‭Ancient History‬

‭Lecture 02: Lithic Ages‬

‭Pre-Historic India:‬
‭●‬ ‭In‬ ‭1856,‬ ‭Le‬ ‭Mesurier‬ ‭(railway‬ ‭engineer)‬ ‭found‬ ‭a‬ ‭small‬ ‭chert‬ ‭arrowhead‬ ‭near‬ ‭Nyagurhee‬
‭village‬‭in‬‭Central‬‭India‬‭(east‬‭of‬‭Chacheye‬‭Falls‬‭on‬‭the‬‭river‬‭Tons‬‭in‬‭the‬‭hilly‬‭tracts‬‭of‬‭the‬
‭Kaimur Range in southern Uttar Pradesh).‬
‭●‬ ‭Robert‬‭Bruce‬‭Foote‬‭discovered‬‭what‬‭was‬‭probably‬‭the‬‭first‬‭paleolithic‬‭tool‬‭discovered‬‭in‬
‭India‬‭in 1863 at the‬‭Pallavaram‬‭and called the‬‭Pallavaram‬‭handaxe.‬
‭●‬ ‭Later, he discovered a number of‬‭pre-historic sites‬‭in South India‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Sir‬‭Mortimer Wheeler‬‭contributed more to‬‭the knowledge of prehistoric cultures.‬

‭Note:‬
‭●‬ ‭The first systematic research into the subcontinent's history‬
‭was conducted by the‬‭Asiatic Society,‬‭which was founded by‬
‭British Indologist William Jones on 15th January 1784.‬

‭The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI):‬

‭●‬ ‭It‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭government‬ ‭agency‬ ‭responsible‬ ‭for‬ ‭archaeological‬ ‭research‬‭and‬‭the‬‭conservation‬
‭and preservation of cultural and historical monuments‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭It‬ ‭was‬ ‭founded‬ ‭in‬ ‭1861‬ ‭by‬ ‭Alexander‬ ‭Cunningham,‬ ‭who‬ ‭also‬ ‭became‬ ‭its‬ ‭first‬
‭Director-General.‬
‭●‬ ‭Subsequent Directors-General of ASI include:‬
‭○‬ ‭1871-1885:‬‭Alexander Cunningham‬
‭○‬ ‭1886-1889:‬‭James Burgess‬
‭○‬ ‭1902-1928:‬‭John Marshall‬
‭○‬ ‭1928-1931:‬‭Harold Hargreaves‬
‭○‬ ‭1931-1935:‬‭Daya Ram Sahni‬
‭○‬ ‭1935-1937:‬‭J. F. Blakiston‬
‭○‬ ‭1937-1944:‬‭K. N. Dikshit‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭1944-1948:‬‭Mortimer Wheeler‬

‭Indian Context:‬
‭●‬ ‭The first human settlement was not earlier than the middle Pleistocene i.e. 500,000 BC‬
‭●‬ ‭Only‬ ‭a‬ ‭few‬ ‭fossils‬ ‭were‬ ‭discovered,‬ ‭the‬ ‭earliest‬ ‭in‬ ‭Shivalik‬‭hills‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Potwar‬‭Plateau‬‭of‬
‭Punjab in Pakistan.‬
‭●‬ ‭These skulls are called‬‭Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus.‬
‭●‬ ‭Skulls Found:‬‭Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus (Brahmapithecus)‬
‭○‬ ‭Some hominid features were mostly like apes.‬
‭○‬ ‭Dated between 10-14 mya.‬
‭○‬ ‭God apes of Shivaliks.‬
‭○‬ ‭Came to a dead end and extinct.‬
‭●‬ ‭Recent‬‭artefacts‬‭from‬‭Bori‬‭in‬‭Maharashtra‬‭trace‬‭the‬‭origin‬‭of‬‭man‬‭in‬‭India‬‭as‬‭early‬‭as‬‭1.4‬
‭million years ago (subject to further research).‬
‭●‬ ‭The present research suggests that‬‭India was settled after Africa.‬
‭●‬ ‭Early men in India used tools of stone roughly dressed by crude chipping.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭tools‬ ‭have‬ ‭been‬ ‭discovered‬ ‭throughout‬ ‭India‬ ‭except‬ ‭for‬ ‭the‬ ‭alluvial‬ ‭plains‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬
‭Indus, and Ganga-Yamuna regions.‬
‭●‬ ‭In this period man lived on hunting. The phase continued till 11,700 years ago.‬
‭●‬ ‭Later,‬ ‭an‬ ‭archaic‬ ‭homosapiens‬ ‭skull‬ ‭was‬ ‭discovered‬ ‭in‬ ‭Narmada‬ ‭Valley‬ ‭at‬ ‭Hathnora,‬
‭Madhya‬‭Pradesh by‬‭Arun Sonakia (1982)‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭It is called‬‭Narmada Man‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭The Narmada fossil could be 500,000 to 600,000 years old.‬
‭●‬ ‭Its name is given to‬‭Homo Erectus Narmadensis‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Fossilised fragment of cranium of 30-year-old women.‬
‭●‬ ‭Represents homo erectus.‬
‭○‬ ‭Large skull of 1155 to 1420 cc.‬
‭●‬ ‭A few late Acheulean tools were found in India.‬

‭Additional Information:‬
‭●‬ ‭Dryopithecus‬‭was a distant Miocene forerunner of gorillas and chimpanzees.‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬ ‭form‬ ‭close‬ ‭to‬ ‭this‬ ‭branching‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭Dryopithecus‬ ‭stock‬ ‭is‬ ‭represented‬‭by‬‭the‬‭genus‬
‭Ramapithecus,‬‭distinguished by its more advanced dentition.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭The‬‭dryopithecines‬‭probably inhabited forest areas.‬

‭Pre-Historic India:‬
‭●‬ ‭On‬ ‭the‬ ‭basis‬ ‭of‬ ‭geological‬ ‭age,‬ ‭the‬ ‭type‬ ‭and‬ ‭technology‬ ‭of‬ ‭stone‬ ‭tools,‬ ‭and‬ ‭subsistence‬
‭base, the Indian Stone Age is classified primarily into‬‭three types:‬
‭○‬ ‭Old Stone Age, Palaeolithic Age:‬‭(5,00,000-10,000 BCE)‬
‭○‬ ‭Late Stone Age, Mesolithic Age:‬‭(10,000-6000 BCE)‬
‭○‬ ‭New Stone Age, Neolithic Age:‬‭(6,000-1000 BCE)‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬ ‭general‬ ‭time‬ ‭range‬ ‭is‬ ‭specified‬ ‭as‬ ‭there‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭great‬ ‭deal‬ ‭of‬ ‭variation‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭dates‬ ‭for‬
‭different sites.‬

‭Palaeolithic Age:‬
‭●‬ ‭Palaeolithic =‬‭Palaeo‬‭(Old) +‬‭Lithic‬‭(Stone) i.e.,‬‭Old Stone‬
‭●‬ ‭Sites discovered throughout the country,‬‭except alluvial plains of Indus, Ganga, and‬
‭Yamuna‬‭(reasons might be lack of excavations and dense forest region)‬
‭●‬ ‭Purpose of Stone:‬
‭○‬ ‭Making weapons for hunting.‬
‭○‬ ‭For making hammers, cutting, and boring activities.‬
‭●‬ ‭Phase timeline:‬‭2 mya – 10,000 BC (approx.)‬
‭Making of Stone Tools:‬
‭●‬ ‭Stone-on-stone technique:‬‭Where a large stone was used as a hammer to hit a smaller stone‬
‭called the core.‬
‭●‬ ‭Pressure flaking technique:‬‭Uses a narrow tool to directly apply force to the edge of a core or tool‬
‭to detach a flake.‬

‭Major Characteristics of the Palaeolithic Age:‬

‭●‬ ‭Band Society:‬‭Sometimes called a camp, or in older usage, a‬‭horde, is the simplest form of‬
‭human society. A band generally consists of a small kin group, no larger than an extended‬
‭family or clan.‬
‭●‬ ‭Lived in the open air, river valleys, caves, and rock shelters.‬
‭●‬ ‭Food:‬‭Gathered wild fruits and vegetables.‬
‭●‬ ‭Engaged in Hunting activities.‬
‭●‬ ‭No knowledge of agriculture, house building, pottery, or any metal.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭They had Knowledge of fire (in later ages)‬
‭●‬ ‭In the Upper Palaeolithic period, there is‬
‭evidence of art (painting).‬
‭●‬ ‭Stone tools:‬‭Mainly unpolished, undressed, rough‬
‭stone tools such as hand axes, cleavers,‬
‭choppers, blades, scrappers, etc.‬
‭●‬ ‭The stones were made of hard rock called‬
‭quartzite.‬
‭●‬ ‭Stone tool usage:‬
‭○‬ ‭Chopping food and roots‬
‭○‬ ‭Scraping bark (from trees) and hides‬
‭(from animals)‬
‭○‬ ‭Manufactured spears and arrows for hunting that were affixed to handles made of‬
‭bone or wood.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bone implements and wood was also used for making tools.‬
‭●‬ ‭Wood was used as‬‭firewood‬‭and was chopped using other tools.‬
‭●‬ ‭Huts and implements‬‭were both made of wood.‬
‭Core and Flake Tools:‬
‭●‬ ‭Core tools:‬‭Tools made by breaking and shaping large stones.‬
‭●‬ ‭Flake tools:‬‭Tools made from smaller pieces of rock and were used as choppers and knives to‬
‭chop meat and skin animals.‬

‭Sites:‬
‭●‬ ‭Chotanagpur Plateau -‬‭The Palaeolithic tools, which could be as old as 1,00,000‬‭B.C.‬
‭●‬ ‭Kurnool district in Andhra-Pradesh‬‭- Tools belonging to 20,000 B.C. 10,000‬‭B.C.‬
‭●‬ ‭It was spread in practically all parts of India‬‭except‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganga,‬
‭○‬ ‭Southern Tamil Nadu‬
‭○‬ ‭Hilly areas of the Western Ghats.‬

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‭Phases in the Paleolithic Age:‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭Paleolithic‬ ‭Age‬ ‭in‬ ‭India‬ ‭is‬ ‭divided‬ ‭into‬ ‭three‬ ‭phases‬ ‭(by‬ ‭Eduard‬ ‭Lartet)‬ ‭in‬
‭accordance‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬ ‭nature‬ ‭of‬‭stone‬‭tools‬‭used‬‭by‬‭the‬‭people‬‭and‬‭also‬‭according‬‭to‬‭the‬
‭nature of‬‭climatic change‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Lower‬‭Paleolithic culture: [Between 500,000 and 140,000 BC.]‬
‭○‬ ‭Middle‬‭Palaeolithic culture: [Between 140,000 and 40,000 BC.]‬
‭○‬ ‭Upper‬‭Palaeolithic culture: [Between 40,000 BC and 10,000 BC.]‬

‭Lower Palaeolithic or the Early Stone Age (ESA):‬

‭●‬ ‭Period:‬‭Between 5,00,000 BCE - 140,000 BCE.‬
‭●‬ ‭Type‬ ‭of‬ ‭Tools‬ ‭Used:‬ ‭Hand‬ ‭axes,‬ ‭choppers,‬
‭and‬ ‭cleavers,‬ ‭mainly‬ ‭for‬ ‭chopping,‬ ‭digging,‬
‭and skinning.‬
‭●‬ ‭Stone Tools:‬‭They were rough and heavy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Core Tools:‬‭Quartzite.‬
‭●‬ ‭Early‬ ‭Human:‬ ‭Homo‬ ‭habilis‬ ‭&‬ ‭Homo‬
‭erectus.‬
‭●‬ ‭Lived close to food, water, and stone.‬
‭●‬ ‭Discovery of fire.‬

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‭Acheulian Tools (St. Acheul in France):‬
‭●‬ ‭Advanced and increasing symmetrical hand axes.‬
‭●‬ ‭Associated with the Lower Palaeolithic Age‬
‭●‬ ‭Continued in later phases too.‬
‭●‬ ‭Named after the type site of Saint-Acheul industry of‬
‭stone tool manufacture characterized by the distinctive‬
‭oval and pear-shaped "hand axes" associated with Homo‬
‭erectus.‬

‭Lower Palaeolithic Age Sites:‬

‭●‬ ‭Bori, Maharashtra‬
‭●‬ ‭Hunsgi, Karnataka‬
‭●‬ ‭Found in Soan or Sohan river valley and Pabbi hills (now in Pakistan),‬
‭●‬ ‭Pahalgam, Kashmir‬
‭●‬ ‭Thar Desert (Didwana, Rajasthan)‬
‭●‬ ‭Hiran Valley (Gujarat)‬
‭●‬ ‭Belan Valley Mirzapur (UP)‬
‭●‬ ‭Valleys of Narmada‬
‭●‬ ‭Attirampakkam, Pallauaram, Badmadurai (Tamil Nadu).‬
‭●‬ ‭Rock shelters of Bhimbetka near Bhopal (roughly belonging to 1,00,000 B.C. The rock‬
‭shelters may have served as seasonal camps for human beings).‬

‭Lithic Ages:‬

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‭Middle Paleolithic or Middle Stone Age (MSA):‬
‭●‬ ‭Period:‬‭Between 140,000 BCE - 40,000 BCE‬
‭●‬ ‭Established only in 1960 by‬‭H.D. Sankalia‬‭was named‬‭Nevasan industry‬‭after the site of‬
‭Nevasa, Maharashtra.‬
‭●‬ ‭Tools:‬‭The tools are mainly based on flakes.‬
‭●‬ ‭Types of Tool Used:‬‭The principal tools are varieties of scrapers, points, borers, burins‬
‭made of flakes & blades,‬
‭●‬ ‭Size of Tools:‬‭These tools‬‭became smaller‬‭and there was a‬‭decrease in the use of hand‬
‭axes‬‭in relation to other tools.‬

‭Biological Changes:‬
‭●‬ ‭The spinal cord of Homoerectus became more erect which made bipedalism more‬
‭convenient. Forelimbs are free now.‬

‭Cognitive Revolution:‬
‭●‬ ‭It occurred between‬‭70,000 to 30,000 years ago‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭It‬‭allowed Homo sapiens‬‭to communicate.‬

‭Middle Palaeolithic Sites:‬

‭●‬ ‭Potwar Plateau‬‭(between Indus and Jehlum).‬
‭●‬ ‭Sanghao Cave‬‭(near Peshawar, Pakistan).‬
‭●‬ ‭Nevasa‬
‭●‬ ‭Found in the‬‭Son, Narmada, and Tungabhadra‬‭river valleys.‬
‭●‬ ‭The geographical horizon of the Middle Palaeolithic sites coincides, more or less, with that‬
‭of the Lower Palaeolithic sites.‬

‭Linguistic Background:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭A linguistic survey was first proposed by‬‭George Abraham Greison.‬
‭●‬ ‭Linguistic Survey of India (LSI) is a comprehensive survey of the‬‭languages of British‬
‭India, describing 364 languages and dialects.‬
‭●‬ ‭As per the LSI, there are approximately 180 languages and 550 dialects spoken by‬
‭Indians.‬
‭●‬ ‭Four waves of language:‬
‭○‬ ‭Austro-Asiatic‬
‭○‬ ‭Tibeto-Burman‬
‭○‬ ‭Dravidian‬
‭○‬ ‭Indo-Aryan‬

‭Language Waves‬
‭Austro-Asiatic‬ ‭Tibeto-Burman‬ ‭Dravidian‬ ‭Indo-Aryan‬
‭●‬ ‭2 types:‬‭Indian‬ ‭●‬ ‭Branch of‬ ‭●‬ ‭Covers:‬‭Entire‬ ‭●‬ ‭Belong to the‬
‭sub-continent +‬ ‭Sino-Tibetan‬ ‭South India +‬ ‭Indo-Aryan family.‬
‭Austronesian.‬ ‭language.‬ ‭North-East Sri‬ ‭●‬ ‭Genes found in‬
‭●‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭●‬ ‭The Family‬ ‭Lanka‬ ‭Central Asia‬
‭Sub-continent:‬ ‭has 300‬ ‭●‬ ‭The earliest form‬ ‭(Steppes).‬
‭●‬ ‭Munda:‬‭Speak‬ ‭languages.‬ ‭of this speech:‬‭is‬ ‭●‬ ‭Probably Arya‬
‭Santhali, found‬ ‭●‬ ‭Spoken in‬ ‭Brahui (found in‬ ‭branch which split‬
‭in Jharkhand,‬ ‭the‬ ‭Pakistan)‬ ‭into 3 parts:‬
‭Odisha.‬ ‭Himalayan‬ ‭●‬ ‭Migration of‬ ‭●‬ ‭Indo-Iranian:‬
‭●‬ ‭Mon Khmer:‬ ‭belt‬‭,‬ ‭Dravidian:‬ ‭Spoken in‬‭Iran‬
‭Khasi, Jaintia,‬ ‭especially in‬ ‭●‬ ‭Genetic view:‬‭came‬ ‭and earliest‬
‭and Nicobar‬ ‭the‬ ‭from the Middle‬ ‭specimen found in‬
‭Island‬ ‭Northeast‬ ‭East around 30,000‬ ‭Zend Avesta.‬
‭states.‬ ‭years ago.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Dardic:‬‭Kashmir,‬
‭●‬ ‭Linguistic view:‬ ‭Eastern‬
‭Came from‬‭Elam‬ ‭Afghanistan, and‬
‭(SW Iran) around‬ ‭N. Pakistan.‬
‭6,000 years ago.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Indo-Aryan:‬
‭spoken in India,‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Still spoken in‬‭Iran,‬ ‭Pakistan,‬
‭Pakistan,‬ ‭Bangladesh, Sri‬
‭Afghanistan, and‬ ‭Lanka, Nepal, etc.‬
‭Turkmenistan.‬
‭●‬ ‭Languages:‬‭Tamil,‬
‭Telugu, Malayalam.‬
‭●‬ ‭Sub-branch:‬‭Oraon‬
‭and Kurukh are‬
‭spoken in‬
‭Jharkhand.‬
‭Note:‬‭Both‬‭Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman‬‭are older than Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages but‬
‭writing was not developed in them.‬

‭Note: Indo-Aryan:‬
‭●‬ ‭Indo-Aryan- a large number of speakers in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and‬
‭Nepal.‬
‭●‬ ‭Old Indo-Aryan covers Vedic Sanskrit.‬
‭●‬ ‭Middle Indo-Aryan-Prakrit, Pali, and Apabramsha (500BC-1000 AD).‬
‭●‬ ‭Prakrit and Classical Sanskrit continued to develop in medieval times, and many words‬
‭appeared in Apabhramsa from 600 AD.‬
‭●‬ ‭Modern Indo-Aryan regional languages developed in medieval times from Apabhramsa.‬
‭○‬ ‭Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi, Gujarati, Sindhi, Kashmiri, and Punjabi.‬

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‭Late or Upper Paleolithic phase:‬
‭●‬ ‭Period/Timeline:‬‭Between 40,000 BCE -10,000 BCE‬
‭●‬ ‭The last phase of the Ice Age was when the‬‭climate became comparatively warm and‬
‭less humid‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭In the world context, it marks the appearance of‬‭new flint industries and of modern men‬
‭(Homo Sapiens).‬
‭●‬ ‭Flint-sedimentary cryptocrystalline form of the mineral‬
‭quartz was widely used to make stone tools and start fires.‬
‭●‬ ‭This period is marked by‬‭innovation in tools and‬
‭technology.‬
‭●‬ ‭Parallel-sided blades, burins, and some instances of bone‬
‭tools were discovered.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bone tools were found only at the cave sites of‬‭Kurnool‬
‭and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh.‬
‭●‬ ‭Incised ostrich eggshells and stone beads have been found‬
‭in Andhra Pradesh and Patne in Maharashtra [Ostriches‬
‭inhabited India 25000 years ago].‬
‭●‬ ‭During the Upper Palaeolithic phase, the paintings were of‬
‭linear representations‬‭, in green and dark red, of huge‬
‭animal figures, such as bison, elephants, tigers, rhinos and‬
‭boars, besides stick-like human figures.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭green color‬‭represented dancers and the red‬‭color‬‭represented hunters.‬

‭Important Findings on Upper Palaeolithic Art and Culture‬

‭Sites‬ ‭Findings‬
‭Bhimbetka (MP)‬ ‭Earliest known rock art.‬
‭Kurnool (AP)‬ ‭Animal teeth may be used as ornaments.‬
‭Lohanda Nala‬ ‭The carved bone object may be a female figurine or harpoon.‬
‭(Belan valley, UP)‬
‭Patne (MH)‬ ‭Ostrich eggshell + Perforated beads‬
‭Baghor (MP)‬ ‭Triangular stones (Kol and Baiga tribes still worship as female goddesses)‬
‭Lakhudiyar (UK)‬ ‭Motifs: stick like a human figure, hand-linked dancing human figures.‬

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‭Note:‬
‭●‬ ‭The Paleolithic sites are:‬
‭○‬ ‭Andhra Pradesh, Reniguta‬
‭○‬ ‭Karnataka‬
‭○‬ ‭Maharashtra‬
‭○‬ ‭Central Madhya Pradesh‬
‭○‬ ‭Southern Uttar Pradesh, and‬
‭○‬ ‭South Bihar plateau, and‬
‭○‬ ‭Upper level of the Gujarat dunes‬
‭○‬ ‭Bhimbetka.‬

‭Mesolithic Age:‬
‭●‬ ‭It was a period‬‭between the end of the Ice Age and the Upper Paleolithic Age around‬
‭10000 BCE,‬‭when the climate became‬‭warm and dry‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭It was the‬‭intermediate‬‭stage.‬
‭●‬ ‭There were changes in flora and fauna which made it possible for human beings to move to‬
‭new areas.‬
‭●‬ ‭The Mesolithic People lived on‬‭hunting, fishing, and food gathering.‬
‭○‬ ‭At a later stage, they also domesticated animals‬
‭○‬ ‭They practiced primitive agriculture.‬
‭○‬ ‭They used fire and perhaps roasted food.‬
‭●‬ ‭Lived in semi-permanent/temporary settlements along with occupying‬‭caves and open‬
‭grounds‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Characteristic Tools:‬‭Microliths.‬
‭●‬ ‭They buried the dead and sometimes with grave goods (belief in life after death).‬
‭Microliths:‬
‭●‬ ‭Size:‬‭1 cm – 5 cm (Approx).‬
‭●‬ ‭Miniature‬‭stone tools.‬
‭●‬ ‭Shapes:‬‭Both geometrical and non-geometrical shapes (E.g., Blade, core,‬‭point, triangle, trapeze,‬
‭rhomboid, lunate, etc.)‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Materials:‬‭Crypto-crystalline silica stone. E.g.,‬
‭Chalcedony (for its higher water content + fibrous‬
‭grain)‬
‭●‬ ‭They were not only used as tools in themselves but‬
‭were also used to make composite tools‬
‭○‬ ‭Spearheads, arrowheads, knives, daggers.‬
‭○‬ ‭Sickles after putting them on wooden or bone‬
‭handles.‬
‭●‬ ‭The microliths enabled the Mesolithic man to‬‭hunt smaller animals and birds.‬

‭Mesolithic Paintings:‬
‭●‬ ‭The Mesolithic period witnessed‬‭behavioral and social and cultural modernity in Homo‬
‭Sapiens‬‭which was manifested in the‬‭creativity of visual representations,‬‭various kinds‬
‭of artistic skills, and Mesolithic rock art.‬
‭●‬ ‭Artistic skill and the Mesolithic era initiated rock art in prehistory.‬
‭●‬ ‭The people of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic ages practiced arts.‬
‭●‬ ‭The painting was the most remarkable among them.‬
‭●‬ ‭In 1867, the first rock paintings in India were discovered at‬‭Sohagi Ghat (Kaimur Hills,‬
‭MP) by an Archaeologist Archibald Carlleyle 12 years before the discovery of Altamira‬
‭in Spain (Site of the oldest rock painting in the world).‬
‭●‬ ‭Now, over‬‭150 Mesolithic rock art sites‬‭have been discovered across India with a rich‬
‭concentration in Central India such as:‬
‭○‬ ‭Bhimbetka Caves (MP) [In 1957 VS Wakankar, Vikram University, Ujjain]‬
‭○‬ ‭Jogimara (MP)‬
‭○‬ ‭Kharwar (MP)‬
‭○‬ ‭Jaora (MP)‬
‭○‬ ‭Kathotia (MP)‬
‭○‬ ‭Lakha Juar (MP)‬
‭○‬ ‭Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Odisha)‬
‭○‬ ‭Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala)‬
‭○‬ ‭Lakhudiyar in Uttarakhand‬
‭○‬ ‭Kupgallu in Telangana‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Piklihal and Tekkalkotta in Karnataka‬
‭○‬ ‭Singanpur near Raigarh (MP) in the Kaimur ranges‬
‭○‬ ‭Mirzapur district.‬
‭●‬ ‭Animals‬‭dominate the scenes.‬
‭●‬ ‭Many‬‭birds, animals, and human beings‬‭are painted.‬
‭●‬ ‭No snakes‬‭are depicted in Mesolithic paintings.‬
‭●‬ ‭Also, certain rock paintings give ideas about the‬‭development of religious practice‬‭along‬
‭with reflecting the‬‭division of labor on the basis of gender‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭During the Mesolithic period, the‬‭themes were multiple‬‭, but the‬‭paintings were smaller‬
‭in size‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Hunting scenes predominated.‬
‭●‬ ‭The hunting scenes depict people hunting in groups, armed with‬
‭barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows, and bows.‬
‭●‬ ‭In some paintings, these primitive men are shown with traps and‬
‭snares, probably to catch animals.‬
‭●‬ ‭The hunters are shown wearing simple clothes and ornaments.‬

‭Mesolithic Sites:‬
‭IMPORTANT MESOLITHIC SITES‬

‭1. Bagor (Rajasthan)on River‬ ‭One of the largest and best-documented Mesolithic‬
‭Kothari‬ ‭sites in India. Located on sand dunes yielded bones‬
‭of domesticated sheep, goats, and cattle.‬

‭2. Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh‬ ‭Provides the earliest evidence for the domestication of‬
‭animals.‬
‭3. Mahadaha (UP)‬ ‭Bone,‬ ‭artifacts,‬ ‭arrowheads,‬ ‭bone‬ ‭ornaments.‬ ‭Burial‬
‭having a man and woman buried together.‬
‭4. Langhnaj, Mehsana in Gujarat,‬ ‭Though‬ ‭pottery‬ ‭is‬‭absent‬‭in‬‭most‬‭Mesolithic‬‭sites,‬‭it‬
‭and in the Kaimur region of‬ ‭is present at both these sites.‬
‭Mirzapur (UP)‬

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 ‭5. Chotanagpur region, central‬ ‭Prominent sites in these concerned states.‬
‭India,‬
‭South of River Krishna‬
‭(Tinnevellyin Tamil Nadu);‬
‭Birbhanpur in West Bengal;‬
‭Sarai Nahar Rai (near Allahabad‬
‭Pratapgarh Area)‬
‭●‬ ‭The cultivation of plants around 7000-6000 B.C. is suggested in Rajasthan from a study of‬
‭the deposits of the former salt lake, Sambhar and Lunkaransar.‬
‭●‬ ‭The Mesolithic culture continued t‬‭o be important roughly from 9000 B.C. to 6000 B.C.‬

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