-law of Murshid Quli Khan.

 He annexed Suba of Bihar to become a part of Bengal.
Sarfaraz Khan

 He was the son of Shuja.

 He took the title of Alam-ud-Daula Haider Jung.
Alivardi Khan
  He paid an amount of Rs. 2 crore to the Mughal emperor Muhammad shah and
legalized the undertaking of all the authority.
 He favored and nominated Siraj-ud-daula who was the son of his youngest daughter
as his successor.
Siraj-ud-daula

 He prohibited the English form fortifying their factories at Calcutta but on their
refusal to comply with his orders that led to the Battle at Plassey with English forces.
Mir Qasim

 He granted the Zamindari of Burdhman, Midnapore and Chittagong to the British.

 He introduced several revenue and military reforms to strengthen his positions.
Mir Zafar

 He granted the right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar & Odisha and the Zamindar of 24
Parganas to the British.
 He is also known as the jackel of clive.
 His reinstatement in 1763 by the British took place after the outbreak of the war
with Mir Qasim.
Najm-ud-Daula

 He was the son of Mir Jafar and made Nawab who remained puppet in the hands of
the British during the period of ‘Dual System of Government.’
Maratha

 The Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy is located in the south west of
present day- India.
 Marathas were ancient tribes but 17th century gave them space to declare
themselves as rulers.
 They ruled from 1674 to 1818 and extended their terriotories.
 Shivaji’s consideration as the founder and consolidator of the Maratha empire but
under Peshwas (the Prime minister of the empire) expanded greatly.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

 He was brave and an immaculate personality in Indian history. He was also not
arrogant being glorified personality.
 Shivaji Maharaj was the warrior king and famous for his bravery, tactics and
administrative skills.
 He always focused on Swarajya.
 He was the descendant of the 96 Maratha Clans well known as “Kshatriyas” or brave
fighters.
 He was the son of Shahji Bhosle and Jija Bai.
  He was brought up at Poona under the supervision of his mother and Brahmin Dadaji
Konda-dev who made an expert soldier and an efficient administrator.
 Shivaji himself enthroned as an independent sovereign in 1674.
 He also came under the religious influence of Guru Ramdas, which made him proud
of his motherland.

Important events in Shivaji’s Life

 Conquest of Torna
 It was the 1st fort captured by Shivaji as Chieftain of Maratha which led the
foundation o f his ruling at the age of 16.
 Due to these conquests, the Sultan of Bijapur was getting panic and he put Shivaji,
Shivaji’s father in prison.
 In 1659 AD, Shivaji again tried to attack Bijapur then to sultan of Bijapur sent hi
general, Afzal Khan to capture Shivaji.
 But Shivaji managed to escape and killed him with a deadly weapon called Baghnakh
or the tiger’s claw.
 Finally, in 1662 the Sultan of Bijapur made a peace treaty with Shivaji and made him
an independent ruler of his conquered territories.
 Conquest of Kondana fort.
 It was under the control of Nilkanth Rao.
 It was fought between Tanaji Malasure, a commander of Maratha ruler Shivaji and
Udaybhan Rathod fort keeper under Jai Saingh I.
 Coronation of Shivaji:
 In AD 1674, Shivaji declared himself as an independent ruler of Maratha Kingdom
and crowned as Chhatrapati at Raigarh.
 His coronation symbolizes the rise of people who challenge the legacy of Mughal’s.
 After the coronation, he gets the title of ‘Haindava Dharnidharka’ (protector of
Hindu faith).
Shivaji’s administration

 Shivaji’s administration was largely influenced by Deccan administrative practices.

 He appointed 8 ministers who were called ‘Astapradhan’ who assisted him in the
administration helm of affairs.
1. Peshwa was the most important minister who looked after finance and general
administration.
2. Senapati (Sari-i-naubat) was one of the leading Marathas chiefs which were
basically posted in honor.
3. Majumdar was an accountant.
4. The Wake Navis is one who looks after the intelligence, post and household
affairs.
5. The Surnavis or chitnis assist the king with his correspondence.
6. The Dabir was the master of ceremonies and helped the king in his dealing with
foreign affairs.
 7. The Nyayadhish and Pundit rao were in charge of justice and charitable grants.
8. The Amatys levies the tax on the land which was 1/4th of the land revenue i.e.
Chauth or Chauthai.
Successor of Shivaji
Sambhaji (1680-89 AD)

 He was the younger son of Shivaji who ascended the throne after success in the war
of succession against his elder brother Rajaram.
 He resumed his father’s expansionist policies to avoid the Rajput-Maratha alliance.
 He resumed long relations with the Deccan Sultanate.
 In 1682 AD the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb himself headed South India with his
entire imperial court, administration and an army of about 180,000 troops which
proceeded to conquer the Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda. But unfortunately,
Sambhaji was caught, tortured, and then painfully dismembered.
Rajaram (1689-1700 AD)

 After the death of Sambhaji, Shivaji’s other son Rajaram took the crown and started
the legacy of Marathas.
 He started Marathas legacies of expansionist policy and launched an attack upon the
Mughal territories in Deccan.
 In October, 1689 AD Mughal army, under Zulfikar Khan, launched an attack upon
Raigarh. All the members of Sambhaji’s family, including his son Sahu, were made
captive.
 He died in 1700 AD at Satara.
Sivaji & Tarabai (1700-1707 AD)

 Tarabai was the widow of Rajaram put on the throne to Sivaji who was the son &
became the regent.
 She gave stability to the Maratha state during the crisis in civil and military affairs
equally.
 Tarabai was disposd of by Mughal’s with the help of a Chitpavan Brahaman named
Balaji Vishwanath.
Sahu (1707-1749 AD)

 The Mughal Emperor Bhahadur Shah released Shahu which led the foundation of
civil war between him and Tarabai.
 Shahu defeated Tarabai at the Battle of Khed (Octoboer 12, 1707) and occupied
Satara.
 His reign saw the rise of Peshwaship and transformation of the Maratha kingdom
into an empire based on the principle of confederacy.
 During his reign, Maratha kingdom was split into parts- Kolhapur under Tarabai and
Satara under Shahu.
 In 1731, the two feuds were finally settled through the ‘Treaty of Warna’.
Rise of Maratha confederacy
The origin of the Maratha confederacy is attributed to the revival of the Jagir or Saranjam
system by Rajaram.
In this process, Sahu issued letters of authority to his various Maratha sardars for the
collecting taxes like Chauth or Sardeshmukhi from various parts of the territory.
Maratha Confederacies:

1. Raghuji Bhonsle of Berar

2. Gaekwad of Baroda
3. Holkar of Indore
4. Scandia of Gwalior
5. Peshwa of Poona
Peshwas under Maratha
Peshwas were the loyal ministers of Maratha state who were appointed to assist the king in
different administrative as well as political affairs.
Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1721 AD)

 He was appointed as a Peshwa (prime minister) by Shahuji in 1713 to assist a young

Sahu for consolidation of the empire.
 He raise the Marathas empire into zenith points after winning over all most all the
sardar to the side of Shahu.
 He made the post very important as well as hereditary.
Bajirao Peshwa I (1721-1740 AD)

 He was popularly known as Nana Sahib who succeeded his father at the age of 20.
 He died in 1761 after hearing that his son (Viswas Rao) and cousin (Sadashiv) died at
the battlefield of the 3rd battle of Panipat.
Peshwa Madhav Rao I

 He was the eldest surviving member of the peshwas family who became de facto
ruler of the state.
 After his death, the Peshwaship lost its essence.
Administration under Peshwas

 The Peshwas named their secretariat as Huzur Daftar which was situated in Poona.
 Under Peshwaship, the feudal lords (different officer of different rank) ruled
independently over their Jagirs.
 They divided the village into small units for administration which were headed by the
Patils.
 Kulkarnias assists them in keeping the documents of village.
 Potars were meant to inspect the currency.
  Ballute system- under this system, farmers had to make payment in kind but most of
the time they have to pay agricultural produce every year after harvesting.
 To check corruption, Deshmukh, Despande and Darakhdars were appointed.
Administration under Maratha
Central Administration

 Maratha State appointed Hindus to high post and made Marathi as an official
language instead of Persian.
 They prepare their own state craft dictionary i.e., Raja Vyakaran Kosh for official
use.
 The Maratha system of administration was greatly inspired from the Deccan style of
administration. Mos the administrative reforms were inspired from Malik Amber
reforms in Ahmednagar.
 The king was the supreme head of state who was assisted by a group of 8 ministers
known as ‘Ashtapradhan.
 All ministers, except the Panditrao and the Nyayadhish had to serve in a war
whenever necessary.
 Shivaji divided the entire territory into 3 provinces, each under a viceroy.
 He further divided the provinces into Prants then Pargana and Tarafs.
 The lowest unit was the village which was headed by its headman or Patel.
Revenue Administration

 Shivaji abolished the Jagirdari System and replaced it with Ryotwari System.
 He also changed the position of hereditary revenue officials which was popularly
known as Deshmukhs, Deshpande, Patils & Kulkarnis.
 The revenue system was patterned on the Kathi system of malik Amber. According
to this system, every piece of land was measured by Rod or Kathi.
 Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were other sources of income.
 Chauth amounted to 1/4th of the standard which was paid to Marathas as a
safeguard against Shivaji’s forces plundering or raiding non-Maratha territories.
 Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% demanded from areas outside of
the kingdom.

Military Administration

 Shivaji organized a disciplined and efficient army.

 The ordinary soldiers were paid in cash, but big chief and military commanders were
paid through jagir grants (Saranjam or Mokasa)
 The army consists of infantry i.e. Mavali foot soliders: Cavalry, i.e. horse riders and
equipment holders: Navy.
 Pindaries were allowed to accompany the army who were allowed to collect “Pal-
Patti” which was 25% of war booty.
 Military personnel
  Sar-i-Naubat (Senapati)- income of army
 Qiladars- officers of forts
 Nayak- head of the member unit of infantry.
 Havaldar- head of 5 Nayak
 Ghuraw- boats laden with guns
 Gallivat- rowing boats 40-50 rowers
 Palik- foot soldiers
Awadh-

 Awadh was a historic region of northern India, now constituting the north-eastern
portion of U.P. state.
 It received its name from the capital Kosala’s kingdom Ayodhya and became part of
Mughal empire in the 16th century.
 Awadh was always a centre of attraction for their fertile land which also brought
British to exploit its fertility for their own aspiration. Hence, British in 1800 AD,
subjugated as part of their empire.
 The Suba of Awadh became independent in 1722 AD, when a Persian Shia named
Sadat Khan was appointed as the governor of Awadh by Muhammad Shah, the
Mughal Emperor.
Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (1722-1739 AD)

 Saadat Khan was deputed by the king to negotiate with Nadir Shah.
 He tried to make Nadir Shah return to his country on payment of a large amount of
money.
 When Nadir Shah failed to get the promised amount of money, his anger felt on the
population of Delhi. He ordered a general massacre. Saadat Khan committed suicide
due to humiliation and shame.

Safdar Jung/ Abdul Mansur (1739-1754 AD)

 He was also appointed a wazir of the Mughal empire.

 He was son-in-law of Saadat Khan who took part in the Battle of Manpur against
Ahmed Shah Abdali (1748 AD).
Shujauddaulllah

 He was Safdar Jang’s son.

 He was an ally of the Afghan Ahmed Shah Abdali.
 He organized a powerful army which was composed of besided Muslims and Hindus,
Naga, Sanyasis as well.
 He annexed Rohilkhand to Awadh in 1774 AD by defeating Rohillas with the help of
British.
 Asaf-ud-daula.
 He was popular for promoting Lucknow culture and built important monuments like
Imambara and Rumi Darwaza.
  He signed the treaty of Faizabad (1755 AD) with British.
Wajid Ali Shah

 He was popularly known as Jaan-i-Alam and Akhtarpriya, and the last ruler of Awadh.
 Awadh was annexed by British Lord Dalhousie on the basis of mis-governance.
 He was fond of classic music and dance forms with performances like Kalka-Binda
brothers in his court.
Hyderabad

 History of Hyderabad runs through a variety of kingdoms like Chalukya kingdom, the
Sultanate of Delhi under the command of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, bahamani
sultanate, the Vijayanagar, Nizam and British.
 The Nizams were hereditary rulers of the state of Hyderabad and initially governed
the region on behalf of the Mughal Emperor in Delhi.
 After the death of Aurangzeb, they became independent rulers.
 Chin Qilich Khan
 He was given the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk and had been the governor of Deccan.
 In 1722 he was made the Wazir but soon afterwards he returned to the Deccan and
consolidated the hold over the region.
 His successors were called the Nizams of Hyderabad.
 He was the founder of Hyderabad as a state.
 He signed the Treaty of Bhopal in 1738 with the Peshwa.
 Battle of Bhopal was fought on December 24,1737, in Bhopal between the Maratha
empire & the combined army of Mughals along with their powerful allies Rajputs &
Nizams. The battle resulted in the decisive Maratha victory mainly through the swift
tactics of Maratha Bajirao Peshwa.
 Later on, Jan 7, 1738 a humiliating peace treaty was signed forcing the Nizam to sign
treaty, known as the famous treaty of Bhopal (7th Jan 1738, Doraha). The province of
Malwa was formally ceded to the Marathas and the Mughals agreed to pay as
indemnity.
 Nasir Jung:
 He followed the Chin Qilich Khan.
 Muzaffar Jung:
 He set up to the throne with the help of French but his rule came to an end with his
accidental death.
 Salabat Jung:
 He becomes ruler with the help of the French.
 Nizams and Hyderabad were greatly follower of art, culture, literature. They built the
Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad and Chow Mahalla Palace.
 On 1st September 1798, the Nizam of Hyderabad, Nizam ali Khan (Asaf Jah II) entered
into a subsidiary alliance with the English east India company, thus making
Hyderabad the 1st princely state to officially become a British protectorate.
Mysore

 After the decline of Vijaynagar Empire, Mysore became an independent State under
the Hindu Wodeyar Dynasty in AD.
 Devrajand Naraja took over the power and became the de factor ruler.
 The regions became the subject of dispute between Peshwa and Nizam.
 Nanraja in the 2nd Carnatic War allied with English and captured Tiruchirappalli
(Tamil Nadu).
 In 1761, Hyder Ali who made started his career as a soldier overthrew the regaining
dynasty in Mysore and established his own control over that state.
 Haider Ali (1760-62) usurped the power of Mysore state, which was being ruled by
two Wodeyyar brothers Devaraja & Nanaraja.
 He fought with the nizam and the marathas to maintain independence.
 He died in 1782 during the course of the 2nd Anglo-Mysore war.
 Tipu Sultan was the son of Haider Ali (1782-1799) who fought valiantly against the
British to save his territory.
 He was the 1st Indian king who tried to apply western methods to his administration.
 He made use of the modern methods of military training and organization and
established a workshop to produced modern weapons.
 He fought the 3rd Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92 AD) against British with allied forces of
the Maratha & Nizam.
 He was imposed with the treaty of Srirangapatnam, and according to which he had
to surrender half of the Mysorean territory to the victorious allies.
 He died during the course of fighting at the 4 th Anglo-Mysore war.
 Mysore: the modern state of its contemporaries
 What makes the state of Mysore different from other contemporary states or ruling
dynasties is that it was a Modern State.
 Modern means to say the economical, defence and administration of this state was
very efficiently managed by both Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan.
Defence/ Army:

 During the Mughals (1760-70), the most famous system was he Jagirdiri system. In
this system a piece of land was piece of land was assigned to an official which was
responsible for both defence and economic; aspects of that region i.e. collecting tax
and maintaining an army both was handled by and was amange3d by a single one.
Inefficiency of this system was evident when what once was Jagirdari of Mughal was
declaring itself an independent state when Mughal became weak.
 Mysore started the “Rishada System” under this system Military commanders were
appointed by Haider Ali himself and commanders had only duty to ensure military
preparedness to secure the border. No other duties like revenue collection were
under the military (similar to Army today’s India). Since Hyder Ali himself had been in
the army so he knew better the importance of disciplined and efficient army. He
 organized his army on the line of Europeans with the help of France. They
established a gun factory at Dilingual.
Economy:

 They brought more efficiency in revenue collection by appointing Salaried officials

for this work. This reform increased the revenue base of Mysore.
 2nd major advancement was State investments in Agriculture in order to increase the
production. State invested in Irrigation and Agriculture revenue collection was done
after the survey of the fertility of a region and productivity of a particular year. Apart
from production of food crops, state encouraged the cash crops, mainly silk, coffee,
because it was highly in demand in European market.
 Further, they established a state-owned trading company i.e. PSU. They were of the
view that, why should they trade with the European market through Britisihers.
Being a coastal they were of the view to establish a direct trade relation with Europe.
 Apart from the modernization mentioned above, Tipu Sultan used to send his
ambassadors to Europeans countries and make himself aware of the changes taking
place worldwide.
 Being impressed with the concept of liberty/ equality raised in the France revolution.
He established the Justice Tree in his empire and set up his administration on
democratic concepts.
 Tipu Sultan joined the Jacobeans club of France. Also established a strong naval
board.
 Tipu was great admirer of Jagadguru Sankarachayra of Sringeri and offered him
funds for the construction of the Goddess Sharda image which was destroyed by the
Maratha.
 His autobiography: Tarikh-i-Khudai
 He wrote a military manual- Fathul Mujahidin that contains the information about
the rocket technology and rocket brigades.
 He completed Lal Bagh Project (Bangalore) started by his father Haider Ali and laid
the foundation of Krishnaraja Sagar Dam on Cauvery.
Punjab
The disintegration of Mughal Empire in the 18th century, its collapse was hailed by the
ambitious nobles as well as pre-occupied raja and regional leader who wanted to form their
own kingdom.
Punjab was one of those regions which rose after the decline of Mughal Empire.
The sikhs had not been able to found a state during the reign of Aurangzeb, though they had
been organized into a fighting group by the 10th & the last Guru Gobind Singh.
After his death the Sikhs found a capable leader in Banda Bahadur (1708-1716 AD)
He tried to establish an independent kingdom and struck coins in the name of Guru Nanak
and Guru Gobind Singh and also issued orders under his own seal.
In his struggle against the Mughals, he was captured in the fortress of Gurudaspur. Banda
Bahadur and his follwers were sent to Delhi where they were treated in the most barbaric
manner.
Banda’s young son was killed and he himself was tortured and crushed to death. His
followers called him.
Sacha pad shah-the true emperor-
The disorder and confusion in the Punjab after the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah
Abdali helped the rise of the Sikhs power to great extent.
In 1764 AD, the Sikhs assembled at Amritsar and struck the 1st coins of pure silver with
legends of Degh, Tegh, Fateh.
They organized themselves into 12 misl (military brotherhood with democratic setup) and
controlled the regions of Punjab.
It was towards the end of the 18th century that Maharaja Ranjit Singh untiled the mis/s and
established a powerful state.
Arrivals of European
Portuguese

 In 1453, land routes were blocked by Ottoman Turks, so the Europeans discovered
new sea routes to promote their business.
 Portuguese were the 1st European who discovered a direct sea route to India.
 In 1498, Vasco-da-gama of Portugal discovered India. He came to India via cape of
good hope and became the 1st person to link Europe & Asia by an ocean route.
 King Zamorin, the local ruler, received him and bestowed on him certain privileges.
 After staying in India for a period of 3 months Vasco Da Gama returned with a rich
cargo which he sold in the European market at an exorbitant price-60 times the cost
of his voyage.
 Vasco Da Gama came back to India for the 2nd time in 1501 AD.
 He set up a trading factory at Cannanore. With establishment of trade links, Calicut,
Cannanore and Cochin emerged the significant Portuguese centres in India.
 Arab traders became jealous of the rise and success of the Portuguese and hence
caused enmity between the Portuguese and the local king Zamorin.
 The hostilities grew and led to full fledges military face-oof between them.
 King Zamorin was defeated by the Portuguese with the victory over Zamorin, the
military superiority of the Portuguese was established.
 In 1505 AD, Francisco de Almeida was appointed as the 1st Portuguese governor in
India.
 His policy being centric to controlling the Indian Ocean was known as the Blue Water
Policy.
 Alfonso de Albuquerque who replaced Almeida as the governor in 1509 AD.
 He captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 AD.
  He is considered the real founder of the Portuguese power in India.
 In 1515, Alfonso banned the sati system in India.
 Goa subsequently became the headquarters of the Portuguese settlements in India
and was made capital city in 1530.
 By the end of the 16th century, the Portuguese captured not only Goa, Daman, Diu &
Salsette, but also a vast stretch along the Indian coast.
 They brought tobacco cultivation in India.
 They spread Catholicism in western and eastern coast of India.
 They established 1st printing press in India at Goa in 1556 AD.
 The Indian Medicinal plants was the 1st scientific work which was published at Goa in
1563.
 They were the 1st who defined ‘how to establish maritime trade and supremacy over
sea’ through the Cartaze system (i.e. under this system anyone who passes through
the Portugal territories must buy permits otherwise they are supposed to be
captured.)
 They were the 1st European who were responsible to spread Christianity in India and
Asia.
 But the Portuguese rise in India had a short life as the new rival trading communities
from Europe posed a big challenge to them.
 Reason of Decline:
 Portugal was too small a country to maintain the huge trading colony located in a
far-off land.
 Their image as notorious sea pirates created enmity in the minds of the native ruler’s
Portuguese rigid religious policy made them unpopular among the Muslims as well
as Hindus of India.
 Portuguese rigid religious policy made them unpopular among the Muslims as well
as Hindus of India.
 Ironically, the Portuguese, who were the 1st to arrive in India, were the last to
withdraw from here in 1961 AD, when the Government of India recaptured Goa,
Daman, Diu from them under Operation Vijay.
Dutch:

 The people of Holland (present Netherlands) are called the Dutch.

 In 1602, the United East India Company of the Netherlands was formed and given
permission by the Dutch government to trade in the East Indies including India.
 1st Dutch to come in India- Cornelis De Houtman
 The Dutch founded their 1st factory in Masulipatnam in Andhra Pradesh in 1605.
 Dutch Suratted and Dutch Bengal factories were established in 1616 & 1627 AD.
 The Dutch conquered Ceylon (Sri Lanka) from the Portuguese in 1656 AD.
 They earned huge profit through business monopolizing in black pepper and spices.
The major Indian commodities trade by the Dutch were cotton, indigo, silk, rice and
opium.
  They established mints at Cochin, Masulipatnam, Nagapattam Pondicherry and
Pulicat, Gold Pagoda with an image of lord Venkateshwara (God Vishnu) was issued
at Pulicat mint.
 Dutch presence on the Indian subcontinent lasted from 1605 to 1825 AD.
 The rise of British power in the Eastern trade posted serious challenge to the
commercial interest of the Dutch.
 The brutal killing of some English traders by the Dutch in Amboyna in 1623 further
aggravated the situation. The Britishers one after another captured Dutch
strongholds.
 Both the parties came to a compromise in 1667 AD by which the Britishers, on the
basis of give and take formula, agreed to completely withdrew from Indonesia from
the Dutch who, in return, retired from India to trade in Indonesia.
 The Indonesia led by Sukrano declard their independence from the Dutch on 17th
August 1947, but the Dutch formally left Indonesia on 27th December.
 A major was given by the Travancore king. Travancore king Marthanda Varma
defeated the Dutch East India Company in the battle of Colachel in 1741 AD leading
to complete rout of Dutch power in Malabar region.
 The Battle of Bedara in 1759 was the decisive one in which Dutch were defeated by
the English.
 During the Napoleanic wars (1803-1815 AD) the British invaded Danish shipping, and
devasted the Danish East India company’s India trade and ultimately captured
Danish colonies, making them part of British India. The last Danish colonial post
Serampore was ceded to Britain by Denmark in 1845 AD.
French

 The French were the last European to come to India, after the British. We will deal
with it before the British because of the long tenure of the British rule in India.
 The French East India Company was formed in 1664 AD during the reign of King Louis
XIV to trade with India.
 In 1668 AD the French established their 1st factory at Surat and in 1669 AD
established another French factory at Masulipatnam.
 In 1673 AD the Mughal Subedar of Bengal allowed the French to set up a township at
Chandernagore.
 In 1674 AD, the French obtained a village called Pondicherry from the Sultan of
Bijapur and founded a thriving city on it which later became the main stronghold of
the French in India.
 Francois Martin is regarded as the founder of Pondicherry. He was the 1st French
governor General of Puducherry.
 The French East India Company with the passage of time developed its trade
bastians at Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore & Qasim Bazar.
 The French East India company took hold of Yanam in 1723 AD, Mahe on Malabar
coast in Karaikal in 1739 Ad.
  From their arrival until 1741 AD, the objectives of the French, like those of the
British, were purely commercial.
 As the time passed, there came a change in their motives and they began to consider
India as their colony.
 Joseph Francois Dupleix was appointed as the Governor of the French East India
Company in 1741 AD.
 Dupleix was extremely talented, took advantage of the rivalries among local rulers
and saw it as a good opportunity to establish French empire in India.
 The British challenged French under Dupleix and subsequently both powers had a
face-off.
 Dupleix’s army under the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau captured the areas between
Hyderabad and cape comorin.
 Robert Clivea – a British officer arrived in India in 1744 AD, and decisively defeated
Dupleix. After this defeat, Dupleix was recalled to France in 1754 AD.
 Later Tollendal who was sent by the French government to drive the British out of
India got some initial success particularly when he pulled down Fort St. David in
Cuddalore Districts in 1758 AD.
 In the British, destroyed Pondicherry. Thus, the French lost their hold in South India.\
As per the provisions of peace treaty with Britain, Pondicherry was returned to
France in.

British

 Arrival of the British and the establishment of British East India Company was the
outcome of the Portuguese traders who earned enormous profit by selling their
merchandise in India.
 A group of English Merchants- Merchant Adventure’ formed a company- the East
India Company in 1599 AD.
 The company received a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth I on Dec 31, 1600 AD
authorizing it to trade in the East.
 Queen was herself a shareholder in the East India company.
 In 1608 AD, the East India Company sent William Hawkins to the court of the
Mughal emperor Jahangir to secure royal patronage. He succeeded in getting royal
permit for the Company to establish its factories at various places on the western
coast of India.
 In 1615 AD, Sir Thomas Roe was sent by Emperor James I of England to Jahangir’s
court, with a plea for more concessions for the company. Roe was very diplomatic
and thus successfully secured a royal charter giving the Company freedom to trade
in the whole of the Mughal territory.
 In 1639 AD, the East India Company obtained the lease of the city of Madras from
the local king where it built Fort St. George to protect its factory. Later Madras was
made the South Indian headquarters of the Company.
 The East India Company further expanded its base and flourished though it also
faced challenges from the Portuguese, the Dutch and the French.
  The decisive moment came in 1662 AD, when Charles II of England married a
Portuguese princes Katherine, and received the island of Bombay as dowry which he
immediately gave to the East India Company in 1668 AD on rent.
 The company on the west coast shifted its business headquarters from Surat to
Bombay (Mumbai).
 After establishing its factories in south and west India, the company started to focus
on East India particularly Bengal, a significant province Mughal empire.
 The governor of Bengal Sujauddaula in 1651 AD, allowed the English company to
carry out its trade activities in Bengal.
 A factory in Hugli was established & 3 villages- Sutanati, Govindpur, Kolkata- were
purchased in 1698 AD by the company to build a factory over there. This is the
present day Kolkata.
 Fort William was raised in order to provide protection around the factory.
 It was Mughal Emperor Faurukshiyar which in 1717 AD, issued royal Farman
(charter) {the Magna Cart for the British rule in India} granting the company
important trading facilites in Bengal which included the permission to export and
import British goods in Bengal without paying taxes).
 The company after establishing firmly on the front of the commerce and trade
started dreaming of becoming a ruling power in gradual manner.
 The loss of central authority in India after the decline of the Mughal empire with the
death of Aurangzeb in 1707 AD and the prevailing political disunity among the
Indian rulers provided a golden opportunity to all Europeans to strengthen their
political holds.
 Among Europeans, the British who proved themselves most powerful after
thrashing the other 3 and remained in India for more then 200 years as ruling
power.
BRITISH IN BATTLE
Carnatic wars

 It was basically a war of succession among different claimants in the Carnatic and
Hyderabad. But the British and the French took this opportunity to fulfil their
ambition of getting the support of local rulers.
1st Carnatic Battle (1746-48)

 Fought between- English & French forces.

 Who were involved- Joseph Francois, Dupleix (French Governor-general), Major
Stringer Lawrence (British) with Anwaruddin Khan (Nawab of the Carnatic).
 Frace & Britian were on opposite sides of the camp at the War of Austrain
Succession that had broken out in Europe in 1740.
 This Anglo-French rivalry led to their trading companies in India vying with each
other for supremacy.
 In 1745, there was a naval attack on French fleet by Britain in which even
Pondicherry was in danger.
  The Nawab asked the French to return Madras to the British. The Nawab sent a huge
army to fight the French forces.
 Fought at Carnatic region, southern India.
 Result: - ended with the Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle sometimes called the Treaty of
Aachen under which Madras was given back to the English in exchange for Louisnurg
in North America to France.

2nd Carnatic Battle (1749-54)

 Fought between: different claimants to the posts of the Nizam of Hyderabad, and
the Nawab of the Carnatic.
 People involved:
 For the Nawabship of the Carnatic or Arcot: Muhammad Ali (British Support) &
Chanda Sahibh (French support)
 For the post of Nizam of Hyderabad: Muzaffar Jung (French support) & Nasir Jung
(British support)
 Fought at: Carnatic (southern India)
 Result: Muzaffar Jung became Hyderabad’s Nizam. Muhammad Ali became the
Nawab of the Carnatic.
 Ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754. As per the treaty, the England the
French were to indulge only in commercial activities in India and not interfere in sub-
continental political affairs.
3rd Carnatic Battle (Battle of Wandiwash): 1757-63

 Fought between: The French & the British

 People involved.
 French side: count de lally (French general)
 British side: British Lieutenant-General sir Eyre coote.
 Fought at Carnatic, south India.
 Result of war: British victory.
 In 1756, the 7 years war broke out in Europe and once again England and France
were pitted against one another.
 No major engagements would take place between the two in the Indian
subcontinent until 1757.
 The French, under Count de Lally, captured fort St. George and attacked the English
to acquire Madras.
 But he was defeated by English forces under Sir Eyre Coote in Battle of Wandiwash in
1760.
 The victory in the battle of Wandiwash prepared the ground for the British to
establish their supremacy in India and the French dream of an Indian empire
disappeared forever.
 The French lost their Indian possessions including Pondicherry, Mahe, Gingee and
Kariakal to the British.
 The war ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763.
  As per the Treaty, Chandannagar and Pondicherry were returned to France but they
were barred from fortifying them or having troops in them. They could only have
trading activities.

Anglo-Mysore war
From Map it is clear that Mysore had always been in territorial dispute with Marathas and
Nizams of Hyderabad and Travancore. And Madras province of British was not too far from
the state.
1st Anglo-Mysore war (1767-1769)

 Hyder Ali built a strong army and annexed many regions in the South including
Bidnur, Canara, Sera, Malabar, Sunda.
 He also took French support in training his army.
 This alarmed the British.
 British blamed Hyder Ali for the conspiracy against British with the help of France.
The British, along with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad declared war on
Mysore.
 Hyder Ali was able to bring the Marathas & the Nizam to his side with skillful
diplomacy.
 He paid the Marathas to turn them neutral.
 Hyder ali came out as victorious.
 English was forced to conclude a very humiliating treaty with Haider on April 4, 1769-
Treaty of Madras which brought an end to the war.
 The conquered territories were restored to each other.
 It was also agreed that they would help each other in case of a foreign attack.
2nd Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)

 The Marathas attacked Mysore in 1771. But the British refused to honor the Treaty
of Madras & did not give support to Hyder ali.
 As a result, Hyder ali territories were taken by the Marahas. He had to buy peace
with the Marathas for a sum of Rs. 36 Lakh and another annual tribute.
 This angered Hyder Ali who started hating the British.
 When the English attacked Mahe, a French possession under Hyder ali’s dominion,
he declared war on the English in 1780.
 Hyder Ali forged an alliance with the Nizam and the Marathas and defeated the
British forces in Arcot.
 Hyder Ali died in 1782 and the war was continued by his son Tipu Sultan.
 Sir Eyre Coote, who had earlier defeated Hyder Ali many times, ended the war
inconclusively with the Treaty of Mangalore.
 As per the Treaty of Mangalore (11 march 1784), both parties agreed to return the
captured territories and prisoners to each other.
3rd Anglo- Mysore war (1790-92)
  The British started improving their relationship with the Nizam of the Hyderabad and
the Marathas.
 Tipu Sultan, who assumed control of Mysore after Hyder Ali’s death, had French help
in bettering his military resources.
 He also refused to free the English prisoners taken during the 2 nd Anglo-Mysore war
as per the Treaty of Mangalore.
 Tipu declared war on Travancore in 1789. Travancore was a friendly state of the
British.
 In 1790, the Governor-General of Bengal, Lord Cornwallis declared war on Tipu.
 Tipu was defeated in the 1st phase of war and his forces had to retreat.
 The war ended with the Treaty of Seringapatnam in 1792.
 As per the treaty, Tipu had to cede half of his kingdom to the English including the
areas of Malabar, Dindigul, Coorg and Baramahal.
 He also had to pay Rs. 3 Crore as war indemnity to the British.
 Tipu also had to surrender two of his sons as surety to the British till he paid his due.
4th Anglo-Maratha war (1799)

 The treaty of Seringapatam failed to bring peace between Tipu and The English.
 Tipu also refused to accept the Subsidiary Alliance of Lord Wellesley.
 Tipu aligned with the French which the British saw as a threat.
 Mysore was attacked from all four sides.
 The Marathas and the Nizam invaded from the North.
 Tipu’s troops were outnumbered 4:1.
 The British secured a decisive victory at the Battle of Seringapatam in 1799.
 Tipu died while defending the city.
 Tipu’s territories were divided between the British and the Nizam of Hyderabada.
 The core area around Seringapatnam & Mysore was restored to the Wodeyar
dynasty who had been ruling Mysore before Hyder Ali became the de-facto ruler.
 Mysore entered into a subsidiary Alliance with the British and a British resident was
placed at the Mysore court.
Anglo-Sikh war
1st Anglo Sikh War

 The English invaded Punjab during the reign of Dalip Singh, occupied Lahore and
brought down the Treaty of Lahore, on March 9, 1846 AD.
 Lahore Durbar was transferred to the company due to not paying off the war
indemnity. Then company gave Kashmir to Gulab singh who was instrumental in the
negotiation.
2nd Anglo Sikh War

 The terms of negotiation and treaty did not improve the situation in Punjab which
led the foundation of the 2nd Anglo-sikh War.
  After the war, Punjab was annexed to the company by Lord Dalhousie. Lawrence was
the 1st Commissioner of Punjab.
Battle of Plasssey: 1757

 The rampant misuse of the trade privileges given to the British by the Nawab of
Bengal.
 Non-payment of tax and duty by the workers of the British East India Company.
 Fortification of Calcutta by the British without the Nawab’s permission.

BLACK HOLE TRAGEDY

 When the alliance was disrupted under the rule of Nawab of Bengal (Siraj-ud-
Daulah). The Nawab started seizing the fort of Calcutta and imprisoning many British
officials in June 1756. The prisoners were kept in a dungeon at Fort William. This
incident is called the Black Hole of Calcutta since only a handful of the prisoners
survived the captivity where over a hundred people were kept in a cell meant about
6 people. The East India Company planned an attack and Robert Clive bribed Mir
Jafar, the commander-in-chief of the Nawab’s army, and also promised him to make
him Nawab of Bengal.
 The Battle of Plassey was fought at Palashi on the banks of Bhagirathi River near
Calcutta on June 23, 1757.
 Mughal emperor Alamgir-II was ruling the empire when the battle of Plassey took
place.
 Siraj-ud-Daulah’s army with 50,000 soldiers, 40 cannons & 10 war elephants was
defeated by 3000 soldiers of Robert Clive. The battle, ended in 11 hours and Siraj-ud-
daulah fled from the battle post his defeat.
Battle of Buxar 1764

 The battle of Buxar is one such confrontation between the British army and their
Indian counterparts which paved the way for the British to rule over India for the
next 183 years.
 It was battle fought between the English Forces, and a joint army of the Nawab of
Oudh Shuja-ud-Daulah, Nawab of Bengal Mir Kasim, the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam
II.
 The battle was the result of misuse of trade privileges granted by the Nawab of
Bengal and also the colonialist ambitions of East India Company.
 Causes:
 As a result of Battle of Plassey, Siraj-ud-daulah was dethroned as the Nawab of the
Bengal and was replaced by Mir Jafar.
 After Mir Jafar became the new Bengal nawab, the British made him their puppet
but Mir Jafar got involved with Dutch East India Company.
 Mir Qasim (son-in-law of Mir Jafar) was supported by the British to become the new
Nawab and under the pressure of the company, Mir Jafar decided to resign in favour
of Mir Kasim.
  A pension of 1,500 per annum was fixed for Mir Jafar.
 Mir Qasim wanted to be independent and shifted his capital to Munger fort from
Calcutta.
 Mir Qsim also hired foreign experts tor train his army, some of whom were in direct
conflict with the British.
 These factors fuelled the English to overthrow him and war broke out between Mir
kasim and the company in 1763.
 Hector Munro led the battle from the English side.
 When the battle broke out in 1763, English gained successive victories at Katwah,
Murshidabad, Giria, sooty and Munger.
 Mir Qasim fled to oudh.
 He planned a confederacy with Shuja-ud-daulla and Shah Alam II in a final bid to
overthrow the English from Bengal.
 Mir Qasim’s soldiers met the English army troops directed by Major Munro in 1764.
 The joint armies of Mir Qasim were defeated by the British.
 Mir Qasim absconded from the battle & the other 2 surrendered to the English army.
 The battle of Buxar ended with the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765.
Treaty of Allahabad between Robert Clive & Shuja-ud-Daulah:

 Shuja had to surrender Allahabad and Kara to Shah Alam II.

 He was made to pay Rs. 50 lakh to the company as war indemnity.
 He was made to give Balwant singh (Zamindar of Banaras) full possession of his
estate.
Treaty of Allahabad between Robert Clive & Shah Alam II: -

 Shah Alam was commanded to reside at Allahabad which was ceded to him by Shuja-
ud-Daulah under the Company’s protection.
 The emperor had to issue a farman granting the diwani of Bengal, Bihar & Orissa to
the East India Company in lieu of an annual payment of Rs. 26 Lakh.
 Shah Alam had to abide by a provision of Rs. 53 Lakhs to the company in return for
the Nizamat functions (military defence, police, administration of justice) of the said
provinces.

DIARCHY IN BENGAL

 It was started by Rober Clive in 1765 and ended by Warren Hastings (1772) followed
by Subsidiary Alliance.
 Under this system, the Diwani rights were under the British. Under this right all types
of financial decisions were under British control. Company used to appoint Diwan
(normally Britishers), & Deputy Diwan (normally Indians) for tax collection.
 Facts: 2 deputy Diwan appointed by company were:
 Mohammad Raza Khan for Bengal
 Raja Sitab Roy for Bengal
  Nizamat (also called Faudari) Rights was under the Nawab of Bengal. Under this right
all the police and judicial decisions were taken by Nawab of Bengal.
 This system made the Indian rulers a puppet of the company.
 However, this system was financially beneficial for the company but it is also led to
great losses for the company. The company officials became corrupt. They started
their private trade because they had full rights over their territories. It caused great
criticism for the company’s administration in Britain. That is why in 1772, Warren
Hasting did away with this system.
Warren Hastings (1772-85)
Regulating Act of 1773

 It was the 1st step taken by the British governments to control and regulate the
affairs of the East India Company in India.
 Governor of Bengal was made the Governor General of Bengal & Governors of
Madras & Bombay were made subordinate to Governor General of Bengal. Warren
Hastings was the last governor of Bengal and 1st Governor General of Bengal.
 Establishment of supreme court at Calcutta in 1774 comprising one chief justice and
three other judges. It was British India’s highest court from 1774 to 1862.
 Servants of company was prohibited from engaging in any private trade.
 Ended the Diarchy in Bengal which was introduced by Robert Clive in 1765 after the
Treaty of Allahabad.
 In 1772, he introduced the office of District collector. He divided Bengal into districts.
The District collector used to collect revenues from the district and give it to British.
Slowly they were given administrative powers and in modern India, they are known
as District magistrate.
 Jamindars were deprived of their judicial rights & civil and criminal courts were
established. He started Diwani (civil) & Faujdari (Criminal) Adalat at the district level
& Sadar diwani and Nizamat adalats (Appellate courts) at Calcutta.
 Refined Hindu & Muslim laws. A translation of the laws/code in Sanskrit appeared in
1776 under the title of “Code of Gentoo Laws” which means ordinations/laws of
Pundits.

Pitts Indian Act 1784

 It was a regulating act named after the British Prime Minister William Pitt and was
passed to address the shortcomings of the Regulating Act 1773.
 It distinguished between the commercial and political functions of East India
Company.
 It gave the British government supreme control over the company’s affairs and its
administration in India.
 A Dual control system within company was started.
 Board of control: to supervise and direct all operations of the civil and military
government i.e. political duty.
 Court of directors: to manage the commercial affairs.
  This act is also important in the sense that for the 1st time Company’s territories in
India were called the British Possessions in India.
 Important events of this period:
 1st and 2nd Anglo Mysore war.
 Foundation of Asiatic society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784.
 Wrote introduction to the 1st English translation of “The Gita” by Charles Wilkins.
 one interesting fact is that Warren Hasting went under impeachment proceedings
after he returned to Britain on the charges of taking bribes. But after, a trail of 7
years, he was finally acquitted.
 An important event of this period published in 1780, from Kolkata, was the 1st major
newspaper in India. The pioneer newspaper was started by James A. Hickey.
SANYASI UPRISING (1770-1820)
 It was the practice of the Sanyasis to collect alms & contribution from these
zamindars during their religious travels. This was stopped when the zamindars found
it too challenging to provide alms since after paying the British their due, they were
hardly left with anything substantial.
 The British considered the Sanyasis looters & imposed restrictions on the Sanyasis
barring them from visiting holy places.
 The Sanyasi rose in rebellion against the British & raised English factories and
government treasuries.
 This rebellion was centered in the forests of Murshidabad & Baikunthpur, Bengal.
 In 1771, 150 unarmed sanyasis were killed under the order of Warren Hastings.
 Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s novel Anandmath, written in 1882, was set in the
backdrop of the Sanyasi Rebellion.
 This book was banned by the British.
 The Sanyasi Rebellion or Sanyasi Revolt (1763-1800) was the activities of Sanyasis
and fakirs in Bengal against the East India Company rule.
 India’s national song “Vande Mataram” was taken from this novel.
 Fakir uprising (1776-77)
 Majnu shah led them.
 He defied the British authority & began to levy taxes on the farmers and zamindars
in Bengal.
 They looted English factories acquiring cash, arms and ammunitions.
 Majnu Shah was supported by Rajputs, Pathans and disbanded Indian soldiers.
 After Majnu Shah’s death, his brother Chirag Shah led the operations.
 Other notable leaders of the uprising were Bhavani Pathak and Devi Chaudhurani.
LORD CORNWALLIS (1786-1793)

 3rd Anglo Mysore war.

 Sanskrit College was founded in Banaras (1791) by Jonathan Duncan.
 He was the 1st person to codify laws. This code separated the revenue administration
from the administration of journey.
  he brought police reforms in 1791. Cornwallis organized a regular police force to
maintain system of thanas in a district under a daroga (Indians were used to
appointed as daroga). And a superintendent of police (SP) at the head of a district.
He relived the Zamindars of their police duties.
 Civil service was brought into existence and that is why he is the Father of civil
Service in India.
 The Permanent Settlement of Bengal in 1793 (also called Zamindari system). Under
the system zamindars were given lands and were considered as the permanent
owners of the land and were tasked the collecting revenue from peasants.
 He was the 1st Governor General to die in India.
JOHN SHORE (1793-98)

 The charter Act of 1793 was passed. It was the 1st Charter Act.
 Regulating act: acts which were passed by British parliament to control & regulates
the affairs of East India Company.
 Charter Act: acts which were basically renewals of Charter i.e. License for
monopolistic trade in or with India, which was given to the company by British
Crown.
 Policy of non-intervention: according to this policy, the company was told not to
interfere in the internal affairs of native Indian states. Due to this policy rulers like
Nizam of Hyderabad, Maratha rulers, Mysore rulers started close contacts with
France to modenise their states administration. This policy somehow caused a
decrease in the influence of British.
 No design needed the Battle of Kharda took place on 11 march 1795 between the
Marathas Empire and the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Marathas won a decisive victory.
Th British refused to aid Nizam despite being under their protection due to policy of
non-intervention. And that is why there was a doubt among the other princely states
in respect of any arrangements with the British.
LORD WELLESLEY (1798-1805)

 Introduced the Subsidiary alliance system to achieve British Paramountcy (1798). The
states that signed the alliance were Hyderabad (first tot sign) in 1798 and then
Mysore, Tanjore, Awadh, Jodhpur, Jaipur, Mecheri, Bundi, Bharatpur and Berar.
 4th Anglo-Mysore war (1799)
 During this period lord lake captured Delhi and Agra and the Mughal emperor was
put under Company’s protection.
 Formation of Madras presidency during his tenure after the annexation of the
kingdoms of Tanjore and Carnatic.
 Censorship of Press act in 1799.
 Wellesley introduced this act anticipating French invasion of India.
 It imposed wartime press restrictions like pre-censorhip and all.
 It was later realaxed by the Lord Hasting.
 Described himself as a Bengal tiger.
  Establishment of fort William college at Calcutta.
Sir George Barlow (1805-1807)

 Sepoy mutiny of Vellore (1806)

 The Vellore mutiny predated the Indian revolt of 1857 by about 50 years. It erupted
on 10th July 1806 in Vellore, present-day Tamil Nadu, and lasted only for a day, but it
was a brutal and shook the British East India Company. It was the 1st major mutiny by
the Indian sepoys in the East India Company.
 Reason: sir John Craddock, the commander-in-chief of the Madras army had issued
orders prohibiting soldiers from wearing religious marks on their foreheads and also
to trim their moustaches and shave off their beards. This offended both Hindu &
Muslim soldiers.
 He tried to establish a peaceful relation with Marathas after Anglo-Maratha wars.
Lord minto (I) (1807-13)

 Treaty of Amritsar (1890)- with Ranjit Singh.

 Raja Ranjit Singh established Sikh empire and this empire was extending its territory
violently. British were aware of it. In order to check the extension of Sikh territories
in 1809 Lord Minto signed a treaty with Maharaja Ranjit. As per treaty Sutlej River
was fixed as a boundary of Sikh empire.
 Charter Act of 1813
 Monopoly of the East India Company in trade in Asia was dissolved.
 Reason: due to Napolean Bonaparte’s Continental system in Europe (which
prohibited the import of British goods into French allies in Eurorpe), British traders &
merchants suffered. So they demanded and dissolved the monopoly of the East India
Company. However, the company objected to this but finally, British merchants were
allowed to trade in India under a strict licensing a system under the Charter Act of
1813.
 But in trade with China and the tea trade, the company still retained its monopoly.
LORD HASTINGS (1813-23)

 Creation of Bombay Presidency (1818)

 Ryotwari settlement in Madras by the Governor of Madras Thomas Munro, 1820.
 The Ryotwari system was devised by captain Alexander Reed. In the Ryotwari
system, the land ownership rights were handed over to the peasants and the tax was
collected directly form them.
 Apart form Madras, it was also started in Assam, Kurg (Karnataka) etc.
 Adopted the policy of intervention and war in order to re-establish the influence of
British.
Lord Amherst (1823-1828)

 Burmese war I (1824-26)

 The war was for control over northeastern India due to imperial expansion ambitions
of both the British Empire and the Konbaung dynasty of Burma.
 The war, ended in a British victory, giving the British control of Assam, Manipur,
Cachar and Jaintia.
 This war was the longest and most expensive war in British Indian history, 15,000
European and Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown number of Burmese
military and civilian causalities.
 Treaty of Yandaboo (1826): British merchants were allowed to settle in southern
coast of Burma and Rangoon.
 PAGAL PANTHI REVOLT (1825-1850)
 The pagal panthis were a religious order founded by Karim Shah in the Mymensingh
and Sherpur districts of Bengal.
 The order’s philosophy was that of religious harmony and non-violence incorporating
tenets of Sufism, Hinduism, animism.
 Under Karim Shah’s son Tipu Shah, the order revolted against the British government
by organizing peasant rebellions.
 They were against the oppressive tax regime of the British.
 Tipu Shah captured Sherpur in 1825 and practically ruled over the Sherpur and
Mymensingh areas. Disturbances continued till the 1850s.
LORD WILLIAM BENTICK (1828-35)

 He is called Father of modern western education in India.

 Foundation of Brahmo Samaj.
 Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828.
 The title of Raja was given to him by the Mughal emperor Akbar II.
 Raja Ram Mohan Roy also founded Atmiya Samaj in 1815.
 Abolition/ prohibition of Sati (1829): Raja Ram Mohan Roy helped in this reform.
 Banned female infanticide (1829)
 Suppression of thuggee/ thugs (1829-35)
 Thugs: it was an organized group of robbers or murderers. They used to attack
usually at night or during rest breaks, so as to make it easier to pick on their victims.
To ensure that the killing went smoothly, they would use poison.
 Annexed Mysore (1831), Coorg (1834), Central Chachar (1834) on the plea of
misgovernment.
 After the 4th Anglo Mysore war, a young Raja of Mysore of Wodeyar dynasty was
placed on the throne of Mysore.
 For a few years, the relations between British and Mysore remained cordial.
 But in late 1820s, there was civil insurrection in Mysore.
 This was either due to the financial oppressions of the British Resident or due to
misgovernment and oppressive taxation of the maharaja.
 These developments led the British to take direct control over Mysore in 1831.
 This arrangement continued till 1881, when Mysore was restored to native
government and the lawful heir enthroned.
 Charter act (1833)
 This act was a final step towards the centralization in British India.
 The Government-General of Bengal was re-designated as the Governor-General of
India Lord William Bentick was the last governor general of Bengal and 1st Governor
general of India.
 It brought an end to the company’s trade monopoly in tea & trade with China.
 The 1st Law commission was set up.
Law commission
The 1st law commission was established during the British era in 1834 by the Charles Act
of The committee consisted of Lord TB Macuallay, as chairman and four members
namely CH Cameron, JM MacLeod, G W Anderson and F Millet. The 1st three members
represented Madras, Bombay and Calcutta respectively. This commission was set up for
consolidating, codifying and improving Indian Law.

 Lord William Bentick introduced the Mahalawari System of land revenue in India in
1833.
 Mahalwari System:
 It was started by Halt Makenzie in 1822.
 Initially introduced in the North-west, this system was introduced in the North India,
the North-West Frontier, Agra, Central Province, Gangetic valley, Punjab etc.
 This had elements of both the Zamindari and the Ryotwari systems.
 This system divided the land into Mahals. Sometimes, a Mahal was constituted by
one or more villages.
 The tax was assessed on the Mahal.
 Here, also ownership rights were with the peasants.
 Revenue was collected by the village headman or village leaders.
 It introduced the concept of average rents for different soil classes.
 This system was called the Modified Zamindari system because the village headman
virtually became a Zamindar.
 Agra was created as province. (1834)
 Macaulay’s minutes on Education (1835)
 It started the downward filtration policy of education in India. According to this
theory, by providing education to the elite groups of the society, it will be filtered
down to the lower-class people in the country, because the lower class people
always tend to imitate and follow the model of the people of higher status in the
society.
 In fact, it was a psychological strategy to attract Indian towards the Western
Education.
 On 2 Feb 1835, British historian and politician Thomas Babington Macaulay
presented his ‘Minute on Indian education’ that sought to establish the need to
impart English education to Indian ‘natives’.
 In his minute on Education, he justified the use of English as the medium of
instruction, and also the teaching of Western education to Indians.
 He wanted to make Indians be able to serve in British officers and be loyal to them.
 English was made the official language of India (1835). He also made English the
medium of higher education after passing the English Education Act 1835.
 Abolition of provincial court of appeal which was set up by Lord Cornwallis.
Lord Metcalfe (1834-36)
 Passed press law
 In 1823 Licensing Regulations were enacted according to which press without license
was a penal offence. The restriction was directed mainly to Indian language
newspapers or those edited by the Indians,
 Metcalfe repealed this 1823 ordinance by passing press law which was also named,
`liberator of the Indian press’.
Lord Auckland (1836-42)
 1st Afghan war (1836-42)
 In 1816, then Barakzay clan the ruling dynasty of Afghanistan, with its most powerful
member, Dost Mohammad Khan, ascending the throne in 1826.
 This time both Great Britain and Russia maneuvering for influence in Afghanistan.
 Dost Mohammad was forced to balance his country between the 2 great powers.
 The British moved to a take a direct role in Afghan affairs.
 First, they negotiated unsatisfactorily with Dost Mohamad and then an invasion of
Afghanistan was ordered by the governor-general of India, Lord Auckland, with the
object of restoring exiled Afghan ruler Shah Shoja to the throne, who will act as
British puppet.
 In April 1839 the British army entered Kandahar and Shoja was then crowned shah.
 Dost Mohammad who had escaped 1st to Balkh and then to Bulkhara, returned to
Afghanistan to lead this partisan against the British.
 In a battle of Parwan on Nov 2, 1840 after struggling he surrendered to the British in
Kabul.
 He was deported to India with most of his family.
FARAIZI REVOLT (1838-57)
 The Faraizis were followers of a Muslim sect founded by haji Shariatullah.
 It spreads to Faridpur, Bakarganj and Mymensingh districts of Bengal.
 This movement supported the cause of the tenants against the landlords and the
British government.
 It was led by Shariatullah’s son Dadu Mian.
LORN ELLENBOROUGH (1842-44)
 Termination of First Afghan Wars (1842)
 Annexation of Sindh (1843)
 Abolition of slavery in India in year (1844)
LORD HARDING (1844-48)
 1st Sikh War (1845-46)
 After the Treaty of Amritsar in 1809, the forces of Maharaja Ranjit Singh ran over the
Kashmir Valley.
 Ranjit Singh made his Dogra general, Gulab Singh, the Raja of the State of Jammu.
 Gulab Singh expanded boundaries of his empire, conquering Ladakh in the 1830s and
Baltistan (in Pakistan) in the 1840s.
 Valley remained with the Sikhs until a little after Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s death in
1839 in the 1st Anglo Sikh war.
 After the defeat in the Anglo-Sikh war, the Sikh Empire had to cede Kashmir to the
East India Company through the Treaty of Lahore, which was signed on March 9,
1846.
 British granted Gulab Singh dominion over Jammu & Kashmir through a sale deed of
a sum of RS. 75 Lakh.
 The state of Jammu & Kashmir was thus formed, a Muslim-majority state with a
Hindu Dogra ruler.
 The last ruling Maharaja of the Dogra dynasty was Maharaja Hari Singh.
 Hari Singh acceded to India in 1947.
 Prohibition of female infanticide and human sacrifice among Gonds of central India.
 Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)
 Application of doctrine of lapse- Captured Satara(1848), Jaipur and Sambalpur
(1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854), Oudh (1856),
Udaipur (1862)
 Wajid Ali Shah was the last Nawab of Awadh and he was serving when the East India
Company in 1856 led by Dalhousie annexed it under the Doctrine of Lapse.
 Annexation of Punjab (1849)
 The 2nd Anglo-Sikh war was fought between 1848 & 1849.
 Cause of war:
 The humiliation caused by the 1st Anglo Sikh war.
 The Sikh regent, Maharani Jindan Kaur was not treated properly by the British.
 She was removed from Lahore on conspiracy charges against the British resident in
Lahore.
 Battles were fought in Ramnagar and Chilianwala.
 The battle at Ramnagar was indecisive whereas the Sikhs won at Chillianwala
(regions for Punjab) near Chenab.
 The final battle was fought at Gujarat near Chenab. (not the present Indian state
Gujarat) in 1849. This was won by the British forces.
 The Afghan forces under Dost Mohammad Khan had joined the Sikhs side.
 This led to the complete control of Punjab by the British.
 Annexation of Berar (1853)
 This region was ruled by Nizam of Hyderabad.
Charter act of 1853
 This was the last charter ac.
 It seprated the legislative and executive functions of the governor-general’s council.
 It establidshed a separate legislative council known as Indian Legislative Council with
6 members, which functioned as Mini-Parliament.
 Introduction of Railways (32 km) between Bombay-thane (1853).
 Services of Telegraph between Calicut-Agra (1853)
 Postal system (1853)
 Recruitment of the civil service by competitive exams (1853)
Woods Dispatch (1854)
 In 1854, Wood dispatch was passed, which provided for the adequately articulated
sysdytem of education from the primary school to university.
 This is known as Magna Carts of Indian education. In accordance wth Wood’s
dispatch of 1854 Education Departments were established in every province.
 3 universities established in Calcutta, Bombay & Madras. (1857)
 Started Engineering College at Roorkee.
 Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar efforts remarriage of widows was legalized by
Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
 Santhal uprising (1855-56)
 They were the agricultural people settled in Rajmahal Hills of Bihar.
 Santhals are the largest tribe group in India.
 They lived their lives in hamony with nature and practiced shifting agriculture and
hunting.
 British turned to them for the expansion of the revenue through agriculture,
Santhals agreed to clear forests to practice settled agriculture.
 In 1832, a large number of areas were demarcated as Damin-i-Koh or Santhal
Parganas.
 But gradually the exploitation started from the British sided and to such an extent,
that it gave rise to Santhals Rebellion.
 On 30th June 1855, two Santhal brothers Sindhu and Kanhu Murmu organized 10,000
Santhals and proclaimed a rebellion against the British.
 The tribals took an oath to drive away form the British from their homeland.
 Founded the Public Work Department (P.W.D.).
 Raised Gorkha Regiment
 Shimla was made summer capital of British India.
LORD CANNING (1857-62)
 Mutiny of 1857 took palce in his time.
 Queen Victoria’s proclamation of India Act of 1858.
 It was known as the Act for the Good Government of India.
 It abolished the East India Company and transferred the powers of government,
territories and revenues to the British Crown.
 Lord Canning was the last Governor General of India of India and 1st Viceroy of India.
 A new office called Secretary of State for India (1st Indian secretary was Stanley) was
created which was given complete authority over Indian Administration and office
directly responsible to the British Parliament.
Royal Darbar At Allahabad:
 On novemeber 1, 1858: a royal Darbar was held at Allahabad to declare the Queen
Proclamation of 1858 to the common public. Lord Canning announced Queen
Victoria’s proclamation tot the Princes, Chiefs and people of India and that the
Queen has assumed the administrative control of India from the East India Company.
Quueen Victoria added to the title Empress of India to her regality.
 Withdrew Doctrine of Law.
 White mutiny
 The white mutiny was the unrest that occurred at the dissolution of the “European
forces” of the British East India Company during the md-19the Century in wake of
the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
 British soliders of the defunct East India Company now became an integral part of
the Royal forces of Britainn.
 Indian Penal code in 1860.
 The 1st draft of the code was presented before the Governor-General in council in
the year 1837, but subsequent revisions and amendements took 2 more decades.
 The complete drafting of the code was done in 1850 and presented to the Legislaive
Council in 1856.
 It was delayed being placed due to the Indian Revolt of 1857.
 The code came into force on January.
 Indian Councils Act of 1861.
 This act proposed the association with Indians in the law-making process.
 In 1862, Lord Canning nominated 3 Indian namely, Raja of Benaras, The Maharaja of
Patiala and Sir Dinkar Rao, in in his legislative council.
 Supposed Wahabis movement.
 It was also known as ‘Wallullah Movement’which started in response to the western
influneces and was inspired by the teachings of Shah Walliullah who was regareded
as the 1st Indian Muslim leader. The entire movement was moving around the legacy
of Islam- ‘Quran & Hadis’
 3 universities established in Calcutta, Bombay & Madras (1857)
 Indigo revolt by the Indigo farmers of Bengal.
 Appointment of James Wilson as the 1st Finance member, who introduced the
Income Tax.
 LORD LAWRENCE (1862-69)
 Bhutan war (1865)
 After getting control of Southern part of Assam after the 1st anglo-burma war, British
came into conflict with Bhutan for Duar region of Assam which lies between the
Brahmaputra asnd the foothills of Bhutan.
 Britain declared war on 12 November 1864
 The Bhutan war is also known as Duar war
 This ended in the defeat of the Bhutanese army.
 The peace was brought by the “Treaty of Sinchula”.
 Bhutan ceded territories in the Assam Duars and Bengal Duars, as well as around
80,000 kilometers of Dewangiri (Deothang) to British in return for an annual subsidy
of 50,000 rupees.
 Establishment of High Courts at Calcutta,Bombay and Madras in 1865
 The Indian High Court Act of 1861 was passed in British parliament to authorise
British
 Crown to create High Courts in India.
 Queen Victoria created the High Courts in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1865.
 VEDA SAMAJ
 It was established by Keshab Chandra Sen and K. Sridharalu naidu in 1864
 It was called Brahmo Samaj of South India.
 PRATHNA SAMAJ
 It was established in 1867 by Atmaram Pandurang in Bombay.
 Scholar and Social Reformer Mahadev Govinda Ranade also joined it.
LORD MAYO (1869-1872)

 He started the process of financial decentralization in India. And established

Department of Agriculture and Commerce
 Establishment of statistical survey of India. And for the first time in Indian history, a
census was held in 1871, but it was unsuccessful.
 He established the Rajkot College at Kathiawar and Mayo Collage at Ajmer, for the
Indian princes.
 He was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in the
Andamans in 1872.
KUKA REVOLT (1871)

 The Kukas, also called Namdharis, were a sect within Sikhism.

 They started out as a group for religious purification in Shikism. Still, under ram
Singh, the movement acquired a political overtone with the established aim of
restoring Sikh rule in Punjab and ousting the foreign powers.
 The Kukas wore only white, hand-woven clothes and boycotted British education,
products and laws.
 In 1872, Ram Singh was captured and exiled to Rangoon, and 65 Kukas were blown
away from canons by the British.
Lord Northbrook (1872-1876)

 SATYASODHAK SAMAJ
 The Satyasodhak Samaj was founded by Jyota Phule in 1873.
 Its purpose was to liberate the less privileged in the then prevailing society such as
Shudra, and Dalit from exploitation and oppression
 ARYA SAMAJ
 Founded by Dayanand Saraswati in 1875. His real name was Mool Shankar Tiwari
and his slogan was “Go back to Vedas”. He wrote a book, Satyarth Prakash. He was
 the first to give the call for Swaraj as “India for Indians” in 1876. And the same
concept was taken by Lokmanya Tilak.
 THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
 Founded by Madame Blavatsky and col. Alcott in 1875 in New York. In India, its office
is in Adyar (Madras). Annie Besant (Ireland) also joined the society; she was the 1st
woman president of Congress (1917, Calcutta).
LORD LYTTON (1876-1880)

 The Royal Titles Act of 1876 was passed by the British Parliament and Queen Victoria
was recognized as “Empress of India”. Lord Lytton organised the Grand Delhi Durbar’
in 1877 where he decorated Queen Victoria with the title of ‘Kaiser-i-Hind’.
 VERNACULAR PRESS ACT 1878
 It was enacted in 1878 to curtail the freedom of the Indian-languages (non-English)
press.
 It was proposed by Lord Lytton, the then Viceroy of India, the act intended to
prevent the vernacular (word vernacular means local language) press from
expressing criticism of British policies. The act excluded English-language
publications.
 Lord Ripon later repealed the act in 1881, who was the successor of Lord Lytton.
 However, the resentment it produced among Indian become one of the Catalysts
giving rise to India’s growing independence movement.
 He introduced the Arms Act (1878), made it mandatory for Indians to acquire a
license for arms.
 Second Afghan War (1878-80)
 In 1878-80, British-Indian forces fought a war to ensure that Afghanistan remained
free from Russian interference.
 During the 19th Century, the British Goverment was convinced thatv the extension of
Russian influence over Central Asia was a real threat to its dominions of Indian
subcontinent.
 In 1876, Emir (Commender-in-chief) of Afghanistan, Sher Ali (Rular of the Barakzai
dynasty,), was visited by a Russian diplomatic mission.
 Later he refused to accept a British envoy, then Viceroy of India, Lord Lytton, decided
to act.
 In September 1878, Lytton ordered a diplomatic mission to set out for Kabul, where
he hoped to establish a political resident.
 When the mission was turned back at the eastern end of the Khyber Pass, the British
decided to replace Sher Ali.
 In November 1878, three British columns, consisting of 40,000 men, invaded
Afghanistan. Appointment of first famine commission in 1878
LORD RIPON (1880-1884)

 He passed The Factory Act. 1881 aimed at prohibiting child labour.

 First All India Census
 A systematic and modurn population census, in its present form was conducted non
synchronously between 1865 and 1872 in different parts of the country.
 This effort culminating in 1872 has been popularly labeled as the first population
census of India.
 However, the first synchronous census in India was held in 1881.
 The first known census for citizens was done in 1830 by Henry Walter in Daac (also
known as Dhaka). Therefore, Henry Walter is known as the father of Indian Census.
 Repealed the Vernacular Press Act (1882), hence known as Liberator of Indian Press.
 Local Self Government in 1882 he passed the local self-government Act (1882). He is
considered as the “Father of Local Self Government in India.”
 Appointment of Hunter Commission on school education in 1882.
 This commission was set up to investigate the execution of Wood’s Despatch of
 It also suggested to literate candidates for government jobs in the lower levels, along
with expansion of primary schools in bachward districts.
 Missionary schools were discouraged, and Indian participation in the private schools
system was encouraged.
 He passed the llbert Bill (1883), which enabled Indian district magistrats to try
European criminals. But this was withdrawn later. Reason was the Europeans used to
regard Indians as inferiors, and being trialed by an Indian magistrate was against
their reputation on global scenario according to them.
LORD DUFFERIN (1884-1888)

 Formation of Indian National Congress (INC) in December 1885.

 A famous statement said by Dufferin about congree “A Microscopic Minority”.
 INC
 The architect of INC was Allan Octavion Hume. He was a retired Indian civil service
officer.
 A.O. Hume never became president of the congress. He was the general secretary of
the INC in 1885.
 The main purpose of founding INC was to provide a “Safety valve to the growing
discontent amoung the educated Indians.
 He is also called “Father of Indian Ornithology”.
 1885
 1st session of INC at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit Collage, Bombay.
 President- W. C. Bannerjee
 It was attended by 72 Delegates.
 1st session was planned to organise in Punt but due to plague it was organised in
Bombay.
 1886
 2nd Session of INC
 At Calcutta
 President- Dadabhai Naoroji
 It was attendent by 436 delegates
Dada Bhai Naoroji:

 He is reffered as “The Grand Old Man of India”.

 He founded the London Zoroastrain Association in 1861.
 He was also founding member of the East India Association and London Indian
Society.
 He gave the “Theory of Drain of Wealth” in his work “Poverty and Un-British Rule in
India” in 1911.
 He was the first Indain or Asian to be elected as a
 1887
 3rd Session of INC
 Madras
 President- Badruddin Tyabji.
 He was the 1st Muslim president of INC.
 Badruddin Taiyyab ji was the first Indian to practice as a barrister of the High Court
of Bombay.
 In 1902, he became the first Indian to hold the post of chief Justice of the Bombay
High Court.
 1888-
 4th Session of INC
 Allahabad
 President- George Yule
 He was the first European president of INC.
 He was a Scottish Merchant and served as the Chairman of Indian Chamber of
Commerce.
Lord Lansdowne (1888-94)

 Factory act at 1891

 Work hour was fixed at 8 hrs, A day with no work at nights.
 Women employment at night was prohibited.
 A rest of half hour was allowed for all workers.
 Division of civil services into imperial, provincial and subordinate.
 Indian council act of 1892 was passed.
 In increased the number of additional numbers which will be non-offcial (and Indians
nominated by Viceroy) in the central and provincial council.
 Further the function of legislative council was increased like power to discuss the
budet was granted to them.
 Appointment of Durand commission and its definition of Durand line between India
(north Pakistan) & Afghanistan.
 This line was fied by British civil servant Sir Henry Mortimer Durand & then Afghan
Emir, Abdur Rahman Khan in 1893.
Lord Elgin II (1894-98)
 Assasiantion of British by Chapekar.
 On 22 June 1897, brothers Damodar Hari Chapekar and Balkrishan Hari Chapekar
assasisanted British official W.C. Rand and his military escort Lieutenant Ayerst at
Pune, Maharashtra.
 This was the 1st case of militant nationalism in India after the 1857 revolt.
RAMAKRISHNA MISSION
 Founded by Swami Vivekanand in 1897. Margret noble came from Ireland to India
under his influence. Later, who was known as sister Nivedita.
LORD CURZON (1899-1905)
 Thomas Raleigh commission
 Raleigh commission was appointed under the presidency of sir Thomas Raleigh on
27th January 1902 to inquire into the condition and prospects of universtities in India
and to recommend proposals for improving their constitution and working.
 As a result of the report of the recommendattions of the Commison the Indian
universities act was passed in.
 Indian Universities Act (1904) increased the official control over the Universities.
 The main objective of the Act was to improve the condtion of education in India and
upgrade the system to a better level.
 2nd Delhi Darbar in 1903
 The Durbar of 1903 was held in Delhi to celebrate the succession of then British
monarch King Edward VII (the great-grandfather of the current British monarch,
Queen Elizabeth II) as the Emperor of India.
 Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904 was passed and he established the
Archaeological Department of India.
 Establishment of Agriculture research Institute at Pusa in Bihar.
 SWADESHI MOVEMENT (1903-1908)
 This was a comphrehensive movement that lasted 5 years. Tilak called theis
movement “Bahishkar Yoga” and most of the Bengali intelligentsia that was initially
not in favour of the boycott movement got integrated with the Swadeshi movement.
 In fact, the Swadeshi movement can be called as a nursery of the further course that
the Indian National Movement was to take. The programmes and ideas that were
practiced during the Swadeshi movement became the hallmark of the Gandhian
movement as well.
 Surendranath Bannerjee said that it is a protecionist movement. & that it generates
the material prosperity of the masses.
 Very soon, the swadeshi movemtn spread to different parts of India.
 Partition of Bengal in 1905. It was called the Cardinal Blunder of Curzon.
 From 1765 the province of Bengal, which included present day West Bengal, Bihar,
Odisha, Bangladesh and Assam was under rthe British.
 There were difficulties in administering such a large area. The eastern part, especillay
in rural areas, was neglected.
 That region was lacking in the fields of industry, education and employment. Much
of the industry was centred on Calcutta.
 In 1874, Assam was siced away from Bengal and put under a chief commissioner.
 Initially, lord Curzon proposerd the patitionong of the province as an administrative
measure solely.
 The idea of using the Bengal partition as a political tool to suppress the growing
natuionalism in Bengal and other parts of India occurred in his mind.
 As per Curzon, after the partition, the two provinces would be Bengal (including
modern W.Bengal, Odisha and Bihar) and Eastern Bengal and Assam.
 East Bengal would consist of Hill Tripura, Chittagong, Rajshahi and Dhaka divisions.
Its capital would be Dhaka.
 Bengal would have a Hindu majority and Eastern Bengal and Assam would have a
Muslim majority populations. Its capital would reamin Calcutta.
 Reaction:
 There was widespread politicial unrest in the province after Curzon announced the
partition.
 Many people in Bengal regarded this partition as an insult to their motherland.
 Rabindranath Tagore composed the famous song ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ which later
became the national anthem of Bangladesh.
 The Indian National Congreass protested this move to seprated the province on
communal lines.
 Many Muslims from the Bengali Muslim community welcomed this move since they
thorught that it would advance their educational, economic and political interests if
they became the majority in the new province.
 The Swadeshi and Boycott movements in the national struggle startedas a result of
this partition.
 People started bouycotting British goods which flooded the Indian market and had
dealt a blow to indigenous industry.
 The partition did succeed in creating a communal rift in the country and even
contributed to the birth to the Muslim Legue in 1906.
LORD MINTO II (1905-10)
 The partition of Bengal came into force on October 10, 1906 in his period.
 Anti Partition and Swadeshi movements spread across India.
 Muslim League
 On December 30, 1906, Muslim league was formed under the leadership of Aga
Khan, the Nawab of Dhaka Nawab Khwaja Sir Salimullah Bahadur and Nawab
Mohsin-ul-Mulk to the nation to safeguard the rights of Indian Muslims.
 Sir Sulatn Muhammad Shah properly known as Aga Khan was the 1st president of
Muslim League.
 The founder of Muslim league wer inspired by the liberal views of Syed Ahmed Khan,
a philoshopher and Muslim reformist.
 In 1908, Aga Khan was elected as life-long president of All India Muslim League. He
was alo nominted to represent India to the League of Nations to.
 The Amritsar session of the League, held in 1908,under the presidency of Sir Syed Ali
Imam, demanding a separate electorate for the Muslims, this was conceded to them
by his Morley-Minto Reforms 1909.
 Maualana Muhammad Ali started an English Journal “comrade” and an urdu project
“hamdard” to propogate his anti-league views.
 He also started along with Maulana Abul Kalam Azad ‘Al-Hilal’ which served as a
mouthpiece of his Naionalist views.
 Muahammad Ali Jinnah joined the league in 1913.
 The league was dissolved on 14 August 1947.
 SURAT PARTITION OF CONGRESS (1907)
 President: Rash Bihari Ghosh
 The moderates were the one who dominate the affairs of the Indian National
congress from 1885-1905.
 They were Indians but in reality British in taste, intellect, opinions and morality.
 Demands of Moderates
 They plea for the extension of legislative council that leads to the popular control of
administration.
 Removal of restriction on freedom of the press and the speech.
 Abolition of arms act which breaches the freedom of people
 Separation of judiciary from executive.
 Supporter of Demorcracy and Nationalism.
 Exploitative relations of British could be exempted.
 Achievements of Moderates.
 They succeeded to burn the flame of political awareness and leadership among the
lower middle, middle class and intelligentsia.
 They spread the idea of democracy and civil liberty.
 They sowed the seed of nationalism and laid the foundation of the National
movement.
 Leader of extremists (Lal, bal, pal)
 Lal- Lala Lajpat Rai
 Bal- Bal GangaDhar Tilak
 Pal- Bipin Chandra Pal
 The political orientation of Extremist originated within the Congress from the anti-
patition Bengal agitation.
 When the British Government refused to annual the partition of Bengal in face of
mass protests of the people of Bengla arousing sympathy of Indian people that
disillusioned many young leaders, came to be known as Neo-Nationalists or
Extremists.
 They were called extremist because they believed that success could be achieved
only through bold means.
 Reasons for the Rise of Extremism
 The failure of the moderates to win any notable success othe than the expansion of
the legislative councils by the Indian councils act 1892.
 The famine and plague 1896-97 of was not eye opening for the exploitative policy for
British which degraded the economic Indians in South Africa. The Russo-Japanese
war of 1904-05 event play an important role in national awakeing.
 ALIPORE CONSIPRACY CASE (1908)
 Emepor vs Aurobindo Ghosh and other colloquially referred to as the Alipore Bomb
Case, the Muraripukur conspiracy, or the Manchiktolla bomb conspiracy, was a
criminal case held in India in 1908.
 Barindra Ghohs, younger brother of Aurobindo Ghoshm, was a crucial player in
Alipore trial. It was in their house that the revoltionareies carried out their activities.
 The British Government detained Aurbonida, Barinda and many young
revolutionaries for waging war against the king.
 The trail went for 1 year, and on 6 May, 1909 Aurobindo was acquitted of all charges
in the Alipore bomb case.
 Noted activist and leader Chittranjan Das was the defence lawyer for Aurobindo.
 Extremists like Lala lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh (in May 1907) and Bal (in July 1908) were
sent to Mandaly jail in Burma.
 Execution of Khudi Ram Bose in 1908.
 Sahid Khudiram Bose was the youngest revolutionary freedom fighter who opposed
British Raj in India. He was involved in the Muzzafarpur conspiracy and executed on
August 11, 1908, at the age of 18 years. His fellow, Prafulla Chaki, another freedom
fighter, commited suicide before his arrest. The two of them tried to assaasinate a
British Judge, Douglas kingsford.
 The Indiand Coucil Act of 1909 (the Morley Minto Reforms) was passed.
 Morley was the Secretary of state, while Minto was the Indian viceroy.
 It increased the size of the legislative council at both central and provincial levels.
 It retained official majority in the Central Legislative Council.
 It provided for the association of Indian with the executive Councils fo the Viceroy
and governors. Satyaendra Prasad Sinha became the 1st Indian to joint the Viceroy’s
Executive Council. He was appointed as the law member.
 It introduced the system of communal representation for Muslims by accepting the
“Separate electorate”.
 Under this, Muslim members were to be elected only by Muslim voters.
 This act legalized communalism and that is Lord Minto came to be known an “father
of Communal Electorate’.
LORD HARDINGE (1910-160
 DELHI DARBAR (1911)
 King George and Queen Mary came to India.
 Partition of Bengal was annulted.
 Announcement (not inauguration) of shifting capital from Calcutta to New Delhi.
 Why? Delhi was the financial and political centre of many empires that ruled India
earlier.
 Calcutta was located in the eastern coastal part of the country, whil Delhi was
located in the northern part. According to the British Government of India, it was
easier and more, convenient to govern India from Delhi.
 British Raj during the Delhi Durbar on 12 Dec 1911, the ruler of India. George along
with Queen Mary announced that the capital of India was shifted from Kolkata to
Delhi.
 But on 13 Feb, 1931 Lord Irwin the viceroy of India inaugurated Delhi as the new
capital of the country.
 King George V and laid down the foundation of the Gateway of India.
 1911 INC Session.
 Place: Kolkata
 President: Bishan Narayan Dar.
 The national anthem “Jan Gan Mana” was sung for the 1st time at INC session.
 GHADAR PARTY (1913)
 In 1913, Pacific Coast Hindustan Associataion was founded by Lala Hardayal with
Sohan Singh Bhakna as its president, which was called Gadar Party.
 Lala Hardayal was the co-founder of the party.
 The member of this party weret he immigrant Sikhs of the US and Canada.
 The party published its own newspaper “Gadar” from San Francisco. The 1st issue of
the Gadar was publishe from San Francisco on Nov 1, 1913.
 Tana-Bhagat Movement (1914-19)
 Tana-Bhagat Movement was a tribal uprising of a section of the Tana Bhagats and
the Oraons under the leadership of Jatra Oraon occuirng during the late colonial
period in the Chota Nagpur region of Bihar, India,
 Death of G.K.Gokhale in 1915
 Gopal Krishna gokhale was an Indian social reforemer, educator, politican, president
of the Indian National Congress and Mahatama Gangh’s political Guru.
 Gopal Krishna was one ofhte wisest moderate leaders of the INC.
 Born: 9 may, 1866 in Chitapavan Brahmin family.
 Place of birth: Kothluk, Ratnagiri, Bombayt Presidency (now Maharashtra)
 Father’s name: Krishna rao gokhale
 At the age of 18, he had completed his graduation from Elphistone college in
Bombay.
 His mentor was Mahadev Govind Ranadae who was a renowed scholar and jurist, in
Poona.
 He started working in Poona Sarvajanik Sabha with Ranade and later he became the
Secreatary. It was the leading politicasl organization in Bomaby.
 At Ferguson college, he became the professor and secretary of Deccan education
society in 1891.
 In 1889, he became the member of the INC.
 He was also the member of Bomaby Legislative Council.
 He played to the Imperial Legislative Council in 1905, he was elected the president of
the INC.
 He established the Servants of India society in 1905 with the aim of providing
training to the peopleto devote themselves within the service of India as national
missionaries.
 He founded the Ranade Institution of Economics.
 Gopal Krishna Gokhale visited S. Africa in 1912, where he met M. Gandhi to discuss
Gandhi’s campaign for right for Indians.
 Died: 19 fEb, 1915
 Place of Death: Bombay
 On 9thJan 1915, Gandhi came back from S.Africa spent 22 yrs.
 In S. Africa founded some institutes there, like Tolstoy House, Phoenix form.
 He also published an ‘Indian Opinion’ magazine.
 In 1913, Gandhi started started his 1st Satyagrahi against racial discrimination in
S.Africa, which was successful.
 He was influenced by 3 personalities.
 Raychandbhai.
 Leo Tolstoy his book “The kingdom of God is within you”.
 John ruskin his book “unto this last”.
 Besides these 3 persoanlities, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, the Bhagvat Gita, the Bible
were lifelong sources of inspiration for him.
 Tolstoy’s ideal of “Simplicity of life and purity of purpose” influenced Gandhiji for
him.
 Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha by Madan Mohan Malviya in 1915.
 Madan Mohan Malviya
 Dec 25 is the birth anniversary of Malviya,the farmed Indian eduationist & fighter
who is also called ‘Mahamana.”
 Born in Allahabd, Malaviya took early education under the pathshala system, & was
proficient in Sankrit.
 In 1879, he graduated from the Muir central college (today’s Allahabad University)
and started working as a teacher at a local high school.
 Malaviya joined the INC at its capital session in 1886.
 He was the torchbearers of the freedom struggle- acting as a bridge between the
moderates and the extremist in the congress.
 Malaviya rose up the ranks and became president 4 times- in 1909 Lahore, in 1918
Delhi, in 1930 Delhi and 1932 Calcutta.
 At the BHU which he founded in 1916, he served as Vice-Chancellor from 1919 to
1938.
 Malaviya espoused free and compulsory primary education, opposed the system of
indentured labour in the British Empire.
 In 1930 when Ganndhi launched the Salt Satyagraha, and the Civil Disobedience
Movement he participated in it and courted arrest.
 LORD CHELMSFORD (1916-21)
 In 1916, the B.H.U founded by Pt.Madan Mohan Malviya with the cooperation of
great personalites like DR. Annie Besant. This university was created under the
parliamentary legislation-B.H.U Act 1915.
 Foundation of Women’s University.
 LUCKNOW PACT (1916)
 Background
 After the 1st world war the viceroy Lord Chelmsford had solicited reform suggestions
from Indian support to the British was effort.
 The muslim league, led by Mohd. Ali Jinnah, wanted to use this op[portunity to press
for constitution reforms through a joint Hindu Muslim platform.
 Jinnah was then a member of both the parties, and he was mostly responsible for
the pact.
 Finally, at their respective annual sessions held at Lucknow in Dec 1916, the INC and
the League confirmed the agreement.
 This came to be known as the Lucknow Pact.
 For his efforts, Sarojini Naidy gave Jinnah the title ‘The Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim
unity.
 B.G.Tilak also played a vital in this pact to be signed,]
IMPORTANT POINTS:
 Self-government in India.
 Abolition of the Indian Council.
 Separation of the executive from the judiciary.
 1/3rd representation to be given to Muslims in the Central Govt.
 The number of Muslims in the provincial legislature to be laid down for each
province.
 Separate electorates for all communites until a joint electorate is demanded by all.
 Incrasing the term of the Legislative Council to 5 yrs.
 Half the member of the Imperial Legislative Council top be Indians.
 All elected members to be elected directly babsed on adult franchise. 4/5th of the
members of the provincial legislature to be elected and 1/5th to be nominated.
 After effects
 The agreement between the parties on a separate communal electorate formally
established communal policies in India.
 Through this pact, the INC also tacitly accepted that India consisted of two different
communities with different interests.
 LUCKNOW SESSION OF CONGRESS (1916)
 President: Ambika Charan Majumdar
 (Extemist+ Moderate): congress by efforts of Tilak & Annie Besent
 B.G.Tilak- title “Loknayak”.
 Slogan- “Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it.”
 He was known as the father of Indian Unrest by Colonial historians.
 He founded the All Indian home rule league in.
 He published Two Newspapers: Maharatta, (English), Kesari (Marathi).
 Newspaper by Gandhiji;
 Indian opinion: in S. Africa (1903-15)
 Harijan 1933-42 and 1946- jan 1948
 Young India 1919-1931
 HOME RULE LEAGUE MOVEMENT (1916)
 There were 2 home rule leagues launched.
 Tilak launched the Indian Home Rule League in April 1916 at Pune.
 Annie Besant launched the Home rule league in September 1916 at Madras.
 Area of working
 Tilak’s league woked in Maharashtra (except Bombay), Karnataka, Berar and the
Central Provinces. Besant’s league worked in the rest of the country.
 Tilak’s league had its headquarters in Delhi. It had 6 branches.
 Besant’s league had 200 branches and was a looser organization compared to Tilak’s.
 Objectives
 To achieve self-government in India.
 To promote political education and discussion to set up agitation for self-govt.
 1917 Session of INC
 Place: Calcutta
 President: Annie Besant (1st women president of INC)
 Saddler commission (1917-19)
 It was appointed to review the entire field of education right from school education
to university level education.
 Champaran Satyagraha (19170
 It is known as the 1st civil disobedience movement.
 The champaran Satyagraha of 1917 was the 1st Satyagraha movement led by Gandhi
in India and is considered a historically important revolt in the Indian Independence
movement.
 The farmers were suffering under heavy taxes and an exploitative system. They wer
forced to grow an exploitative system. They were forced to grow indigo by the
British planters under the tinkathia system. Gandhi arrived in Champaran on
invitation of Raj Kumar Shukla to investigate the matter but was not permiited by
the British authorities to do so. He was asked to leave the place, but he refused. He
was able to gather support from the farmers and masses. When he appeared in
courts in response to a summons, almost 2000 locals accompanied him. The case
against him was dropped and he was allowed to conduct the inquiry.
 After peaceful protests against the planters and landlords led by Gandhi, the
government agreed to abolish the exploitative tinkathia system.
 They also received a part of money extracted from them as compensation.
 Champaran struggle is called the 1st experiment on Satyagraha by Gandhi and later
Ahmedabad Mil Stike and Kheda Satyagraha occurred.
Britishers forced Peasants of different
regions to grow different crops
according to their need.

REGION CROPS
 Bengal Jute

Assam Tea

Uttar Pradesh Sugarcane

Punjab Wheat

Maharashtra & Punjab Cotton

Madras Rice

Bihar Indigo

 It was during this time that the people gave Gandhi the names ‘Bapu’& ‘Mahatama’.
 KHEDA SATYAGRAHA (1918)
 Was a year of failed crops in the Kheda districts of Gujarat due to droughts. As per
law, the farmers wre entitled to remission if the produce was less than a quarter of
the average output. But the government refused any remission from paying land
revenue.
 AHMEDABAD MILL STRIKE (1918)
 Gandhi used Satyagraha and hunger strike for the 1st time during an industrial
dispute between the owners and workers of a cotton mill in Ahmedabad.
 The owners wanted to raise the Plague Bonus of 1917 to the workers only by while
the workers were demanding a hike of in their view.
 During the powerful strike led by Gandhi, he underwent a hunger strike.
 The Ahmedabad Mill strike was successful and the workers were granted the wage
hike they wanted.
 Montagu Declaration (August Declaration 1917)
 Edwin Montagu was appointed the Secretary of State for India in 1917 and remained
in that office till 1922.
 On 20th August 1917, Montangue presented the historic Montangu Declaration
(August Declaration) in the British Parliament.
 This declaration proposed the increased participation of Indians in the
administration and the development of self-governing institution in India.
 In 1917, Montagu visited India and held talks with the various representatives of
Indian polity including Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
 He, along with the Governor-General of India Lord Chelmsford, brought out a
detailed report titled Constitutional Reforms in India, also called the Montangu-
Chelsmford report. This report was published on 8 th July.
 This report became the basis for the Govt. of India Act 1919.
 Government of India Act 1919
 It called the “Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
 Objective of this act was the gradual introduction of responsible government in
India.
 It relaxed the the central control over the provinces by introducing the concept of
the central and provincial subjects.
 Dyarchy System at Provincial level sepration of Subject into two parts.
 Transferred Subjects Administered by Governor with the aid of minister.
 Reserved Subjects Administered by Governor with the help of executive council.
 Introduced Bicameralism and direct election in the country. Indian Legislative
Council was replaced by a Bicameral legislature consisting of Upper house (Council of
State) and Lower House (Legislative Assembly).
 It mandated that 3 of 6 members of Viceroy’s executive council were to be Indian.
 Extended communal representation by providing seprate electorate for Sikhs, Indian
Christians, Anglo-Indian and Europeans.
 Created the new office of High Commissioner for India in London to perform some of
the function of Secretary of State.
 A Central Public Service Commission was set up in 1926 for recruiting civil servants.
 Rowlatt Act of 1919 (And JALLIANWALA BAGH 13 April 1919)
 In 1918, the Rowlett Act 1919 (Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919 or
Balck Act) passed by the British parliament. It was named after British judge Sir
Sidney Rowlett. This act authorized the government to imprison any person without
trial and conviction in a court of law.
 To disobey this act, Gandhiji marked the foundation of the Non-cooperation
Movement; it was the first countrywide agitation by Gandhiji.
 A large crowd had gathered on 13th April 1919 (Baishaki day) at Amritsar in the
Jallianwala Bagh, to protest against the arrest of their leaders, Dr. Saiffudin Kitchlew
and Dr. Satyapal.
 General Dyer, the military commender of Amritsar, gave orders of the open fire,
which killed almost 2000 lives.
 After this movement, Gandhiji withdrew movement and called it as “It was my
Himalayan Blunder”.
 To protest against this, Rabindra Nath Tagore returned his Knighthood.
 Hunter commission was appointed to enquire into this messacre in 1920, but it was
reported as Official Whitewash because it said that only 379 people died.
 In 1940, General Dyer was killed by Udham Singh in London.
 KHILAFAT MOVEMENT IN INDIA (1919-20)
 In India Maulana Mohammad Ali and his brother Maulana Shaukat Ali along with
someother Muslim leaders such as Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari Raees-ul-Muhajireen,
Barrister Jan Muhammad Junejo, Hasrat Mohani, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Dr.
Hakim Ajmal Khan joined hands a created an All India Khilafat Committee, at
Lucknow.
 It had two main demands, which were never accepted:
 Caliph Sultan must retain sufficient territories so that he can defend the Islamic
Faith.
 The places which are called Jazirat-ul-Arab, including the Arabia, Syria, Iraq and
Palestine must remain under Muslim Suzerainty.
 Result: The Ali brothers were arrested during the course of the war only to be
realeased fromjail after the war was over.
 October 17, 1919, was observed as Khilafat Day.
 On November 23, 1919, the All India Khilafat Conference was organised at New Delhi
in which they decided to withdraw all co-operation from the government if their
demands were not met.
 NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT (1920-22)
 The Khiilafat committee launched a Non-cooperation movement on Aug 1, 1920.
 Gandhiji became one of the leaders of the Khilafat movement to maintain Hindu-
Muslim unity.
 The Congress held a special session in September 1920 at Calcutta and an annual
session in December 1920 at Nagpur and passed a resolution to launch Non-
Cooperation Movement.
 The Tilak Swaraj Fund was started to finance the movement.
 It progressed powerfully from January 1920 to early February 1922, and it was the
first well organised Indian Movement.
 The attack at Chauri-Chaura, in Gorakhpur by the angry peasants on Feb 5, 1922,
changed the whole situation. Gandhiji, shocked by this incident, withdrew the
movement.
 On the failure of this movement, Subhash Chandra Bose said it was a “Natural
Calamity”.
 MOPLAH REBELLION OF 1921
 There was large-scale violence which saw systematic persecution of Hindus and
British officials. Many homes and temples were destroyed.
 The prominent leaders of the rebellion were Ali Musaliyar and Variyankunnath
Kunjahammed Haji.
 From August 1921 till about the end of the year, the rebels had under their control
large parts of Malabar.
 By the end of the year, the rebellion was crushed by the British who had raised a
special battalion, the Malabar Special Force for the riot.
 In November 1921, 67 Moplah prisoners were killed when they were being
transported in a closed freight wagon from Tirur to the Central Prison in Podanur.
They died of suffocation. This event is called the Wagon Tragedy.
 The Moplah Rebellion was a failure because of the communal element in it.
 Chambers of Princess was established in
 The recommendations of Montford Reforms created the Chamber of Princess as a
consultative and advisory body having no say in the internal affairs of individual
states and having no powers to discuss matters concerning existing rights and
freedoms.
 The Chamber of Princess representing the Princely States was established in 1921.
The Chamber usually met once a year presided over by the Viceroy.
 The full Chamber used to elect from within its princely ranks a permanent
Chancellor, who chaired the standing committee of the Chamber, which used to
meet more often.
 The last Chancellor during was the nawab of Bhopal Sir Hamidullah Khan.
 This Chamber of princes was amoung the major fault-lines forged by the British
ensure their continuance through their “divide & rule” policy.
 Appointment of Sir S.P.Sinha as Lieutinant Governor of Bihar (First Indian)
 Formation of Indian Liberal Federation by S.N.Banerjee
Lord Reading (1921-26)

 Chauri-Chaura incident (5th Feb 1922)

 The attack at Chauri-Chaura, in Gorakhpur by the angry peasants on Feb 5, 1922,
changed the whole situation. Gandhiji, shocked by this incident, withdrew the
movement.
 Rowlatt Act was repealed in year 1922
 Formation of Swaraj party by C.R.Das Motilal Nehra in Dec 1922
 After the Gaya session of 1922 held under the presidentship of C.R.Das, he
announced the formation of another party known as Swaraj Praty in which he was
appointed as President and M.L.Nehru as secretary.
 In 1924, M.L.Nehru demanded a round table conference for farming the constitution
on India.
 In 1925, with the death of C.R.Das, Swaraj party was declined.
 Beginning of Indianisation of officer’s cadre of the Indian Army.
 Edwin Montague, the Secretary of State for India from 1917 to 1922 opined that a
certain number of commissions were to be given to Indians in the army. He believed
that there should be no discrimination either in the army or in the civil services.
 The Eight unit scheme of indianisation was announced in 1923 according to which
only 8 units of army were selected for Indinisation.
 INC Sessions
 Place: Gaya
 President: C.R.Das
 Important: formation of Swaraj party
 Place: Delhi
 President: Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
 Important: youngest president of congress Maulana Azad
 Place: Belgaum
 President: M.Gandhi
 Important: Gandhi became the 1st and last time president of INC
 Place: Kanpur
 President: Sarojini Naidu
 Important: Sarojini Naidu became 1t Indian women president.
 HRA
 In 1924, Chandra Shekhar Azad, and Bhaghat Singh founded the HRA (Hindustan
republican association) at Ferozshah Kotla of Delhi.
 Later on, its name was changed to Hindustan Socialist Republican Association by
Bhagat Singh.
 In 1926, Bhagat Singh founded the Nuajwana Bharat Sabha. Aim was to develeop the
spirit of patriotism in the hearts of young men and help the downtrodden labourers
and peasants.
 KAKORI TRAIN ROBBERY (1925)
 On 9 Aug, 1925 Kakori conspiracy took place when the Kakori train “Punjab Mail”
carrying British Treasury was plundered.
 HRA organised it.
 The main suspects were Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaq Ullah Khan and Roshan lal,
Chandra Shekhar Azad.
 Some were sentenced to death, and some were deported to jail in Port Blair.
 In 1928, Chandra Shekar reorganized HRA and operated it.
 He short himself dead with his last bullet on 27 Feb 1931 at Allahabad.
 Foundation of Rastriya Swayam Sewak Sangh (RSS) by K.B.Hedgewar (1925)
 In 1923, there was a Kumbh Mela is in Haridwar and her the Hindu Mahasabha was
revived by Pandit Malwiya.Now the slogan of Hindu mahasabha became the
protection and promotion of the Hindu civilization.
 In 1925, Kehav Baharam Hedgewar founded the Rashtriya Swayamsewak sangh in
Napur. Dr. Hedgewar, who had got his education in the Calcutta Medical College had
been a part of Anushilan Samiti and Yugantar and was a nationalist by heart. He
became a member of INC initially but left it soon and established RSS. The idea was
to train the Hindu youths so that they united the Hindu Community and make India
an independent undivided country. He was much influenced by VD SAvarkar and
adopted his ideals.
 LORD IRWIN (1926-31)
 Harocourt butler Indian states commission (1927)
 To examine the nature of the relationship between the states and govt. the Bulter
committee was set up in 1927. Sir Harcout Butler chaired a 3-member committee
appointed by his Majesty’s govt. in Britain in 1927 to inquire into the realationship
between the India princely states and the British govt. of India. The British group,
consisting of Sir Harcourt Butler, prof. W.S. Holdsworth and S.C.peel was called to
the Indian states committee. They visited 16 princely states. They submitted their
report in Feb 1929.
 SIMON COMMISSION
 In Nov. 1927, the British Govt. appointed an all-white, Indian Statutory commission,
known as Simon commission. This commission has 7 MPs from Britain with Sir John
Simon as chairman.
 The commission was appointed to review the performance of reforms of 1919 and
suggest further reforms.
 At its Madras Session in 1927, INC declared to boycott the commission at every stage
and in every form.
 The Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha and all the other political groups decided to
boycott it.
 P S Sivaswami Iyer, who was an Advocate-General of Madras Presidency, made the
remark “The Simon Commission report should be thrown on a heap of rubbish.”
 Reason for Boycott:
 All the members of the commission were Englismen.
 It was seen as a violation of the Principle of self-determination and a deliberate
insult to the self-respect of the Indians.
 In 1928, a Simon commission came in India. Indians objected, and Anti-Simon
Commission agitation was started and calls for “Simon Go back.
 In oct 1928, the agitation in Lahore led by lala Lajpat Rai in which Saunders
announced lathi charge and Lala was injured and later on died.
 After his death, Bhagat Singh and his comrades killed Saunders in Dec 1928. On 17th
Dec 1927, Bhagat Singh and Rajguru killed John Saunders and took the avenge of the
death of lala lajpat.
 In 1929, Bhagat Singh and BK Dutta threw Bomb in the central assembly of Delhi.
They were protesting the Public safety Bill. They gave the slogan “Inquilab
Zindabad.”
 On 23rd March 1931,Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged till death, in
Lahore. Consiparcy case.
 After the strong protest against the Simon Commission, the Govt. of England said
that all parties should prepare their own common report. As a result, the Nehru
report 1928 was prepared.
 NEHRU REPORT
 To meet he challenges of the Simon Commission and appointed a subcommittee
under the Chairmanship of Motilal Nehru to draft a constitution.
 The report was finalized by August 1928 and called the Nehru Report.
 It recommended Dominion Status, equal rights for women, freedom to form unions
and dissociation of the state from religion in any form.
 It rejected separates communal electorates. It proposed reservation for the Muslim
at the center and in provinces.
 But Muslim league rejected the report and hence it failed.
 After that Jinnash, the leader of the Muslim League drew up a list of demands, which
was called 14 points of Jinnah.
 It was the first ever effort by Indians only towards making their constitution.
 All Paty meetings 1928
 In Dec 1928, during the all parties meeting Jinnah proposed some amendments on
the Nehru reports. He proposed ’14 points’ for safeguarding the rights and interst of
the Muslims.
 Federal constitution with residual powers to provinces.
 Provincial autonomy.
 No constitutional amendment by the center without the concurrence of the states
constituting the Indian federation.
 All legislatures and elected bodies have adequate representation of Muslims in evey
province without reducing a majority of Muslims in a province to a minority or
equality.
 Adequate representation to Muslims in the services and in self-governing bodies.
 1/3rd Muslim representation in the Central Legislature.
 In any cabinet at the centre or in the provinces. 1/3rd to Muslims.
 Separate electorate for Muslims.
 Any territorial redistribution not to affect the Muslim Majority in Punjab, Bengal and
NWFP.
 Separation of Sidh from Bombay.
 Constitutional reforms in the NWFP & Balochistan.
 Protection of Muslim rights in religion, culture education and language.
 Bardoli Satyagraha
 In 1928, Sardar Patel under Gandhi’s guidance, led the farmers in Bardoli in protest
agisnt the collection of taxes in the wake of the famine. Finally, the authorties gave
in and gave some concessions to the farmers.During the Satyagraha women of
Bardoli started calling him “Sardar”.
“LAHORE SESSION AND POORNA SWARAJ (1929)
 J.L. Nehur replaced Moti Lal Nehru as the INC president at Lahore, and the major
decision taken at the Lahore session.
 Boycott of round table conference.
 Poorna swaraj or complete independence as the main aim of congress.
 On Dec 31, 1929- the tricolor was hoisted on the bank of river Ravi.
 Jan 26, 1930 was fixed ast he 1st Independence Day to be celebrated.
 The Poorna Swaraj resolution was drafted by J.L. Nehru and the “Declaration of
Independence” (26th Jan, 1930) pledge was drafted by M. Gandhi.
CIIVL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (1930)
 The observation of the Independence Day in 1930 was followed by the launching opf
the Civil Disobedience Movement under the leaderhship of Gandhi with the Dandhi
March on March 12, 1930.
 Gandhi left the Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad on foot with 78 other members of
the Ashram for Dandi, a village on the western sea-coast of India. At a distance of
about 240 metres from Ahmedabad.
 They reached Dandi on 6th April, 1930.
 There, Gandhiji broke the salt law.
 In Tamil Nadu, C. Rajgopalachari led a march similar to the Dandi march from
Trichinopoly to Vedarnayam.
 In Dharsana, in Gujarat, Sarojini Naidu the famous poetess who was a prominent
leader of the congress and had been president of the congress, led non-violent
satyagrahis in a march to the salt depots owned by the government.
 Condition: over 300 Satyagrahis were severly injured and two killed in the brutal
lathi-charge by the police. There were demonstrations, strikes, the boycott of foreign
goods, and later refusal to pay taxes. Lakhs of people participated in the movement,
including of a large number of women.,
 Impact of Civil Disobedience Movement
 It shattered people’s faith in the British Govt.
 Laid the social root for the freedom struggle, popularized the new method of
propaganda like the Prabhat pheris, pamphlets etc.
 The exploitiative salt policy of British was followed by the defiance of forest law in
Maharashtra, Karanataka and central province and the refusal to pay the rural
“Chaukidari tax” in Eastern India.
Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan
Khan Abdul was known as Badshah Khan, Sarhadi Gandhi, Frontier Gandhi. On 23rd
April, 1930 he was arrested during protest arising out of the salt satyagraha. His
arrest led to angry demonstration in streets of Peshawar. He founded the Khudai
Khidmatgar (“Servants of God”) movement.
 Chittagong Armoury Raid
 Several revolutionaries under the leadership of surya sen, made an attempt to raid
the Armory of the police and the at Chittagong armory (Bengal).
 Their plan was to capture two main armoreis in Chittagong in and then demolish the
Telegraph and telephone office.
 Surya Sen was a teacher and he was popularly known as Master Da.
 ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE
 Simmon commission submitted its report in 1930 and recommended.
 Abolition of dyarchy
 Extension opf responsible govt. in the provinces.
 Establishment of a federation of British Indian princely states.
 Continuation of communal electorate
 To consider the proposals of the commission, the British Govt. convened three round
table conference of the representataive of the British govt. British India and Indian
princely states.
 B.R. Ambedkar, M.A. Jinnah and Tej Bahadur, Sapru participated in all 3 RTC. (round
table conference).
 FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (1930-31)
 58 political leaders from British India.
 16 delegates from the native princely states.
 16 delagetes from 3 political partis.
 The INC decided not to participate in the conference.
 DR B R Ambedkar demanded separated electorates for the “untouchables”.
 Tej Bahadur Sapru moved the idea of an All India Federation. The muslim league
supported this. The princely states also supported this on the condition that their
internal sovereignty is maintained.
 Gandhi Irwin Pact
 Gandhi Irwin Pact (5 march, 1931) was signed and the Civil Disobidience Movement
was withdrawn. Gandhiji agreed to participate in 2nd RTC.
 Deepavali Declaration
 In the year 1929 (31st October) Lord Irwin declared that the objectives of the british
was to grant Dominion status to India. This famous declaration is known as Deepavali
Declaration. Though Irwin never promised to grant the dominion status to India.
 LORD WILLINGDON (1931-36)
 2ND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (1932)
 Participation of Gandhi, Naidu, and INC.
 British delegates were belonging to various political parties, including the British PM,
Jamnes Ramsay Macdonald.
 Indian princely states represnt4ed by Maharajas and divans.
 INC- Gandhi, Rangaswami Iyengar, Madan Mohan Malaviya.
 Muslims- Md. Ali jinnah, Aga Khan III, Md. Iqbal.
 Hindus jayakar
 Depressed classes- B R Ambedkar.
 Women- Sarojini Naidu.
 Liberals, justice party, sikjhs, Indian Chrisitians, Parsis, Europeans, Anglo-Indians,
industry, labour, landlords, Burma, Sindha and other provinces.
 During this conference PM of Britian Winston Churchill made the comment of “Half
Naked Fakir for Mohd Gandhi.
 On his retrun, Gandhiji was again arrested and the Civil Disobedience Movement was
resumed in January.
 Poona pact between Gandhi and Ambedkar (1932)
 After the Gandhi-Irwain pact, Gandhi went to attend the 2 nd RTC. Still, he wasn’t
satisfied, and he came back and agin started the Civil disobedience movement, but
was later sent to Yarvada Jail of Pune.
 Meanwhile, on 16th August 1932 the British PM Ramsey made an annoucment,
which came to be known as Communal Award.
 According to award, the depressed classes were considered as a seprate community
and as such provisions were made for separate electorates for them.
 Gandhiji protestd against the Communal Awards and went on a fast unto death in
the yarwada jail on 20th Sept.
 In an effort to save him, the poona pact was signed between Gandhi and Ambedkar
on 25th septemeber 1932, which came to be known as Poona Pact.
 3RD ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (RTC) (1933)
 Only 46 delagaets in total took poart in the conference.
 The INC and the labour party decided not to attend it. (The INC wasn’t invited).
 Princes and divans represented Indian princely states.
 British Indians were represented by the Aga Khan (Muslims.).
 Depressed classes women, Europeans, Anglo-Indians and labour groups.
 The discussions led to the passing fo the govt of India act, 1935 also known as White
Paper.
 GOVT OF INDIA ACT 1935
 It provided for the establishment of an All-India Federation consisting of Provinces
and Princely states as units.
 The act divided the powers between the centre and princely units in terms of 3 lists.
 Federal list [list for centre with 59 items]
 Provincial list [for provinces with 54 items]
 Concurrent list [for both with 36 items]
 It abolished Dyarchy in provinces and introduced proivincial autonomy. The
provinces were allowed to act as autonomous units of administration.
 It introduced Dyarchy at center.
 It introduced Bicameralism in 6 out of 11 provinces: Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Bihar,
Assam and Unitied Province.
 It extended the principle of communal representation providing seprate electorate
for depressed classes, i.e for SC, women, and labourer class.
 Established a Reserve Bank of India.
 It provided for a federal court which was established in 1937.
 CONGRESS SOCIALIST PARTY
 J P Narayan was lodged in Nasik Jail in 1932 for civil disobedience against British rule.
Here, he met with Ram Manohar Lohia, Minoo Masani, Achyut Patwardhanm, Yusuf
Desai and other national leaders.
 After his release in Narayan convened a meeting in Patna which founded the Bihar
Congress Socialist Party with Narayan as general secretary and Acharya Narendra
Deva as President.
 On October, another conference was held in Bombay where they formed an All India
level Congress Socialist Party with Narayan as general secretary and Masani as joint
secretary and Achutya Deva as president.
 Burma separted form India.
 ALL INDIA KISAN SABHA (1936)
 The all india kisan sabha was formed at Lucknown in 1936.
 Swami Sahajanad- Head
 Secretary- NG Ranga Motives.
 To abolish Zmindari system.
 To reduce land revenue
 To institutionalise credit
 A good no. of INC were Zamindars themselves, while the peasants and workers came
from another class.
 So, by and large, the INC failed to meet all the promises they had claimed to fulfill to
the peasants. The peasants thus became disilluisioned with the INC govt.
 Thus, the AIKS felt betrayed by the INC, and that is why when in 1942, Gandhi gave a
call for the Quit India Movement, the peasant leaders Sahajanand Saraswati
appealed to the peasant not to support Gandhi or INC.
 LORD LINLITHIGOW (1936-43)
 Wardha Education Conference:
 It was not by Britishers.
 The Wardha Educaational conference was organsied on 22 & 23 Oct, 1937.
 Gandhi was the President. And wrote an article in the Harijans on July 31, 1937,
making several proposals on basis education in veranacular language.
 Formation of congress ministries
 After the end of Civil dis. Movement in may 1934, Congress decided to launch a
programme to bring about constitutional changes.
 In the meanwhile, the Parliament passed the GOI act, 1935 making a provision for an
all-India federation provincial autonomy.
 The federal part of the act was never introduced but provincial autonomy came into
operation form 1937.
 Though new constitutional reforms fell far short of India’s national aspirations.
 Congress decided to contest the Provincial elections 1937 to the assembles in the
provinces under the new Act of 1935.
 The muslim league fared badly even in provinces predominatly inhabited by
muslims.
 Congress ministries were formed in July 1937, in several provinces, including the
United Provinces Madas, the central Province Bomby, bihar, orissa and after
somethime in the NWFP.
 It alo formed coaliation ministers in Sind and Assam. Only Bengal and Punjab had
non-congress ministers.
 The result of the elections widened the rift between the congress and mulism
league.
 Resignation of Bose from the Presidnetship of congress formation of forward block
 In 1938, in the Haripura session of congress, 1st time Subhash became the chairman
agin 1939, in the Tripuri session he defeated Pattabhi Sitarammya who was
nominated by Gandhiji.
 Gandhiji took it as personal defeat, S.C. Bose resigned from the chairmanship & he
founded Forward Block, but he was suspended for 6 yrs, and DR. Rajendra Prasad
became chairman.
 Founders of INA
 Captian mohan singh in Singapor formed INA, S.C.Bose escaped to Berlin in 1941 and
set up India legion there. In July, 1943 he joined INA at Singapore. There Ras Bihari
Bose over the leadership to him.
 Azad hind govt. and the INA was formed on 21st oct, 1943.
 In 1944, in his address to the members of INA at Burma he quoted “give me blood I
promise you freedom”.
 THE AUGUST OFFER (1940)
 During the 2nd World war, the INC leaders were upset with the British govt for having
pulle India into war without the consent of Indians.
 France had fallen to Axis powers.
 Winston Churchill became the British PM in 1940.
 The viceroy Linlithgow made a set of proposals called the “August offer”.
 For the 1st time, the right of Indians to frame their own constitution was
acknowledged.
 Proposals
 A representative Indian body would be framed after the war to frame a constitution
for India.
 Dominion status was the objective for India.
 The viceroy’s executive council would be expanded right away to include for the 1st
time more Indians than whites.
 An advisory war council was to be established.
 The INC rejected this offer at its meeting at Wardha in Aug, 1940.
 Nehru remarked that the dominion status concept was as dead as doornail.
 The muslim league also rejected the offer.
 Gandhi initated the Individual Satyagraha to affirm the right to free speech.
Principles of Satyagraha
 To show that nationalist patience was not due to weakness.
 To give another opportunity to the govt to accept Congress’s demands peacefully.
 It is to change the heart of an enemy by non-violent and non-cooperative truth-
based actions.
 The 1st three satyagrahis were Vinoaba Bhave, Nehru and Brahma Dutt. All wer in
jailed.
 The satyagrahis also started a march towards Delhi which was called the Delhi Chalo
movement.
 After the failure of August offer, the British govt sent the cripps mission to India in
bid to garner Indian support for the war.
Deliverance day by muslim league (1939)
 On 3rd sept, 1939, the Viceroy Linlithgwo declared that India was at war with Nazi
Germany during the 2nd world war along with Britain.
 The dominant political party in India at that time, the INC objected to this decision of
the viceroy which was taken without consulting Indians.
 The congress was in power in 7 british Indian provinces after elections in 1937. The
muslim league could from the govt in only 1 province then.,
 On 22 oct 1939, the congress called upon all its ministries to resign in the wake of
the Viceroy’s declaration.
 On 2nd Dec, that year league chief Jinanh called upon Indian Muslims to celebrate 22
Dec as ‘Deliverance Day’ from congress. He started, “I wish the muslims all over India
to observe Friday 22 Dec as the “Day of Deliverance” and thanks giving as mark of
relief that the congress regime has, at last, cesed of functions.
 CRIPPS MISSION (1942)
 After the fall of Ranggon to the Japanese, the British decided to send the Cripps
mission to India to get support in the 2nd World war.
 In return, it promised a constiuitonal body to frame the constitution of India.
 Congress did not want to rely upon future promises. It wanted a responsible govt
with full powers and also control over the country’s defence. Gandhi termed the
proposals as post-dated cheque on a crumbling bank.
 QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (1942)
 After the failure of Cripps mission, Gandhi along with other leadres of congress
passed the Wardah Resolution (1942) to launch a nationwide non-violent struggle to
force British to Quit India.
 It was officially launched by the INC led by Gandhi on 9 Aug 1942.
 The movement gave the slogan “Quit India or Bharat Chodo”.
 Gandhi gave the slogan to the people -Do or die.
 The congress working committee passed the Quit India resoluti9on on 8 Aug 1942 in
Bombay.
 Participants
 Gandhiji’s instructions to various sections of the public:
 Govt servants: do not resing your job but proclaim looyality to the INC.
 Soliders: be with the army but refrain from firing on compatriots.
 Peasants: pay the agreed upon rent if the landlords/Zamindars are anti govt. if they
are pro-govt., do not pay the rent.
 Students: leave studies if they are confident enough.
 Princes: support the people and accept the sovereignty of them.
 People of the princely states: support the ruler only if he is anti-govt, declares
themselves as part of Indian nation.
 Causes:
The failure of Cripps mission to guarantee any kind of a constitutional remedy to
India’s problems also led to the INC calling for a mass civil dis. Movement.
Incident
 The British govt. responded to the call of Gandhi by arresting all prominent. Congress
leaders the very next day. Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, were arrested.
 About 100000 people were arrested in connection with this movement. Evern
women and child were not spared.
 About 10000 died in police firing.
Opposition
 It was opposed by the Muslim League the communist party of India and the Hindu
Mahasabha.
 In some places, parallel govt were also set up. Eg. Ballia, Tamluk, Satara.
 In Balia, Chittu pandy in Satara Y B Chavan and Nana Patil formed parallel govt.
Lord Wavell (1943-47)
C R FORMULA (1944)
 During the 2nd world war the British govt under the viceroyality of Lord Linlithigow
had said that any move towards an Indian statehood would be possible only if INC
and the Muslim League resolve their difference.
 To break this deadlock, between the 2 major political parties in India C
Rajagopalachari proposed a set of plans called the CR Formula or Rajaji Formula.
 Proposals:
 Both parties would cooperte and form a provincial govt at center.
 After the war,a commission would be entrusted with the task of restricting those
areas with an absolute majority of Muslims and Plebiscite to be held in those areas
where all the inhabitants (Muslim and Non-muslims) would vote based on adult
suffrage to form a separted sovereign nation or not.
 In case of partition, joint agreement to be made for the safeguarding of defence
communication and commerce.
Reactions and Jinnah’s objections
 he wanted the INC to accept the 2 nation theory.
 He did not want the entire population of the mulsim majority areas to vote on the
plebiscite but only muslim community in those areas.
 He was also against the idea of a common centre.
 V D Savarkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee of the Hindu Mahasabha and Srinivas
Sastri of the National Liberal Federation opposed the C R Formula.
 DESAI-LIAQUAT PROPOSALS (1945)
 Desai being the leader of the congress in the central assembly and a friend of Liaquat
Ali (Leader of Muslim League), met him in January 1945 gave him prosopals for the
formation of Interim govt at the centre.
 After Desai’s declaration Liaquat Ali published the list of an agreement which given
below.
 The nomination of an equal no. of persons by both in the Central Executive.
 Representation of the minorites in particular of the SC and the Sikhs.
 The govt. was to be formed and was to function with the framework of the existing
Govt of India act, 1935.
 Conclusion
 The proposal was not formally endorsed either by the congress of the League.
 WAVELL PLAN AND THE SHIMLA CONFERENCE (1945)
 The 2nd World War had caused many socio-economic probles in the British Empire.
The British Govt. saw it fit to grant India the freedom it had been demanding for so
long. Also, the Quit India movement and an increase in revolutionary activity only
made the British position in India tenuous at best.
 Lord Wavell, who became the Viceroy in 1943, was charged with presenting a
formula for the future govt of India that would be acceptable to both the INC and
the All-India Muslim League.
 The viceroy’s executive council ws to have all Indain members except the Viceroy
himself and the Commander-in-chief.
 The council was to have a balanced representation of all Indians, including ‘caste-
Hindus’, Muslims, Depressed Classes, Sikhs etc.
 Muslims were given 6 out of 14 members.
 The Viceroys/ Governor-general would still have the power of vet.
 SHIMLA CONFERNCE
 The viceroy would convene a conference to get a list of all the members recommend
to the council from all parties concermed.
 In case a joint list was not agreed upon, separate lists would be taken from the
parties. This was to be the Shimla Conference. Shimla was British India’s summer
capital.
 If this paln worked, similar councils would be formed in all provinces comprising local
leaders.
 Situation
 Lord Wavell invited 21 political leaders including Gandhi and Jinnah to Shimla.
 The conference was a failure because the League and the congess could not settle
their differnces.
 Jinnah insisted that only league membrs could be Muslim representatives in the
Council, and opposed to the congress nominating muslim members.
INA trials and Naval Mutiny
 After World War II, the British captured some 23,000 INA soldiers and charged them
with treason. In November 1945, the INA trials began at the RED fort.
 Bose himself eluded capture and was reported to have died in a plane crash near
Taiwan in Sept 1945.
 The surviving members of the INA like SN Khan, PK Sahgal and GS Dhillon, were to be
tried by the British colonial govt for treason. The trails would take place at red fort.
 The defence of the INA prisoners was taken up by the congress and Bhulabhai Desai,
Tej Bahadaur Sapru, K.N. katju, Nehru and Asaf Ali appeared in court at the historic
red fort trials.
 The progress of the trail also led to mutiny within the British Indian Army, most
noabtle being the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy. Although the mutiny was quickly
put down.
 The British realized that they were effectively losing the support of the institutions
that kept them in power for so long the army.
 CABINET MISSION (1946)
 In 1945-46 cabinet mission was introduced to India by British PM Clement Atlee, in
which members were Stafford Cripps, Patrick Lawrence & A. V. Alexnadedr tehn on
the recommendation of the cabinet mission, Indian Consituent Assembly was
framed.
 Formation of Interim Govt.
 On 2nd Sept 1946, the Interim Govt. of India was formed with Nehru as PM to
overseas the transition of the country from a British colony to an indepent republic.
 The Interim Govt. was formed as a provisional govt between an imperial structure
and a democratic structure.
 It lasted till 15th Aug 1947 when India became independent and was partitioned into
India and Pakistan.
 This Interim govt. was formed from the Constituent assembly which was elected in
Aug 1946.
 Launching of Direct Action Day
 In 1946, the Cabinet mission was sent to India by the British govt. to find a resolution
to the conflict between the INC and the Muslim league on the issue of
independence. The two parties were the largest in India’s Constituent Assembly.
 The League wanted a separated homeland for the Muslims they called Pakistan
while the INC wanted a united India.
 The mission was not successful since the league and the congress could not agree on
the point of a united Indai with a strong center.
 Since the mission failed, the Muslim League announced the 16th Aug as Direct Action
Day and called for a general hartal in order to protest the INC’s stand and demand
vehemently a separate homeland.
 LORD MOUNTBATTEN (MARCH 1947-AUGUST 1947)
 Last viceroy of British India and the 1st Governor-General of free India.
 Lord Mountbatten prepared the June plan and it was passed by Britain Parliament on
18th July 1974, by which India became independent on August 15, 1947.
 Retired in June 1948, and succeeded by C. Rajagopalachari (the 1st and the last Indian
Governor-General of free India).
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS SESSIONS
YEAR Location Important facts
1885 Bombay 1st session of INC president- W.C. Bannerjee
1886 Calcutta President- Dadabhai Naoroji
1888 Madras President- Badruddin Tyabji (1st muslim
president of INC)
1888 Allahabad President- George Yule (1st European
president of INC)
1907 Surat Congress spilts into extremists and moderates
1911 Kolkata President- Bishan Narayan Dar. The national
anthem “Jan Gan Mana” was sung 1st time at
INC session.
1916 Lucknow Joint session with Muslim league- Lucknow
pact
1917 Calcutta 1st women president of INC Annie Besant
1924 Belgaun Mahatma Gandhi was the president of INC. it
was 39th and only congress session to be
presided by Gandhi.
1925 Kanpur 1st Indian women president of INC Sarojini
Naidu
1929 Lahore Resolution for Poorana swaraj or complete
independence
1938 Haripura President- S.C. Bose
1946 Meerut Last session before the Indpendence of India.
President- Acharya J B Kriplani
1948 Jaipur 1st session after the Indepence of India.